Chapter 68

DEGENERATION.

While the terms atrophy and abortion apply in the main to a mere diminution of size, as contrasted with the ordinary standard, degeneration may be understood to apply to those cases in which not only is the absolute bulk diminished, but the whole form is altered and depauperated. Degeneration, thus, is the result not so much of a deficiency in growth as of a perversion of development.

Under natural, _i.e._ habitual circumstances, the formation of pappus in place of a leafy calyx may be considered as an illustration of degeneration. It is evident, however, that no very decided line of demarcation can be drawn between cases of perversion and of arrest of development.

=Formation of scales.=--These may be mere epidermal excrescences, or they may be the abortive rudiments of leaves. Of this latter nature are the "cataphyllary" leaves which invest the root stocks of so many perennial plants, the perulæ of leaf-buds, or the paleæ on the common receptacle of composite flowers. Other illustrations of a like character are to be met with in the membranous scales that represent leaves in _Ruscus_, _Asparagus_, _Pinus_, &c. Similar productions are met with within the flower, where they may occur as the representatives of sepals, petals, stamens, or pistils, or as mere excrescences. (See Enation.) Whole families of plants, _e.g._ _Sapindaceæ_, are characterised by the presence of these organs, which are often of great interest to the morphologist as indicating the true symmetry of the flower, while they have acquired fresh importance since the publication of Mr. Darwin's work on the 'Origin of Species,' wherein we are taught to regard these rudiments as, in many cases, vestiges of organs that were more completely developed in the progenitors of the present race of plants, and the exercise of whose functions, from some cause or other, having been rendered impossible, the structures become, in process of time, proportionately stunted.

Thus, in dioecious plants we frequently find traces of stamens in the female flowers, and rudiments of the pistil in the male flower, indicating, according to the Darwinian hypothesis, that the ancestors of these plants were hermaphrodite (see Heterogamy).

Mr. Darwin has also shown that, in some cases, the utmost degree of fertility is attained, not from the action of the pollen on the stigma of the same flower, but on the influence of the male element of one blossom upon the female organs of another flower on another individual plant.

Hence, in such plants there is a tendency to a separation of the sexes, while, from what has been before stated, it might be expected that rudiments of the male or female organs would be found, and also as a result of the operation of the law of inheritance. On the same principles it is easy to understand the occasional presence of the perfect in place of the rudimentary organs, as in _Dianthus_.

In some instances the assumption of a scale-like form by any organ is attended by a change in texture, the organs becoming dry and scarious, or fleshy. Moquin cites in illustration of the first phenomenon the flower of a _Vicia_, in which the petals were thick and fleshy, like the scales of a bulb; and of the second the leaves of a _Chrysanthemum_, which were replaced by small, glossy scales, like those which invest ordinary leaf-buds. Sometimes the entire flower is replaced by accumulations of small, acute, green scales. Cases of this kind, wherein the flowers of a pea and of the foxglove were replaced by collections of small ovate green scales packed one over the other till they resembled the strobile of a hop, have been already alluded to. Most of these scales are represented as having had other accumulations of scales in their axils.

Similar collections of scales may frequently be met with in the birch and in the oak, and probably represent abortive leaf-buds. Other cases of a like kind in _Gentiana Amarella_, where the scales are coloured, are mentioned elsewhere.

In some kinds of _Campanula_ a similar change is not uncommon.

=Formation of hairs, spines, &c.=--The adventitious production of hairs is likewise frequently due to an arrested growth, in some cases arising from pressure impeding the proper development of the organ. In other cases the formation of hair seems to accompany the diminished development of some organ, as on the barren pedicels of the wig plant, _Rhus Cotinus_. A similar production of hair may be noticed in many cases where the development of a branch or of a flower is arrested, and this occurs with especial frequency where the arrest in growth is due to the puncture of an insect, or to the formation of a gall. In such cases the hairs are mere excrescences from the epidermis.

