Part 2

[37] Maine Hist. Soc. Coll., vol. III (1853), p. 412. Possibly the French rendering of Kwun·a´wαs, “Long Hair,” a personal name in Penobscot mythology (F. G. Speck, Penobscot Transformer Tests, International Journal of American Linguistics, vol. 1, no. 3, 1918, p. 188).

[38] Maine Hist. Soc. Coll., vol. III (1853), p. 413.

[39] Ibid., p. 440. Among these names, Acteon for Attean (Etienne), Omborowess for Amblowess (Ambroise), and Pier for Piel (Pierre) are recognizable as present day Wabanaki family names. The name Omborowess was a Wawenock patronym. (See p. 176.)

But the peace did not last long and war again broke out between the English and Wabanaki tribes. Another treaty was consummated at Falmouth in 1749. In this compact, which finally brought an end to the Indian troubles in southern Maine, the “Arresuguntoocooks and Weweenocks” were represented by “Sawwaramet, Aussaado, Waannunga, Sauquish, Wareedeon, Wawawnunka.”[40] From this time on the Abenaki relinquished their attempts to retain their claims in Maine and retired to Canada, where the Wawenock came into possession of land at Becancour on Becancour River, while the Norridgewock and Aroosaguntacook, together with survivors of the other smaller tribes, settled permanently about 30 miles away at St. Francis, on St. Francis River. Maurault in 1866[41] asserted that only 10 families remained at Becancour, though they were of purer blood than the Abenaki at St. Francis. He says that in 1708 the Indians at Becancour numbered 500, having come from Lake Megantic, with others from the Androscoggin and Chaudiere Rivers. The number probably included Sokoki who had joined them in 1679 (see p. 173).

[40] Maine Hist. Soc. Coll., Vol. IV, p. 164 (1856).

[41] Maurault, op. cit., pp. 288 and 294.

Although the Indians forming the St. Francis village and the Wawenock had many interests in common they remained independent of each other, not only in dialect but in political respects, in having their own reservations, chiefs, and administration, both religious and civil. The same conditions hold to-day. At St. Francis the Wawenock from Becancour are regarded as friendly strangers.

This brings us down to recent times. Politically the Wawenock have now about lost their name, being known in occasional reports as the Abenaki of Becancour. In 1910 they numbered 26,[42] including absentees, upon their reservation of 135⅔ acres. Most of them have scattered, some having gone to the French towns, while I encountered several families who have migrated to Lake St. John and live with the Montagnais as hunters and trappers.[43]

[42] In 1914 when I visited them they numbered 23.

[43] In traveling among the Montagnais of the Province of Quebec I have encountered some of the dispersed Wawenock families and descendants from whom the following information was secured.

In about 1870 Charles Neptune and his sister of Becancour, in company with some Abenaki from St. Francis (Aimable Gille, Obomsawin family), and relatives, came to Lake St. John by way of Chicoutimi. They migrated to Metabetchouan by canoe from Chicoutimi, and settled near the Hudson Bay Co.’s post, long since abandoned. Here they appropriated hunting territories with the permission of the Montagnais. Charles Neptune died in 1907. He spoke the Wawenock language. Six sons and three daughters survived him, his wife having been a Canadian. Their descendants are now living among the Montagnais at Lake St. John, under the family names of Neptune, du Chêne, and Phillippe. Another Wawenock from Becancour, Louis Philip, lives at Lake St. John. His father came from Lake Megantic on the border between Maine and the Province of Quebec. He was probably the last Wawenock to have been born in Maine. Philip has descendants at Lake St. John. He knows a few words and expressions which indicate the dialect of his father to have been really Wawenock. Of the 23 Wawenock descendants at Lake St. John, as enumerated by Noah Neptune in 1915, none know anything distinctive of their ancestral language or customs.

Again on the lower St. Lawrence there are Wawenock descendants. At Tadousac and Chicoutimi, the Nicola families have become admitted to land rights with the Montagnais of these places. At Escoumains is another named Jacques. Four children of old Joseph Nicola who migrated many years ago from Trois Rivières, and settled also at Chicoutimi, also have numerous offspring by either Montagnais or Canadian wives. Possibly these emigrants came to the Saguenay with the ancestors of the Gille, Neptune, and Phillippe families at Lake St. John. At Tadousac, Joseph Nicolar remembered the text of a Wawenock song which his father used to sing. This is given with the other texts in this paper (see p. 197).

