Part 3

The highest numbers in the first and second class were, respectively, 60 and 62; the lowest in the English trials 63, and the highest 83, for the strength of the arms. In the power of the loins, the highest among the New Hollanders was 13; the lowest of the English 12.7, and the highest 21.3. “These results,” observes Mr. Lawrence, “offer the best answer to declamations on the degeneracy of civilized man. The attribute of superior physical strength, so boldly assumed by the eulogists of the savage state, has never been questioned or doubted. Although we have been consoled for this supposed inferiority by an enumeration of the many precious benefits derived from civilization, it has always been felt as a somewhat degrading disadvantage. Bodily strength is a concomitant of good health, which is produced and supported by a regular supply of wholesome and nutritious food, and by active occupation. The industrious and well-fed middle classes of a civilized community may, therefore, be reasonably expected to surpass, in this endowment, the miserable savages, who are never well-fed, and too frequently depressed by absolute want and all other privations.

POSITION.

Before entering into a detail of exercises, it is necessary to attend to what is termed position.--A standing position is the action by which we keep ourselves up. Indeed, this state, in which the body appears in repose, is itself an exercise, for it consists in a continued effort of many muscles; and the explanation we shall give of it will much facilitate that of walking.

Every one has observed that during sleep, or a fainting fit, the head inclines forward and falls upon the breast. In this case, it is in accordance with the laws of gravity; for the head, resting upon the vertebræ which support it at a point of its basis which is nearer the posterior than anterior part, cannot remain in an upright position in standing, except by an effort of the muscles at the back of the neck: it is the cessation of this effort that causes it to fall forward. The body also is unable to remain straight without fatigue. The vertebral column being placed behind, all the viscera or parts contained by the chest and belly are suspended in front of it, and would force it to bend forward unless strong muscular fibres held it back. A proof of this may be seen in pregnant and dropsical women, who are compelled, in consequence of the anterior part of the body being heavier than usual, to keep the vertebral column more fixed, and even thrown backward. The same observation may be made with regard to the pelvis, basin, or lowest part of the trunk, which by its conformation would bend upon the thighs, if not kept back by the great mass of muscular fibres that form the hips. In front of the thighs, again, are the muscles which, by keeping the kneepan in position, are the means of preventing the leg from bending. Lastly, the muscles forming the calves, by contracting, are the means of preventing the leg from bending upon the foot.

Such is the general mechanism of the standing position. It is, therefore, as we observed, a concurrence of efforts: almost all the extending muscles are in a state of contraction all the time that this position is maintained, and the consequence is, a fatigue which cannot be endured for any great length of time. Hence we see persons in a standing position rest the weight of their body, first on one foot, then on another, for the purpose of procuring momentary ease to certain muscles. For this reason, also, standing still is more fatiguing than walking, in which the muscles are alternately contracted and extended.

A question of importance on this subject is, what position of the feet affords the greatest solidity in standing? We will not enter into a detail of the numerous controversies by which some have defended or repudiated the position with the toes turned forward or outward: it will be sufficient to state the fact, that the larger the base of support, the firmer and more solid will the position be, and to adopt, as a _fundamental_ one, the military position, which has been found practically the best by those who have nothing else to do but to walk. The equal squareness of the shoulders and body to the front, is the first great principle of position. The heels must be in a line, and closed; the knees straight; the toes turned out, with the feet forming an angle of sixty degrees; the arms hanging close to the body; the elbows turned in, and close to the sides; the hands open to the front, with the view of preserving the elbow in the position above described; the little fingers lightly touching the clothing of the limbs, with the thumb close to the forefinger; the belly rather drawn in, and the breast advanced, but without constraint; the body upright, but inclining forward, so that the weight of it may principally bear upon the fore part of the feet; the head erect, and the eyes straight to the front--(as in Plate I. fig. 1.)

To these brief directions I must add, that, in standing, the whole figure should be in such a position that the ear, shoulder, haunch, knee, and ankle are all in a line; that it must be stretched as much as possible, by raising the back of the head, drawing in the chin, straightening the spine, rising on the hips, and extending the legs; that the object of keeping the back thus straight is to allow of standing longer without fatigue; that it is important to expand the chest, and to throw the shoulders back, with the shoulder-blades, or scapulæ, quite flat behind; and that though, in military instructions, the body is thus inclined forward in standing without arms, yet when these are assumed, the body is immediately thrown about two inches backward, into a nearly perpendicular position. This position, therefore, will be modified in walking, and especially in ordinary walking; but it is an excellent fundamental position, and it cannot be too accurately acquired.