Prickles differ but little from hairs save in their more woody texture, but true spines or thorns are modifications either of a leaf or of a branch. Their presence seems often dependent on the soil in which the plants grow, or on other external circumstances.

They occur normally in the sepals of _Paronychia serpyllifolia_ and other plants.

=Formation of glands.=--Under this name are associated a number of (generally) rudimentary organs very different in their morphological nature and significance, and also in their functions. Some are truly glandular or secreting organs, while others have no visible office. Anything like a complete account of these structures would be out of place, and reference is only made to them here on account of the occasional existence of intermediate forms, which throw light on the morphological significance of these structures. Thus, in _Passiflora_ and _Viburnum Opulus_, the so-called glands on the sides of the petiole appear to represent leaflets, and are not unfrequently developed as such.

M. Dunal observed a flower of _Cistus vaginatus_ in which some of the stamens were replaced by an hypogynous disc.[547] Moquin has seen similar instances in the flowers of a Rose, _Hypericum_, and Poppy.

M. Planchon[548] gives an account of some very curious malformations in _Drosera intermedia_, which go to show that the ovules are homologous with the glandular hairs on the margins of the leaves of these plants, an opinion corroborated by the researches of MM. Grönland and Trécul.[549]

Dr. Hooker shows that the pitcher of _Nepenthes_ is due to a modification of a gland placed at the extremity of the midrib.[550]

=Formation of tendrils.=--These are of very varied morphological import; sometimes they are degenerated peduncles, as in passion-flowers, or vines; at other times they are of foliar origin; or, again, they may proceed from the segments of the perianth, as in _Hodgsonia_ and some other cucurbitaceous plants. From their very different origin in different plants it is necessary to study the development in each case, and not apply to the generality what may be peculiar to one. In any case this formation in question generally belongs more to general morphology than to teratology.[551]

Kirschleger, however, has recorded the existence of a cirrhose sepal in _Cucurbita Pepo_.[552]

FOOTNOTES:

[547] 'Consid. Org. Fleur.,' p. 44, pl. ii, fig. 23.

[548] 'Ann. Sc. Nat.,' 3 ser., Bot. ix, pl. 6, ff. 1, 2.

[549] 'Ann. Sc. Nat.,' 3 ser., Bot. 1855, pp. 297, et 303.

[550] 'Trans. Linn. Soc.,' xxii, p. 415.

[551] See Darwin, "On Climbing Plants," 'Journal of Linnean Society,' vol. ix, p. 1.

[552] 'Flora,' 1845, p. 615.

GENERAL CONCLUSIONS.

At the end of many of the preceding sections, and whenever the requirements of the case demanded it, a brief summary of the main facts and of the inferences to be derived from them has been given. It may be useful to give in conclusion a few general remarks on the whole subject.

It will be seen from the numerous facts herein cited, that the so-called monstrous formations (excluding morbid growths the result of disease or injury) present no peculiarities absolutely foreign to the normal organisation of plants. The difference between the natural and monstrous development is one of degree and frequency of occurrence, not of kind.

Deviations from the customary form have been shown to arise from excessive or diminished growth, or from arrested or exalted development. Even in those instances where, for convenience' sake, the term perverted development has been used, it must be understood as applying only to the particular plant or organ under consideration, as the form assumed is perfectly in accordance with the ordinary conformation of some other plant or group of plants.

The period at which malformations occur is a matter of some importance; this is, indeed, implied in the term arrest of development; evolution goes on with growth up to a certain point and is then stopped, and thus changes are brought about in the part affected of a different nature from those dependent on non-development or suppression.