I should add, that with few exceptions among the older people, these Wawenock descendants have become so merged either with the Canadian or the Montagnais that they know almost nothing of their own people. In the family names, however, we can see the survival of influences which began in Maine when the ancestors of the Wawenock were close to the Penobscot with whom they have some family names in common.

The following are the family names of the tribe. Some are still in existence (marked *); others have recently become extinct.

Pabi·welə mα´t “He is thought small.” The family name of the grandmother of François Neptune, our informant. This name may be the original of “Paterramett” mentioned in the treaty of 1727 (cf. p. 174).

*Metsałabα̨lα´t “Lost his Breath” (?) This name is undoubtedly the original of “Wooszurraboonet” of 1727 (cf. p. 174).

Sogαla´n “It rains.”

Sezawegwu´n “Feather in the hair.”

Mekwas·α´k “Red stain.”

Abələwe´s· French “Ambroise.” The same as “Omborowess” in 1727 (cf. p. 175).

*Obä̦´ French, (St.) Urbain.

*Neptα´n Neptune, doubtful origin. This is also a Penobscot family name.

*Nicola´ Nicholas, also a Penobscot family name.

So far as can be said at present the material culture of the Wawenock was practically identical with that of the Penobscot and St. Francis Abenaki. Not much of this is preserved by the survivors at the present day. The tribe, however, still keeps its organization under a chief. In the traditions of the Wabanaki Confederacy, as far as we know them, the Wawenock are not mentioned, though they had been represented in the alliance at an earlier time.

As for social organization no knowledge is preserved of the family hunting territories, for it seems that at Becancour hunting has not been a practicable occupation for several generations. Neither dances nor ceremonies have been performed within the memory of the old people, so we only have the names of several dances which are remembered through tradition. The term alnαk`hadi´·n denotes the common dance (Penobscot alnαba´gan) performed as a part of the marriage ceremony which, like that of the Penobscot, is proposed by means of wampum. Several strings of wampum, which were given to the parents of his grandmother by her husband when he proposed marriage, were fortunately obtained from François Neptune. Nawadəwe´·, “song and dance” (Penobscot, Nawa´dəwe), was a war dance in which the men carried tomahawks, and skogogwəga´n, “snake dance,” was similar to the Penobscot ma`tagi´posi·, “moving in a serpentine manner.”

In the field of folk lore, medicinal lore and shamanism much still remains to be done with the informant. The culture hero and transformer Gluskα̨be´, “the Deceiver,” is the same as that of the Penobscot, and shares generally the same characteristics. A comparative study of the transformer (Gluskap) cycle in Wabanaki mythology is being prepared by the writer, so it does not seem essential to refer just now to cognate elements in the mythology of the other tribes of the group.

Within the last generation the Wawenock dialect has gone completely out of use. Most of the survivors are half-breeds and speak French. The only person I found who knows the dialect is François Neptune, supposedly a full blood, in his sixties (1914), the oldest man at Becancour, whose acquaintance I had the good fortune to make in 1914 during a trip of reconnaissance among the Abenaki in company with Mr. Henry Masta of this tribe.[44] Neptune’s interest in his dialect, which he knew to be on the verge of extinction, made work with him quite easy, although the state of his health prevented our doing more at the time. The following few myths in text will, I think, enable us to form some idea of its intermediate position between Penobscot and St. Francis Abenaki when more of the texts already collected in both of these dialects are published.[45] It seems hardly necessary to remark that, in the scanty material on this region so far available in print, there exists absolutely nothing in the Wawenock dialect.

[44] It might be added that Mr. Masta has given considerable time to the study of his people, and he is quite satisfied as to the identity of the Abenaki of Becancour with the Wawenock of early Maine history.

