Part 8

RESTORATIVE MEANS IF APPARENTLY DROWNED.--Send quickly for medical assistance; but do not delay the following means.

I. Convey the body carefully, with the head and shoulders supported in a raised position, to the nearest house.

II. Strip the body, and rub it dry; then wrap it in hot blankets, and place it in a warm bed in a warm chamber.

III. Wipe and cleanse the mouth and nostrils.

IV. In order to restore the natural warmth of the body:

1. Move a heated covered warming-pan over the back and spine.

2. Put bladders or bottles of hot water, or heated bricks, to the pit of the stomach, the arm-pits, between the thighs, and to the soles of the feet.

3. Foment the body with hot flannels; but, if possible,

4. Immerse the body in a warm bath, as hot as the hand can bear without pain, as this is preferable to the other means for restoring warmth.

5. Rub the body briskly with the hand; do not, however, suspend the use of the other means at the same time.

V. In order to restore breathing, introduce the pipe of a common bellows (where the apparatus of the Society is not at hand) into one nostril, carefully closing the other and the mouth: at the same time draw downwards and push gently backwards the upper part of the windpipe, to allow a more free admission of air: blow the bellows gently in order to inflate the lungs, till the breast be a little raised: the mouth and nostrils should then be set free, and a moderate pressure should be made with the hand upon the chest. Repeat this process till life appears.

VI. Electricity should be employed early by a medical assistant.

VII. Inject into the stomach, by means of an elastic tube and syringe, half a pint of warm brandy and water, or wine and water.

VIII. Apply sal-volatile or hartshorn to the nostrils.

IF APPARENTLY DEAD FROM INTENSE COLD.--Rub the body with snow, ice, or cold water. Restore warmth by slow degrees; and after some time, if necessary, employ the means recommended for the drowned. In these accidents, it is highly dangerous to apply heat too early.

AQUATIC EXERCISES

SWIMMING.

Swimming, considered with regard to the movements that it requires, is useful in promoting great muscular strength; but the good effects are not solely the result of the exercise that the muscles receive, but partly of the medium in which the body is moved. Both the considerable increase of general force, and the tranquillizing of the nervous system produced by swimming, arise chiefly from this, that the movements, in consequence of the cold and dense medium in which they take place, occasion no loss.[8] It is easy to conceive of what utility swimming must be, where the very high state of the atmospheric temperature requires inactivity in consequence of the excessive loss caused by the slightest movement. It then becomes an exceedingly valuable resource, the only one, indeed, by which muscular weakness can be remedied, and the energy of the vital functions maintained. We must therefore regard swimming as one of the most beneficial exercises that can be taken in summer.

[8] The expression “loss” here, is used as the result produced by increased evaporation from the pores, consequent upon violent bodily exertion.

The ancients, particularly the Athenians, regarded swimming as indispensable; and when they wished to designate a man who was fit for nothing, they used to say, “he cannot even swim,” or “he can neither read nor swim.” At many seaports, the art of swimming is almost indispensable; and the sailors’ children are as familiar with the water as with the air. Copenhagen is perhaps the only place where sailors are trained by rules of art; and there, this exercise is more general and in greater perfection than elsewhere. It may here be observed, that it is not fear alone that prevents a man swimming. Swimming is an art that must be learnt; and fear is only an obstacle to the learning.

PREPARATORY INSTRUCTIONS AS TO ATTITUDE AND ACTION IN SWIMMING.

As it is on the movements of the limbs, and a certain attitude of the body, that the power of swimming depends, its first principles may evidently be acquired out of the water.

_Attitude._

The head must be drawn back, and the chin elevated, the breast projected, and the back hollowed and kept steady. (Plate XX. figs. 1 and 2.) The head can scarcely be thrown too much back, or the back too much hollowed. Those who do otherwise, swim with their feet near the surface of the water, instead of having them two or three feet deep.

_Action of the Hands._

In the proper position of the hands, the fingers must be kept close, with the thumbs by the edge of the fore-fingers; and the hands made concave on the inside, though not so much as to diminish their size and power in swimming. The hands, thus formed, should be placed just before the breast, the wrist touching it, and the fingers pointing forward. (Plate XXI. fig. 1.)

The first elevation is formed by raising the ends of the fingers three or four inches higher than the rest of the hands. The second, by raising the outer edge of the hand two or three inches higher than the inner edge.

The formation of the hands, their first position, and their two modes of elevation, being clearly understood, the forward stroke is next made, by projecting them in that direction to their utmost extent, employing therein their first elevation, in order to produce buoyancy, but taking care the fingers do not break the surface of the water. (Plate XXI. fig. 2.) In the outward stroke of the hands, the second elevation must be employed; and, in it, they must sweep downward and outward as low as, but at a distance from, the hips, both laterally and anteriorly. (Plate XXI. figs. 3 and 4.)