Some malformations are congenital, therefore, while others are acquired--in the former instance the disturbance is coeval in origin, and contemporaneous in its growth and development, with those of the affected part; in the latter case the organ may have attained its ordinary degree of perfection, or at least may have advanced some way towards it, before any deviation shows itself. True chorisis or fission, for instance, is usually a congenital affection, arising at a very early period of development, while enation takes place from structures which are all but complete as to their organisation, even though they may not have attained their full dimensions. The date of appearance is also of consequence in determining the true nature of some changes; it does not always follow, for instance, that because one organ occupies the position of another, it is of the same nature as the one whose place it fills. The presence of anthers on petals or on such organs as the corona of _Narcissus_ does not necessarily constitute those parts actual stamens, but rather staminodes. The true stamens are either wanting, or if present, they are in advance of their imitators as regards their development.

=General morphology of the leaf and axis. Homology.= Since the time when Goethe's generalisations were adopted by A. P. De Caudolle, special attention has been given to the form and mode of development of the leaf-organ; for as it was well said by Wolff, if once the course of evolution and the structure of the leaf were known, those of the parts of the flower would follow as a matter of course.

It is not necessary, in this place, to pursue the subject of the development and construction of the leaf further than they are illustrated by ordinary teratological phenomena.

From this point of view perhaps the most interesting circumstance is the part that the sheath of the leaf plays.[553] In many cases of so-called metamorphosis, it is the sheath of the leaf that is represented and not the blade. In normal anatomy the sepals, petals, carpels, and even the stamens, as a general rule, correspond to the sheath rather than to the blade of the leaf, as may be seen by the arrangement of the veins. The blade of the leaf seems to be set apart for special respiratory and absorbent offices, while the sheath is in structure, if not in office, more akin to the stem. It would not be easy apart from their position to distinguish between a tubular sheathing leaf and a hollow stem. The development of adventitious growths by chorisis or enation has been frequently alluded to in the foregoing pages, and many illustrations have been given of the power that leaves have of branching in more than one plane, owing to the projection of secondary growing-points from the primary organ. These new centres of development are closely connected with the fibro-vascular system of the leaf, so that no sooner does a new growing point originate, than vessels are formed to connect the new growth with the general fibrous cord, see pp. 355, 445. This leads M. Casimir De Candollo to consider the entire leaf as a composite structure. The morphological unit, says he, is the cellular protrusion or growing point (_saillie_) and its corresponding fibro-vascular bundle.[554]

The identity, in a morphological point of view, of the leaves and the lateral parts of the flower is so thoroughly recognised that little need be said on that score, save to repeat that the homology of the floral organs is usually not so much with the entire leaf as with its sheath.

The most singular instances of morphological identity are those relating to the sexual organs. We have seen the gradual transition of stamens to pistils, and of pistils to stamens, the development of ovules on the edges of the anther, the co-existence of pollen with ovules on an antheroid body, and, stranger still, the actual development of pollen within the tissues of the ovule itself! From such facts, in addition to what we know of the relative position, internal structure, and mode of development of the organs, it is impossible to avoid coming to the conclusion that, however distinctly these parts may, under ordinary circumstances, be set apart for the performance of distinct functions, morphologically they are homologous.

These ideas may be carried yet farther--the same sort of evidence, which is adduced in support of the morphological identity of leaves with the parts of the flower, may be advanced in confirmation of the opinion, that, morphologically, there is no distinction between axis and leaf. The leaf, according to this view, is a specialised portion of the axis set apart to do certain work, just as the petals, stamens, &c., are leaves told off for distinct uses. It is unnecessary to refer to the intermediate productions linking the leaf-form to that of the axis, all that is requisite here is to point out the facts that teratology lends in support of these views. These may be summed up by the statement that almost all those attributes which morphologists recognise as peculiar to one or the other organ respectively, may be and are manifested by both. We have the stem acquiring the characters of the leaf, and the leaf those of the stem. Thus we have seen leaves, leaf-buds, branches, and flower-buds springing from leaves or leaf-organs;[555] see pp. 174, 177, 445, &c. The structure that we are apt to associate exclusively with one is found to pertain to the other. The arrangement of the vascular cords in the leaf-organ finds its counterpart in the axis, generally, it is true, modified to suit altered circumstances or diverse purposes. In some cases the disposition is absolutely indistinguishable in the two organs. It may then be said that the distinctions usually drawn between axis and leaf are not absolute, and that, however necessary such a separation may be for descriptive or physiological purposes, morphologically the two organs are identical. Again, it may be said that leaf and axis are two phases of the same organ,--an organ capable of existing in its undifferentiated state in the form of a thallus among Cryptogams, but which in the higher groups of plants becomes marked out into separate portions, each portion having its own distinct functions to fulfil for the common benefit of the whole organisation.[556]