[45] Comparative linguistic and mythological material in Penobscot, which the Wawenock most closely resembles may be found in the writer’s “Penobscot Transformer Texts,” International Journal of American Linguistics, vol. I, no. 3, 1918, while Doctor Michelson has given the position of Penobscot among the eastern Algonkian dialects in his Preliminary Report on the Linguistic Classification of Algonquian Tribes, Twenty-eighth Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer. Ethn., 1913, pp. 280-288.

PHONETIC NOTE

Although closely related with the Penobscot and the St. Francis dialects, Wawenock has some distinctive qualities of its own. The list of sounds is as follows:

p, b, m are normal as in English.

n, l alveolar-dental in position.

ł alveolar-dental lateral surd.

t, d alveolar-dentals, somewhat indeterminate in quality.

k, g medial palatals, indeterminate in quality. k`ᵂ is k followed by aspiration and lip closure; gᵂ also occurs.[46]

tc affricative medial surd.

dj affricative medial sonant.

s, z in position same as in English, indeterminate in sonant quality.

ŋ palatal nasal, like _ng_ of English _sing_.

h, w, y as in English.

a, i, o, u normal, medium length.

e open, as _e_ in English _met_.

ε long, between _e_ and _ä_, as in North German _bär_.

i· long closed vowel like English _ee_.

ᴐ longer than _o_, almost like _au_ in English _taut_.

α short _a_, like _u_ of English _but_.

ə short obscure vowel of uncertain quality.

, denotes nasalized vowels (α̨, ą, ǫ́).

` denotes aspiration following sound.

· denotes lengthened vowel or consonant.

´ primary stress.

` secondary stress.

[46] This results from the loss of a vowel.

Two stop consonants coming together have a slight vocalic pause, sometimes amounting to _ə_, between them.

The vowels _e_, _i_, _a_, _o_, _u_ before stops have a tendency to show a slight aspiration following them. This quality, however, is hardly noticeable in Wawenock in comparison with Penobscot or Malecite.

Where words differ in spelling in different places it is because they were recorded as they were pronounced each time.

Wawenock appears to have been intermediate dialectically as well as geographically between Penobscot and St. Francis Abenaki (Aroosaguntacook and Norridgewock). In phonetic make-up it has the predominating _e_, ε, vowel where in St. Francis _a_ and in Penobscot _e_ occurs, though resembling Penobscot more. Wawenock Gluskα̨bε, St. Francis Gulskα̨ba´, Penobscot Gluskα̨´be; Wawenock be·´nαm, St. Francis p`ha´nαm, Penobscot p`he´nαm. “woman.” The dental quality of the alveolar consonants (_n_, _t_, _d_, _l_) is something of an individuality to Wawenock. It is totally foreign to Penobscot and the dialects eastward, while the St. Francis pronunciation shows it in _t_, _d_, and the affricatives. Wawenock, like St. Francis Abenaki, has the final syllable stress. Like St. Francis it also lacks the distinct aspiration following vowels preceding stops and affricatives so noticeable in Penobscot. Syntactically Wawenock uses more independent word forms than Penobscot but it is not quite so analytic as the St. Francis dialect. In vocabulary Wawenock employs some nouns and verbs which are found in Penobscot and not in St. Francis and vice versa--perhaps more of the former. Modal and adverbial forms are more like those of St. Francis. There is nothing in grammar, so far as I could ascertain, that is really distinct from both the two related dialects; consequently the intermediate position of the dialect seems well established. Its intermediate complexion has led to an anomalous classification among the Indians themselves. The Penobscot associate Wawenock with the St. Francis dialect, while the latter reciprocate by classing it with Penobscot. As a final consideration it might be added that intercourse with the St. Francis people has been too irregular to have influenced the idiom in recent years, hence the intermediary characteristics of the dialect seem genuine properties, not of a kind acquired since the migration of the tribe from its old home in Maine.