This is the amount of the drill-sergeant’s instructions as to position, though this last part is omitted in the Manual describing the Field Exercise and Evolutions of the Army.

EXTENSION MOTIONS.

In order to supple the figure, open the chest, and give freedom to the muscles, the first three movements of the extension motions, as laid down for the sword exercise, are ordered to be practised. It is indeed, observed, that too many methods cannot be used to improve the carriage, and banish a rustic air; but that the greatest care must be taken not to throw the body backward instead of forward, as being contrary to every true principle of movement. I accordingly here introduce these extension motions, adding the fourth and fifth, and prefixing to each the respective word of command, in order that they may be the more distinctly and accurately executed.

Attention.--The body is to be erect, the heels close together, and the hands hanging down on each side. First Extension motion.--This serves as a caution, and the motions tend to expand the chest, raise the head, throw back the shoulders, and strengthen the muscles of the back.

One--Bring the hands and arms to the front, the fingers lightly touching at the points, and the nails downwards; then raise them in a circular direction well above the head, the ends of the fingers still touching, the thumbs pointing to the rear, the elbows pressed back, and shoulders kept down. (Plate I. fig. 2.)

Two--Separate and extend the arms and fingers, forcing them obliquely back, till they come extended on a line with the shoulders; and as they fall gradually from thence to the original position of Attention, endeavour, as much as possible, to elevate the neck and chest. These two motions should be frequently practised, with the head turned as much as possible to the right or left, and the body kept square to the front: this tends very materially to supple the neck, &c.

Three--Turn the palms of the hands to the front, pressing back the thumbs with the arms extended, and raise them to the rear, till they meet above the head; the fingers pointing upwards, with the ends of the thumbs touching.

Four--Keep the arms and knees straight, and bend over from the hips till the hands touch the feet, the head being brought down in the same direction. (Plate I. fig. 3.)

Five--With the arms flexible and easy from the shoulders, raise the body gradually, so as to resume the position of Attention. The whole should be done very gradually, so as to feel the exertion of the muscles throughout. To these extension motions, drill-sergeants, in their instructions, add the following:

One--the forearms are bent upon the arms upward and toward the body, having the elbows depressed, the shut hands touching on the little-finger sides, and the knuckles upward, the latter being raised as high as the chin, and at the distance of about a foot before it. (Plate I. fig. 4.)

Two--While the arms are thrown forcibly backward, the fore-arms are as much as possible bent upon the arms, and the palmar sides of the wrists are turned forward and outward (Plate I. fig. 5.) The two motions are to be repeatedly and rather quickly performed. A modification of the same movement is performed as a separate extension motion, but may be given in continuation, with the numbers following these, as words of command.

Three--The arms are extended at full length in front, on a level with the shoulder, the palms of the hands in contact. (Plate I. fig. 6.)

Four--Thus extended, and the palms retaining their vertical position, the arms are thrown forcibly backward, so that the backs of the hands may approach each other as nearly as possible. These motions, also, are to be repeatedly and rather quickly performed. Another extension motion, similarly added, consists in swinging the right arm in a circle, in which, beginning from the pendent position, the arm is carried upward in front, by the side of the head, and downward behind, the object being in the latter part of this course to throw it as directly backward as possible. The same is then done with the left arm. Lastly, both arms are thus exercised together. These motions are performed quickly.

THE INDIAN CLUB EXERCISE.

THE PORTION ADOPTED IN THE ARMY.

1st. A club is held by the handle, pendent on each side (Plate II. fig. 1);--that in the right hand is carried over the head and left shoulder, until it hangs perpendicularly on the right side of the spine (Plate II. fig. 2); that in the left hand is carried over the former, in exactly the opposite direction (Plate II. fig. 2), until it hangs on the opposite side; holding both clubs still pendent, the hands are raised somewhat higher than the head (Plate II. fig. 3); with the clubs in the same position, both arms are extended outward and backward (Plate II. fig. 6); they are lastly dropped into the first position. All this is done slowly.