=Special morphology.=--Under this heading brief reference may be made to some of the organs whose morphological nature has been, and still is, much contested. It is clear that for the due elucidation of these matters, development and the comparative investigation of similar structures in different plants must be studied. Teratological data by themselves can no more be trusted to give a correct solution of any particular question, than the evidence furnished by other departments of botanical science taken separately. With this statement by way of caution, allusion may be made to some of the organs whose morphological construction is illustrated by the facts recorded in the present volume.

=Calyx-tube.=--In descriptive botany it is the common practice to speak of a calyx-tube, by which is meant a tubular or sheathing portion at the base of the flower, below the sepals or calyx-lobes, and distinct or inseparable from the ovary. The question morphology has to solve is whether this tubular structure is to be considered as a portion of the axis, or whether it is to be regarded as composed of the confluent bases of the sepals.

Mr. Bentham, who has recently reviewed the evidence as to the nature of the calyx-tube in his paper on _Myrtaceæ_,[557] still holds to the notion that the "calyx-tube" or "hypanthium" is formed from the concretion of the basal portions of the sepals. He founds his conclusions upon such facts as the following: the circumstance that the point of origin of the leaf is not always the same as the point of disarticulation or separation from the axis, inasmuch as the basal portion of the leaf is often adherent to the stem for some distance, though still recognisable as foliar not axial in its nature. In the same manner, the corolla and androecium may be concrete at the base, so that the stamens are for convenience' sake described as inserted into the tube of the corolla, though it is generally admitted that both stamens and petals are really hypogynous, and it is not usual to consider the corolla-tube up to the divergence of the stamens as part of the receptacle. A similar remark applies to the carpels and placentas. Mr. Bentham further considers that the gradual disconnection of the various whorls, that may be traced in many plants, is a further proof of concretion, rather than of expansion of the axis, but this argument may fairly be met by the consideration that the several whorls emerge at different heights.[558]

Organs originally free and distinct become ultimately combined at the base by the gradual protrusion from the receptacle of a ring or tube under them, as in the stamens of _Leguminosæ_; yet, says Mr. Bentham, no one would propose to describe the staminal tube of monadelphous _Leguminosæ_ as part of the receptacle and not of the stamens. Perhaps not, for descriptive purposes, but morphologically it would not be easy to separate such a tube from the receptacle. The principal kinds of malformation which have a bearing on this subject are mentioned at pp. 77-81 and 247, from which it may be seen that the evidence furnished by teratology is conflicting. It would seem, indeed, that while in some families of plants there may be a real calyx-tube, in others the tubular portion is a sheath-like prolongation of the axis. In _Primula_ or _Pedicularis_, where the venation is clearly laminar, the tubular portion is distinctly calycine. In other cases the so-called calyx-tube seems as certainly to be an expansion of the receptacle, as in _Rosaceæ_, _Myrtaceæ_, _Melastomaceæ_, _Passiflora_,[559] &c.