GLUSKΑ̨BΕ´ THE TRANSFORMER

A

GLUSKα̨Bε´ CREATES HIMSELF AND COMPETES WITH THE CREATOR

yuwe´dji· mαdjα̨be´gəsit` Gluskα̨bε´ nenawa´ debe´ldak From this is the beginning Gluskabe. Then he “The Owner”[47]

wa`wali·bα̨de ntami·senα̨bal` ni·nawayu´ ki· peyαnα´k when he made first man then now of earth left over,

gi·zi·hα̨´t yuli´l senα̨ba´l` ni·wudji·´ nitci·husi´n when he made this man from that he created himself

Gluskα̨bε´ yu· ki· peyαnα̨·zi´k ki·yu´ gi´zi·begi·hadα̨zu` Gluskabe this earth left over this earth which had been sprinkled,

ni·wet·e´k mliksαnα´o ni·waida´ Gluskα̨bε´ that is why he was so strong so well Gluskabe

kizi·n’əgwi·tciwəli·hozu´ negani·´ ubα´bmα̨dabi`n was able to form himself; then he moved about in a sitting position;

ni·debelda´k` umαlhi·nawα´·n ni·udi·łα´n “tαni·´ then “The Owner” was astonished; then he said, “How

wəda´t·e yugədayi´n” ni·udi·´łəgun “a´ida` happened now here you be?” Then he said, “Well!

ni·´wədji· nidji·hosi´n ki·´yu peyαnəmα´n nta´mi· because I formed myself from this earth left over from first

se´nα̨bε gizi·h´at” ni·udi·´łəgun debe´ldamli·dji`l` man that you made.” Then he was told his “Owner,”

“gamα´dj´i· kəmαlhintato´`” udi·´łəgul “nəmαlhi·´ntato` “Very you are wonderful.” He was told “I am wonderful

e´ligizi·begihalihα`n.” nega´ ni·udi·łα̨gu´n “nəgadji·´ because you sprinkled me.” Then he was told “Accordingly

kiuse´nena` nikwα̨bi·´” ni·we´dji· mαndji·hi·di´t we shall roam about now.” So they left

ni·wəda´kwαŋk·i·`na wadjuwa´l` ni·gizi· uski·´dji·we` then they went up hill a mountain, then after they reached the top

wadjo´k nebla´ tα̨ławe·´ ubma´tawᴐ̹·bina` of the mountain while so they gazed about open eyed

tani·´lαnawage` owewi·wαniwi·´ ni·una´mi·tona` nəbəs·a´l` so far round about they could see lakes,

si·bua´l` si·biwi·´ abazi·a´l` məsi·´wi el`ka´mige`k ki· rivers, and trees all how the land lay, the earth.

ni·dəbe´lda`k udi·´łαn “ki·nayu´ eli·mαlhi·´ntatowα̨` Then “The Owner” said, “Behold here how wonderful is my work,

msi·´wi ngi·zi·dəhα̨´damən[48] pe´mkamige`k sobe´k`ᵂ all I created by my wish of mind the existing world, ocean,

si·bua´l` si·bui·nəbə´s·a`l`”[49] ni·udi·´łαn Gluskα̨ba´l` rivers, river lakes.” Then he said to Gluskabe,

“ki·aba´ nəgədli·´bəgwatu´n?” ni·udli·hα̨zi·teməgu´n “What might you have caused to be created?” Then finally he replied

yuli´l Gluska·ba´l` “nda´ba nindli·´bəgwa tawu`n[50] this Gluskabe, “Can not I cause anything to be created

ni·nawa´ ke´gwi·ba gizi·uli·´tawu`n” ni·udi·´łan yet something perhaps I can make?” Then he said,

“a´ida ngizi·hα̨ba´ kə´səlαmsα`n.” ni·debelda´k udi·´łαn. “Well! I can make him perhaps the wind.” Then “The Owner” said,

“nega´ wuli·hya´ tanegədli·´bəgwatu`n si·biwi·´ ta´ni·gədotsani·`n.” “Then make it what you can do even according to your power.”

negeła´ ni·uli·ha´n gəsəlαmsαnu´l` madje´lαmsα´n Then surely then he made him the wind. The wind rose

ni·gwi·kwaskwaiwi·´ aləmi·gəslαmsα´n ni·askwa´ eləmi·gəslamsα´k then sufficiently the wind coming up and then so hard it blew

ni·abazi·a´k aləmi·α̨bə´djəgelke` elαmso´genα̨`. ni·debe´ldak then the trees torn out by the roots blew over. Then “The Owner”

udi·´łαn Gluskα̨ba´l` “teba´t` gizi·nami·tu´n elsani·a´n said to Gluskabe “Enough! I have seen how powerful you are

tet·a´tci· eli·bəgwatəwα̨´n.” ni·dəbe´ldak udi·damə´n “nega´ni·a and now what you can do.” Then “The Owner” said, “Now, I