2nd. Commencing from the same position, the ends of both clubs are swung upward until they are held, vertically and side by side, at arm’s length in front of the body, the hands being as high as the shoulders (Plate II. fig. 4); they are next carried in the same position, at arm’s length, and on the same level, as far backward as possible (Plate II. fig. 5); each is then dropped backward until it hangs vertically downward (Plate II. fig. 6); and this exercise ends as the first. Previous, however, to dropping the clubs backward, it greatly improves this exercise, by a turn of the wrist upward and backward, to carry the clubs into a horizontal position behind the shoulders, so that, if long enough, their ends would touch (Plate III. fig. 1); next, by a turn of the wrist outward and downward, to carry them horizontally outward (Plate III. fig. 2); then by a turn of the wrist upward and forward, to carry them into a horizontal position before the breast (Plate III. fig. 3); again to carry them horizontally outward; and finally to drop them backward as already explained; and thence to the first position. All this is also done slowly.

3rd. The clubs are to be swung by the sides, first separately, and then together, exactly as the hands were in the last extension motion.

THE NEW AND MORE BEAUTIFUL PORTION NOW ADDED FROM THE INDIAN PRACTICE.

1st. A club is held forward and upright in each hand, the fore-arm being placed horizontally, by the haunch on each side (Plate IV. fig. 1); both are thrown in a circle upward, forward, and, by a turn of the wrist, downward and backward, so as to strike under the arms (Plate IV. fig. 2); by an opposite movement, both are thrown back again in a similar circle, till they swing over the shoulders (Plate IV. fig. 3); and this movement is continued as long as agreeable.

2nd. The clubs are held obliquely upward in each hand, lying on the front of the arms (Plate IV. fig. 4); that in the right hand is allowed to fall backward (Plate IV. fig. 5), and swings downward, forward to the extent of the arm, and as high as the head (Plate IV. fig. 6); the moment this club begins to return from this point, in precisely the same direction, to the front of the arm, that in the left hand is allowed to drop backward, and to perform the advancing portion of this course in the time that the other performs the returning portion, so that each is at the same time swinging in an opposite direction.

3rd. From either of the first positions now given, the clubs are, by a turn of the body and extension of the arms, thrown upwards and laterally (Plate V. fig. 1);--make, at the extent of the arms, and in front of the figure, a circle in which they sweep downward by the feet and upward over the head (Plate V. fig. 2), and fall in a more limited curve towards the side on which they began (Plate V. fig. 3), in such a manner that the outer one forming a circle around the shoulder and the inner one round the head, (both passing swiftly through the position in the last figure of the first exercise,) they return to the first position;--this is repeated to the other side;--and so on alternately.

4th. Beginning from either first position, the body being turned laterally,--for example, to the left, the club in the right hand is thrown upward in that direction at the full extent of the arm (Plate VI. fig. 1), and makes the large circle in front and curve behind as in the last exercise (Plate VI. fig. 2), while the club in the left hand makes at the same time a smaller circle in front of the head and behind the shoulders (Plate VI. figs. 1, 2, and 3), until crossing each other before the head (rather on the right side), their movements are exactly reversed, the club in the right hand performing the small circle round the head, while that in the left performs the large one,--and these continue to be repeated to each side alternately.

5th. The clubs being in either first position, the body is turned to one side--the left for example, and the clubs being thrown out in the same direction, make each, by a turn of the wrist, a circle three times on the outer side of the outstretched arms (Plate VII. fig. 1):--when completing the third circle, the clubs are thrown higher to the same side, sweeping together in the large circle in front, as in the second exercise, the body similarly turning to the right; but, instead of forming the smaller curve behind, both are thrown over the back (Plate VII. fig. 2);--from this position the clubs are thrown in front, which is now toward the opposite side, and the same movements are reversed;--and so it proceeds alternately to each side.

6th. In this exercise, the clubs are reversed, both being pendent in front, but the ends of their handles being upward on the thumb sides of the hands. (Pl VII. fig. 3.) The exercise consists chiefly in describing with the ends of the clubs two circles placed obliquely to each other over the head. For this purpose, the club in the right hand is, in a sweep to that side, first elevated behind the head, and thence passing to the left (Plate VII. fig. 4), the front, the right (Plate VII. fig. 5) behind, (where its continuation is indicated in fig. 5, and completed in fig. 6), thus forms its circle;-- meanwhile the club in the left hand, commencing when that in the right was behind the head, has passed on the back of its circle to the right, (Plate VII. fig. 5,) while that in the right hand has passed on the front of its circle to the same side (Plate VII. fig. 5, the parts performed in both being marked by complete lines, and the parts to be done merely indicated);--and they continue, that in the right hand by the back, and that in the left hand by the front, toward the left side (Plate VII. fig. 6), and so on at pleasure, circling over the head.