The retraction of the hands is effected by bringing the arms closer to the sides, bending the elbow joints upwards and the wrists downwards, so that the hands hang down, while the arms are raising them to the first position, the action of the hands being gentle and easy. In the three movements just described, one arm may be exercised at a time, until each is accustomed to the action.

_Action of the Feet._

In drawing up the legs, the knees must be inclined inward, and the soles of the feet outward. (Plate XXII. fig. 1.) The throwing out the feet should be to the extent of the legs, as widely from each other as possible. (Plate XXII. fig. 2.) The bringing down the legs must be done briskly, until they come close together. In drawing up the legs, there is a loss of power; in throwing out the legs, there is a gain equal to that loss; and in bringing down the legs, there is an evident gain.

The arms and legs should act alternately; the arms descending while the legs are rising--(Plate XXII. fig. 3); and, oppositely, the arms rising while the legs are descending. (Plate XXII. fig. 4.) Thus the action of both is unceasingly interchanged; and, until great facility in this interchange is effected, no one can swim smoothly, or keep the body in one continued progressive motion. In practising the action of the legs, one hand may rest on the top of a chair, while the opposite leg is exercised. When both the arms and the legs are separately accustomed to the action, the arm and leg of the same side may be exercised together.

PLACE AND TIME OF SWIMMING.

_Place._

Of all places for swimming, the sea is the best; running waters next; and ponds the worst. In these a particular spot should be chosen, where there is not much stream, and which is known to be safe.

The swimmer should make sure that the bottom is not out of his depth; and, on this subject, he cannot be too cautious when he has no one with him who knows the place. If capable of diving, he should ascertain if the water be sufficiently deep for that purpose, otherwise, he may injure himself against the bottom. The bottom should be of gravel, or smooth stones, and free from holes, so that he may be in no danger of sinking in the mud or wounding the feet. Of weeds he must beware; for if his feet get entangled among them, no aid, even if near, may be able to extricate him.

_Time._

The best season of the year for swimming is during the months of May, June, July, and August. Morning before breakfast--that is to say, from seven till eight o’clock--is the time. In the evening, the hair is not perfectly dried, and coryza is sometimes the consequence. Bathing during rain is bad, for it chills the water, and, by wetting the clothes, endangers catching cold. In practising swimming during those hours of the day when the heat of the sun is felt most sensibly, if the hair be thick, it should be kept constantly wet; if the head be bald, it must be covered with a handkerchief, and frequently wetted.

It is advisable not to enter the water before digestion is finished. The danger in this case arises less from the violent movements which generally disorder digestion, than from the impression produced by the medium in which these movements are executed. It is not less so when very hot, or quite cold. It is wrong to enter the water in a perspiration, however trifling it may be. After violent exercises, it is better to wash and employ friction than to bathe. Persons of plethoric temperament, who are subject to periodical evacuations, such as hemorrhoids, or even to cutaneous eruptions, will do well to abstain from swimming during the appearance of these affections.

_Dress._

Every swimmer should use short drawers, and might, in particular places, use canvass slippers. It is even of great importance to be able to swim in jacket and trousers.

_Aids._

The aid of the hand is much preferable to corks or bladders, because it can be withdrawn gradually and insensibly. With this view, a grown-up person may take the learner in his arms, carry him into the water breast high, place him nearly flat upon it, support him by one hand under the breast, and direct him as to attitude and action. If the support of the hand be very gradually withdrawn, the swimmer will, in the course of the first ten days, find it quite unnecessary. When the aid of the hand cannot be obtained, inflated membranes or corks may be employed. The only argument for their use is, that attitude and action may be perfected while the body is thus supported; and that, with some contrivance, they also may gradually be laid aside, though by no means so easily as the hand.

The best mode of employing corks is to choose a piece about a foot long, and six or seven inches broad; to fasten a band across the middle of it; to place it on the back, so that the upper end may come between the shoulder-blades, where the edge may be rounded; and to tie the band over the breast. Over this, several other pieces of cork, each smaller than the preceding, may be fixed, so that, as the swimmer improves, he may leave them off one by one. Even with all these aids, the young swimmer should never venture out of his depth, if he cannot swim without them.

_Cramp._

As to cramp, those chiefly are liable to it who plunge into the water when they are heated, who remain in it till they are benumbed with cold, or who exhaust themselves by violent exercise. Persons subject to this affection must be careful with regard to the selection of the place where they bathe, if they are not sufficiently skilful in swimming to vary their attitudes, and dispense instantly with the use of the limb attacked by cramp. Even when this does occur, the skilful swimmer knows how to reach the shore by the aid of the limbs which are unaffected, while the uninstructed one is liable to be drowned.