α̨zi·daiwi·´ noli·ha´n kəzəlαmsα´n” negeła´ ni·mα´djegəslαmsα`n in return I will make him the wind.” Then surely the wind rose

α̨zi·daiwi·´ ni·edudlαmsα´k alni·gelnα´ kwi·hi·di·`t` ni·ga in return then it blew so (?) then

ni·edudlαmsα´k ni·wədu´kskα̨dəbelαmsoge`n wa it blew so then it blew his hair all tangled up on his head that

Gluskα̨bε´ ni·gadawi·´ e´nawiptα`ŋk`ᵂ wədəpkwana´l` nimzi·wi·´ Gluskabe then he wanted to smoothe it down his head of hair then all

me´tlαmsα`n ni·nda´tαmα wədəpkwana´l` nimsi·´wi· me´tlαmsα`n it blew off, then not his head of hair all it blew off

ni·t·a´tci· ume´tα̨begəzi´n notlo´kα̨ga`n. and now ends my story.

[47] The “Owner” of the Universe, synonymous with God.

[48] A common concept among the Indians; freely “by wishing a thing into existence.”

[49] Or si·bi·wi·´ nəbə´s·a`l` “also lakes.”

[50] Denoting more “to make complete.”

B

THE TURTLE INSULTS THE CHIEF OF THE BIRDS; GLUSKABE HELPS HIM TO ESCAPE; MOUNTAINS ARE CREATED; AND AGAIN TURTLE ESCAPES BY GETTING HIS CAPTORS TO THROW HIM INTO THE WATER, BUT IS FINALLY KILLED

Negawa´ida pemi·zo·bek`ᵂke´t Gluskα̨be´ ni·uni·´łαn So well then as he wandered by the ocean Gluskabe then he killed

podeba´l` ni·ugizi·nłα´n podeba´l` ni·unα̨dji·´ wa´wαndokewα`n a whale; then when he had killed the whale then he went to inform

wusa´si·za`l` toləba´ ni·udi·´łαnα “naba´tci·eli·` podebε´” his uncle turtle, then he told him “Great fortune! killed a whale.”

ni·wusasi·za´l` udi·´łəgun “negateci´ gα̨djip`tonenα̨´ podebaiya´.” Then his uncle he was told “and now we will go and get it whale meat.”

negeła´ ni·unα̨dji·na´ ni·wədlosenα´ sobegu´k` ni·bayα̨hα̨di·´t So then they went; then they came to the ocean; when they arrived

wabodebe´ls·ik ni·wədnαmna´ kesi´tcweldamohodi·`t where the whale lay then they took as much as they wished;

ni·gizi·´wikwu`nəmohodi·`t ni·bla´ pali·wi·´ obunəmona´ then when they took it for a while to one side they put it

ni·wadoləba´ edudji·´wehemα̨`t si·psa` ges·i·k·i·gi·´t msi·´wi· then that turtle called them together the birds various kinds all

wski·tkami´k`ᵂ negan·i·´ sα̨khedəwoldihi·di·´t ne´bəgwatci´ in the world; then they came flying then on account of it

nαn·e´mkami·gi·pode·` si·bi·wi·´ wəda´s·ot·ekawα̨wα`l` ki·sosa´l` the ground shook and fairly covering up by flocking the sun

ni·ubedji·´dəwuldenα̨ msi·wi·´ ni·umi·tsoldi´n taneba` then they all came flying all they all ate since

wik`ᵂhαbαlαŋk ni·wa´ gəl·u´[51] sαŋgəma´ ni·yu´ they were invited to the feast then that eagle chief and here

wawi·wuni·wi·´ i·yu´ ebita´ida toləbε·´ ni·´wa toləbε·´ near around here where he sat then turtle that turtle

wikwu´nəmən unəs·ekwa´k`ᵂ ni·wətəmi·´ktci·es·α`n kəl·uwa´l` yu´lil took his knife then cut off his rear the eagle this

sαŋgəma´l`. ni·wa´ sαŋgəma´ ndawawαma´ls·wi·` gizi·təmi·´kətci·azamα`k chief. Then chief did not feel it when his rear was cut off

ni·yuli´l et·ak·αŋgotci·´l` kepti´n[52] ni·udi·łα´n sαŋgəma´l` then this his second chief captain then said to the chief,