Where the petals and stamens are described as being inserted into the throat of the calyx, or are perigynous, it may be assumed as a general rule, subject to but few exceptions, that the so-called calyx-tube is really a portion of the receptacle.[560] After all, this is very much a question of words, and for the following reasons,--very often the base of the calyx does evidently form a tube, and no one can say where the calyx ends and the receptacle begins. Again, many leaves are known to originate in the form of a ring-like protrusion from the axis, and from this primary ring originate secondary developments. Thus the asserted difference between a leaf, with such a history of development, and an axial structure becomes obliterated. From this point of view, peltate leaves like those of _Tropæolum_ or _Nelumbium_ become very significant. In both the leaf-stalk is cylindrical and traversed, as in the case of all cylindrical leaf-stalks, by a circle of fibro-vascular cords, as in a branch, and which radiate in all directions in the blade of the leaf. Now, if (as often happens to a slight extent) the central portion of the leaf were much depressed, owing to the disproportionate growth of the peripheral, as contrasted with the central portions, we should have a funnel-like or tubular formation, precisely similar to many of the so-called calyx-tubes. And, if we further suppose new growths to originate from the sides of this funnel or tube, by chorisis or enation, we should have the homologue of a tubular calyx, to the inner surface of which are attached petals, stamens, &c. From the consideration of circumstances such as these just detailed, together with that of the arrangement of the vascular cords, M. Casimir De Candolle arrives at the conclusion that the calyx-tube is a ring-like projection from an axis whose further direct development is arrested. The secondary projections or growing-points correspond to the several fibro-vascular cords of the primary ring, and are ultimately developed into sepals, petals, stamens and ovaries (see pp. 394, 509).

=Androecium.=--The main points of morphological interest relating to the androecium, referred to in this volume, are those concerning the structure of the anther (see p. 292), the compound nature of the stamens in some orders (see pp. 294, 345), and the nature of the androecium in orchids (see p. 380).

=Inferior ovary.=--Is the pistil always foliar in its morphological nature, or is it, in some cases, as Schleiden taught, formed from the axis alone? To a great extent the reply to this question is dependent on the conclusions that may be arrived at as to the true nature of the calyx-tube. Considered from a teratological point of view, there is no reason for considering the inferior ovary to be purely axial. On the contrary, the evidence derived from this source supports the ordinary opinion that the carpels are invaginated within the expanded top of the flower-stalk and more or less adherent to it. Some of the gourds afford good illustrations of this, the upper part of the carpels in these fruits projecting beyond the axial portion. But this matter loses much of its importance if the morphological identity of axis and leaf-organ be conceded. The carpels in inferior ovaries seldom or never correspond to the lamina of the leaf, and between the vaginal portion of the carpellary leaf, and the axis who shall draw the distinction?

=Placentation.=--Some botanists have considered the placentas to be portions of the carpel, and have compared the production of ovules on them to the formation of buds on the leaf of _Bryophyllum_. Others have been led to see in each placenta, even when it is, to all outward appearance, a portion of the carpellary leaf, a direct prolongation from the axis, adherent to the leaf. Teratology shows that ovules may be formed indifferently on leaf-organs or on stem-organs. Sutural, parietal, axile, free-central placentation, and, if there be more forms, all may be met with even in the same ovary (see pp. 96, 508). Now, if there were such special tendencies in the axis, as contrasted with the leaf, to produce ovules, it is hardly likely that such anomalous arrangements as those just mentioned would be as frequent as they are. But as leaves produce other leaves, from their edges or their surfaces, and as they form buds in the same situations, just as axial organs do,[561] there is surely little ground for considering the placentas, or ovuliferous portions of the plant, to be of necessity axial. Here again, much of the difficulty vanishes if the morphological identity of the leaf-form and of the stem-form be admitted.

=Structure of the ovule.=--The nature of the ovule and of its coverings has been a fertile source of controversy. The teratological data bearing on this subject have been given at pp. 262-272. These data strongly support the notion of the foliar nature of the coatings, and of the axial nature of the nucleus, taking leaf and axis either in the ordinary sense, or as modifications one of the other. It has been shown that the ovular coats may themselves become carpels, and that ovules may be developed upon ovules, p. 268. Whether the intra-carpellary siliques of _Cheiranthus_, not uncommonly met with (p. 182), are instances of ovular transmutation may be open to doubt.