If attacked in this way in the leg, the swimmer must strike out the limb with all his strength, thrusting the heel downward and drawing the toes upward, notwithstanding the momentary pain it may occasion; or he may immediately turn flat on his back, and jerk out the affected limb in the air, taking care not to elevate it so high as greatly to disturb the balance of the body. If this does not succeed, he must paddle ashore with his hands, or keep himself afloat by their aid, until assistance reach him. Should he even be unable to float on his back, he must put himself in the upright position, and keep his head above the surface by merely striking the water downward with his hands at the hips, without any assistance from the legs.

PROCEDURE WHEN IN THE WATER, AND USUAL MODE OF FRONT SWIMMING.

_Entering the Water._

Instructors should never force young swimmers reluctantly to leap into the water. It would be advisable for delicate persons, especially when they intend to plunge in, to put a little cotton steeped in oil, and afterwards pressed, in their ears, before entering the water. This precaution will prevent irritation of the organ of hearing. In entering, the head should be wetted first, either by plunging in head foremost, or by pouring water on it, in order to prevent the pressure of the water driving up the blood into it too quickly, and increasing congestion. The swimmer should next advance, by a clear shelving shore or bank, where he has ascertained the depth by plumbing or otherwise, till the water reaches his breast; should turn towards the place of entrance; and, having inflated his breast, lay it upon the water, suffering that to rise to his chin, the lips being closed.

_Buoyancy in the Water._

The head alone is specifically heavier than salt water. Even the legs and arms are specifically lighter; and the trunk is still more so. Thus the body cannot sink in salt water, even if the lungs were filled, except owing to the excessive specific gravity of the head.

Not only the head, but the legs and arms, are specifically heavier than fresh water; but still the hollowness of the trunk renders the body altogether too light to sink wholly under water, so that some part remains above until the lungs become filled. In general, when the human body is immersed, one-eleventh of its weight remains above the surface in fresh water, and one-tenth in salt water.

In salt water, therefore, a person throwing himself on his back, and extending his arms, may easily lie so as to keep his mouth and nostrils free for breathing; and, by a small motion of the hand, may prevent turning, if he perceive any tendency to it. In fresh water, a man cannot long continue in that situation, except by the action of his hands; and if no such action be employed, the legs and lower part of the body will gradually sink into an upright position, the hollow of the breast keeping the head uppermost. If, however, in this position, the head be kept upright above the shoulders, as in standing on the ground, the immersion, owing to the weight of the part of the head out of the water, will reach above the mouth and nostrils, perhaps a little above the eyes. On the contrary, in the same position, if the head be leaned back, so that the face is turned upwards, the back part of the head has its weight supported by the water, and the face will rise an inch higher at every inspiration, and will sink as much at every expiration, but never so low that the water can come over the mouth.

For all these reasons, though the impetus given by the fall of the body into water occasions its sinking to a depth proportioned to the force of the descent, its natural buoyancy soon impels it again to the surface, where, after a few oscillations up and down, it settles with the head free.

Unfortunately, ignorant people stretch the arms out to grasp at anything or nothing, and thereby keep the head under; for the arms and head, together exceeding in weight one-tenth of the body, cannot remain above the surface at the same time. The buoyancy of the trunk, then and then only, occasions the head and shoulders to sink, the ridge of the bent back becoming the portion exposed; and, in this attitude, water is swallowed, by which the specific gravity is increased, and the body settles to the bottom. It is, therefore, most important to the safety of the inexperienced to be firmly convinced that the body naturally floats.

To satisfy the beginner of the truth of this, Dr. Franklin advises him to choose a place where clear water deepens gradually, to walk into it till it is up to his breast, to turn his face to the shore, and to throw an egg into the water between him and it--so deep that he cannot fetch it up but by diving. To encourage him to take it up, he must reflect that his progress will be from deep to shallow water, and that at any time he may, by bringing his legs under him, and standing on the bottom, raise his head far above the water. He must then plunge under it, having his eyes open, before as well as after going under; throw himself towards the egg, and endeavour, by the action of his hands and feet against the water, to get forward till within reach of it. In this attempt, he will find that the water brings him up against his inclination, that it is not so easy to sink as he imagined, and that he cannot, but by force, get down to the egg. Thus he feels the power of water to support him, and learns to confide in that power; while his endeavours to overcome it, and reach the egg, teach him the manner of acting on the water with his feet and hands, as he afterwards must in swimming, in order to support his head higher above the water, or to go forward through it.