[Although but two-thirds of the body, viz., from the loins upward, are called into operation in this exercise, its importance must be estimated by the fact that they are precisely those requiring constant artificial practice, being naturally most exempted from exertion. As an adjunct to TRAINING, there is nothing in the whole round of gymnastic performances that will be found of more essential service than this exercise with the Indian clubs. It demands but little muscular exertion, and such as it does require calls chiefly upon that portion of the system which it finds in a state of comparative repose.]

LOCOMOTIVE EXERCISES.

In Walking, the position is nearly the same as that already described under the head POSITION.

The head should be upright, easy, and capable of free motion, right, left, up, or down, without affecting the body. The body must be kept erect and square to the front, having the breast projected, and the stomach retracted, though not so as to injure either freedom of respiration or ease of attitude. The shoulders should be kept moderately and equally back and low; and the arms should hang unconstrainedly by the sides. The balance on the limbs must be perfect. The knees straight, and the toes turned out as described, the weight of the body should be thrown forward, as this facilitates progression. The military position in walking does not essentially differ from this, except in points that exclusively regard the soldier; as that the head be kept well up, and straight to the front, and the eyes not turned to the right or left; the arms and hands kept perfectly steady by the sides, and on no account suffered to move or vibrate: care, however, being taken that the hand does not cling to the thigh, or partake in the least degree of the movement of the limb.

THE BALANCE STEP.

The object of this is to teach the free movement of the limbs, preserving at the same time perfect squareness of the shoulders, with the utmost steadiness of body; and no labour is spared to attain this first and most essential object, which forms, indeed, the very foundation of good walking. The instructor must be careful that a habit be not contracted of drooping or throwing back a shoulder at these motions, which are intended practically to show the true principles of walking, and that steadiness of body is compatible with perfect freedom in the limbs.

1.--WITHOUT GAINING GROUND.

To insure precision, the military words of command are prefixed.

Caution--Balance step without gaining ground, commencing with the left foot. The left foot is brought gently forward with the toe at the proper angle to the left, the foot about three inches from the ground, the left heel in line with the toe of the right foot.

Rear--When steady, the left foot is brought gently back (without a jerk), the left knee a little bent, the left toe brought close to the right heel. The left foot in this position will not be so flat as to the front, as the toe will be a little depressed.

Front--When steady, the word Front will be given as above, and repeated to the Rear three or four times.

Halt--To prevent fatigue, the word Halt will be given, when the left foot, either advanced, or to the rear, will be brought to the right. The instructor will afterwards cause the balance to be made on the left foot, advancing and retiring the right in the same manner.

2.--GAINING GROUND BY THE WORD “FORWARD.”

Front--On the word Front, the left foot is brought gently to the front, without a jerk; the knee gradually straightened as the foot is brought forward, the toe turned out a little to the left, and remaining about three inches from the ground. This posture is continued for a few seconds only in the first instance, till practice gives steadiness in the position.

Forward--On this word of command, the left foot is brought to the ground, at about thirty inches from heel to heel, while the right foot is raised at the same moment, and continues extended to the rear. The body remains upright, but inclining forward; the head erect, and neither turned to the right nor left.

Front--On the word Front, the right foot is brought forward, and so on.

WALKING.

Of all exercises, this is the most simple and easy. The weight of the body rests on one foot, while the other is advanced; it is then thrown upon the advanced foot, while the other is brought forward; and so on in succession. In this mode of progression, the slowness and equal distribution of motion is such, that many muscles are employed in a greater or less degree; each acts in unison with the rest; and the whole remains compact and united. Hence, the time of its movements may be quicker or slower, without deranging the union of the parts, or the equilibrium of the whole. It is owing to these circumstances, that walking displays so much of the character of the walker,--that it is light and gay in women and children, steady and grave in men and elderly persons, irregular in the nervous and irritable, measured in the affected and formal, brisk in the sanguine, heavy in the phlegmatic, and proud or humble, bold or timid, &c., in strict correspondence with individual character.

The utility of walking exceeds that of all other modes of progression. While the able pedestrian is independent of stage coaches and hired horses, he alone fully enjoys the scenes through which he passes, and is free to dispose of his time as he pleases. To counterbalance these advantages, greater fatigue is doubtless attendant on walking: but this fatigue is really the result of previous inactivity; for daily exercise, gradually increased, by rendering walking more easy and agreeable, and inducing its more frequent practice, diminishes fatigue in such a degree, that very great distances may be accomplished with pleasure, instead of painful exertion.