The axial nature of the nucleus has been inferred from its position, mode of growth, and from its occasionally lengthening into a leafy or even a floriferous shoot. Probably it may occasionally be invested by sheathing coats, more analogous to tubular processes from the receptacle, than to foliar organs, as is the case in _Welwitschia_. The discussion of this matter, however, pertains rather to normal morphology than to teratology.

=Morphology of conifers.=--The nature of the pseudo-leaves of _Sciadopitys_, and probably of other Conifers, is illustrated by teratology, as also is the true constitution of the scale of the cone (see pp. 192, 245, 352), though it must be admitted that little or no light is thrown on that much-contested point--the true nature of the ovule of Gymnosperms.

=Relative position of organs.=--When organs are considered, not separately, but in their relations to each other, the appearances presented are referable to similar causes. Thus, the separation of parts usually united has been shown to depend on an excess of development, the persistent union of parts, usually separate in the adult state, has been traced to an arrest of the process of development, by no means necessarily coexistent with diminished growth. The diminished or increased number of parts is, in like manner, attributable to analogous causes, as also are the variations in arrangement and form, spoken of under the heads of Displacement, Peloria, Substitution, &c.

In the instance of displacements, it has been shown how slight a change is required to transform the so-called inferior ovary into a superior one. A defective development of the top of the flower-stalk in some cases, in others a lack of union between the tube of the receptacle or of the calyx (comprising in those terms not only the apex of the receptacle, but the base of the sepals) and the carpels, suffice to bring about this change in a character which for systematic purposes is of great value.

=Law of alternation.=--The circumstances that interfere with the law of alternation may be briefly alluded to. The deviations from the customary arrangement have been very generally attributed to suppression, or to chorisis. It is unquestionable that either of these affords an efficient explanation of the arrangement in question, as also does that modification of chorisis, as it may be considered, which has been treated of under the head of Enation. Spiral torsion of the axis would likewise bring about analogous results. Still, it is quite conceivable that opposition or superposition of organs may occur without the intervention of any such operations. This will be the more readily conceded when it is remembered that the phyllotaxis of leaves not unfrequently varies on different branches of the same individual tree, and that a similar variation in the flower would at once disturb the customary alternate arrangement. Coalescence of the vascular bundles in an unusual manner, and an irregular disposition of these cords have also been considered to bring about deviations from the rule of alternation, but in general the formation of the cords is subsequent to that of the growing points or mamelons.

Adhesions, accompanied by displacements, occasionally produce similar deviations, the nature of which is usually easily detected.

=Co-relation.=--The importance of this subject first prominently brought into notice by Geoffroy St. Hilaire gains in force daily. Rarely is a malformation an isolated phenomenon, almost always it is associated, from the operations of cause or effect, with some others. Instances of this co-relation have been cited in the preceding pages, and many more might have been mentioned, had the consideration of the relationship between form and function formed part of the plan of this volume. A change in itself slight, often acquires importance from its association with other alterations. This is particularly well seen in the case of the receptacle. Let an ordinarily concave thalamus remain, from defective development, flat, and how great the change in the appearance of the flower. Let the usually contracted receptacle be lengthened, and the whole aspect of the flowers so affected is altered to such an extent that, were their history not known, botanists would have no hesitation in assigning them to widely separate groups in their schemes of classification. Peloria, too, of either form, affords excellent illustrations of the co-existence of one changed condition with another. Not only is the form of one set of organs altered, but the number, the relative proportion, and the direction of the other organs of the flower are altered likewise.[562] Not only is the whole symmetry changed, but the physiological operations carried on in the flower undergo corresponding alterations.

There are certain co-relations which do not appear to have hitherto attracted the attention they merit; such, for instance, is that which exists between the particular period at which an organ is developed and its position and form. In normal morphology this has, to some extent, been worked out, as in the case of definite and indefinite, centrifugal and centripetal inflorescences, and in the definite or indefinite formation of shoots, &c.