If, then, any person, however unacquainted with swimming, will hold himself perfectly still and upright, as if standing with his head somewhat thrown back so as to rest on the surface, his face will remain above the water, and he will enjoy full freedom of breathing. To do this most effectually, the head must be so far thrown back that the chin is higher than the forehead, the breast inflated, the back quite hollow, and the hands and arms kept under water. If these directions be carefully observed, the face will float above the water, and the body will settle in a diagonal direction. (Plate XXIII. fig. 1.)

In this case, the only difficulty is to preserve the balance of the body. This is secured, as described by Bernardi, by extending the arms laterally under the surface of the water, with the legs separated, the one to the front and the other behind: thus presenting resistance to any tendency of the body to incline to either side, forward or backward. This posture may be preserved any length of time. (Plate XXIII. fig. 2.)

The Abbé Paul Moccia, who lived in Naples in 1760, perceived, at the age of fifty, that he could never entirely cover himself in the water. He weighed three hundred pounds (Italian weight), but being very fat, he lost at least thirty pounds in the water. Robertson had just made his experiments on the specific weight of man; and everybody was then occupied with the Abbé, who could walk in the water with nearly half his body out of it.

_Attitude and Action in the Water._

The swimmer having, by all the preceding means, acquired confidence, may now practise the instructions already given on attitude and action in swimming: or he may first proceed with the system of Bernardi, which immediately follows. As the former have already been given in ample detail, there is nothing new here to be added respecting them, except that, while the attitude is correct, the limbs must be exercised calmly, and free from all hurry and trepidation, the breath being held, and the breast kept inflated, while a few strokes are made. In swimming in the usual way, there is, first, extension, flexion, abduction and adduction of the members; secondly, almost constant dilation of the chest, to diminish the mobility of the point of attachment of the muscles which are inserted in the elastic sides of this cavity, and to render the body specifically lighter; thirdly, constant action of the muscles of the back part of the neck, to raise the head, which is relatively very heavy, and to allow the air free entrance to the lungs.

_Respiration in Swimming._

If the breath is drawn at the moment when the swimmer strikes out with the legs, instead of when the body is elevated by the hands descending towards the hips, the head partially sinks, the face is driven against the water, and the mouth becomes filled. If, on the contrary, the breath is drawn when the body is elevated by the hands descending towards the hips, when the progress of the body forward consequently ceases, when the face is no longer driven against the water, but is elevated above the surface,--then, not only cannot the water enter, but if the mouth were at other times even with, or partly under the surface, no water could enter it, as the air, at such times, driven outward between the lips, would effectually prevent it. The breath should accordingly be expired while the body, at the next stroke, is sent forward by the action of the legs.

_Coming out of the Water._

Too much fatigue in the water weakens the strength and presence of mind necessary to avoid accidents. A person who is fatigued, and remains there without motion, soon becomes weak and chilly. As soon as he feels fatigued, chill, or numbed, he should quit the water, and dry and dress himself as quickly as possible. Friction, previous to dressing, drives the blood over every part of the body, creates an agreeable glow, and strengthens the joints and muscles.

UPRIGHT SWIMMING.

_Bernardi’s System._

The principal reasons given by Bernardi for recommending the upright position in swimming are--its conformity to the accustomed movement of the limbs; the freedom it gives to the hands and arms, by which any impediment may be removed, or any offered aid readily laid hold of; vision all around; a much greater facility of breathing; and lastly, that much less of the body is exposed to the risk of being laid hold of by persons struggling in the water.

The less we alter our method of advancing in the water from what is habitual to us on shore, the more easy do we find a continued exercise of it. The most important consequence of this is, that, though a person swimming in an upright posture advances more slowly, he is able to continue his course much longer; and certainly nothing can be more beneficial to a swimmer than whatever tends to husband his strength, and to enable him to remain long in the water with safety.

Bernardi’s primary object is to enable the pupil to float in an upright posture, and to feel confidence in the buoyancy of his body. He accordingly supports the pupil under the shoulders until he floats tranquilly with the head and part of the neck above the surface, the arms being stretched out horizontally under water. From time to time, the supporting arm is removed, but again restored, so as never to suffer the head to sink, which would disturb the growing confidence, and give rise to efforts destructive of the success of the lesson. In this early stage, the unsteadiness of the body is the chief difficulty to be overcome.

The head is the great regulator of our movements in water. Its smallest inclination to either side instantly operates on the whole body; and, if not corrected, throws it into a horizontal posture. The pupil must, therefore, restore any disturbance of equilibrium by a cautious movement of the head alone in an opposite direction. This first lesson being familiarized by practice, he is taught the use of the legs and arms for balancing the body in the water. One leg being stretched forward, the other backward, and the arms laterally, he soon finds himself steadily sustained, and independent of further aid in floating.