“ni·aweni´ eli·hogowα´n kəmaməs·ani´ pəna´lgebəna`” ni· “And who has done so to you belittling you we are all insulted.” Then

umoskwe´ldamənα̨` ni·ugi´zəlomana` toləba´l` they all became angry then they planned what to do to turtle

wedjinłαhα̨di·´t ni·gistε·´ tα̨ ławe·´ unaskasi·nα̨´ negawα´ so as to kill him and then accordingly they attacked him and that

toləbε·´ ni·wikwunα´n yuhi·´ awi·p`hona´ ni·udα̨ba´sahozi´n turtle then he took these feathers and fanned himself

ebəgwa´tc i·da´k “nαləgwa´ wədα̨´bas·ehwana`l`,[53] nαləgwa´ on account of it said “wing his fan wing

wədα̨´basehwa`nal`” ni·yu´ nαləgwa´ wədα̨ba´s·ehwa´nak ni·wa´ his fan!” Then (with) wing he fanned himself then that

Gluskα̨bε´ udi·łα´n wuza´si·zal` “kəba´lalokε·` eli·tα̨ławei·´ Gluskabe said to his uncle “you have done wrongly so doing

a´ida təmi´k·ətci·as·a´t sαŋgəma´ nide´bəne` kənαskα´ŋgen·enα̨`” well, cutting his rear off the chief and soon they will attack us.”

ni·udi·´łαn “ni·dji·na´wa dani·` kədlada´kanena`?” ni·udi·´łαn Then he said, “On account of it what shall we do?” Then he said

pla wa´ses·enolitu`n yu abaz·i´k.” ni·geła´ “In the meantime I will build a nest here in the tree.” Accordingly

uwəli·tu´n wazəs·e´ ni·udi·łα´n yuli´l wuza´si·zal` he built a nest. Then he said to this his uncle

“tcespi·gwᴐ̹·dawε·´” ni·geła´ toləbε·´ ogwa´gwedji·spi·gwᴐ̹dawε·` “You shin up.” Forthwith turtle tried to shin up

ni·ndate´gəne` ugizi·spi·gwᴐ̹´dawα`n ni·udi·´damən “madji·łε·´ and he was not able to shin up, then he said, “Dull

gwagwα´nhekasi·α`n´.” ni·wa´ Gluakα̨bε´ ni·wəni·malwenα´n are my heel claws.” Then Gluskabe took hold of him

toləba´l` ni·wədebake´n wa´zəs·ə´k ni·gi·zi·waz·əs·e´k turtle and tossed him into the nest and when he was in the nest

ebi·hi·di´t ni·ubedji·´dα̨ławe`i· bagi·damə´n nəbi·´ they sat down, then he felt like to void water,

ni·do´ləbε udi·`damən “a´ida! eli·gadawi·´bagi·da`k that turtle he said, “Lo! how am I going to void

nəbi·´?” ni·udi·´łəgul` Gluskα̨ba´l` “pα̨´·zi·djikətci·ewi·` water?” Then he was told Gluskabe “Lean your rear

waz·əs·e´k.” ni·geła´ ali·mi·tcəwα´n nəbi·´ amək·ai·wi. from the nest.” Accordingly he urinated water running down below.

ni·we´wᴐ̹la`n yugi´k nope`´sawe`n·owa`k ni· ke´ptin Then they discovered it these warriors. Then the captain

elα̨bi·´t spəmə´k ni·una´mi·hα`·n toləba´l` wazəs·e´k ni·wedji·´ looking up also saw the turtle in the nest, so then

pi·´bmamα`·k ni·wəzα´·ŋkhelədji·ni·łα`n ni·yu´ udi·damə´n he shot an arrow then he made him fall down and out. Then here he said,