Other instances may be cited in the frequent co-existence of regular flowers and definite inflorescence, the terminal position of many peloriated flowers, the relationship between indefinite inflorescence and prolongation of the axis, &c.

Again, the simultaneous evolution of the parts of the flower and their consequent verticillate arrangement, are often associated with the production of different forms from those characteristic of organs developed in succession, and, in consequence, arranged spirally. In the case of simultaneous development we meet with a repetition of whorls, as in what are termed hose-in-hose flowers (flores duplicati, triplicati, &c.), and also with cases of peloria. In instances where the organs are formed successively in spiral order, we meet with such changes as median prolification, petalody, and phyllody. All these are alterations which we might anticipate from the activity of the growing point being checked at a certain stage in the one case, while it is continuous in the other. This relationship between the definite and indefinite modes of growth and the form of the several organs of the flower, is more constant in reality than it may appear to be from a perusal of the lists of genera in the foregoing pages, in which it was not possible to show sufficiently well the comparative frequency of any given changes in individual plants. Had it been possible to give statistics setting forth the frequency of certain deviations in plants or groups having a particular organisation, as compared with the rarity of their occurrence in other plants of a different conformation, these co-relationships would have been rendered much more evident. A hundred different plants, for instance, may be named in any particular list, of which fifty shall be of one type of structure, and the remainder of another. And the co-relative changes in each fifty may appear to be evenly balanced, but so far is this from being the case, that the frequency of the occurrence of a particular change, in one species in the list, may be so great as far to exceed the instances of its manifestation in all the rest put together. This difficulty is only very partially obviated by the addition of the * to signify especial frequency of occurrence of any given malformation in the plants to whose names it is affixed.

=Compensation.=--But little further need be said on this head. An atrophied condition of one part is generally associated with an hypertrophied condition of another, and scarcely a change takes place in one direction, but it is associated with an inverse alteration in some other. This principle is not universal, and its application must not be unduly strained. It requires specially to be considered in reference to differences in the degree or kind of functional activity exercised by the organs implicated--points beyond the scope of the present volume.

=Teratology and classification.=--Lastly, there remain to be mentioned the bearings of teratology on systematic botany. There are those who would entirely exclude teratology from such matters. It may be expedient to do so when the object sought is one of convenience and facility of determination only, but when broader considerations are concerned, teratology must no more be banished than variation. In most instances the one differs but in degree from the other. If variation affords aid in our speculations as to the affinities and genealogical descent of species and other groups, so does teratology, and in a far higher degree.

Take the characters of exogens as distinct from endogens; even under ordinary circumstances, no absolute distinction can be drawn between them. There are plants normally of an intermediate character, while, to take exceptional instances, there are exogens with the leaves and flowers of endogens, and endogens whose outward organisation, at any rate, assimilates them to exogens. Diclinous or monochlamydeous plants owe their imperfect conformation to suppression, and may become structurally complete by a species of peloria. Structurally hermaphrodite flowers become unisexual by suppression, or are rendered incomplete by the non-development of one or more of their floral whorls. Hypogynous flowers become perigynous by adhesion, or by lack of separation; perigynous ones become hypogynous by an early detachment from the receptacle that bears them, or by the arrested development of an ordinarily cup-like receptacle.

How the relative position of the carpels and the calyx may be altered has already been alluded to, as has also the circumstance that while it is common to find an habitually inferior or adherent ovary becoming superior or free, it is much more rare to find the superior ovary adherent to the receptacle or to the calyx.[563] Regular and irregular peloria, too, serve to show how slight are the boundaries, not only between different genera, but also between different families.

While, therefore, teratology may be an unsafe guide in strictly artificial schemes, it is obvious that its teachings should have great weight in all philosophical systems of classification.

The questions will constantly arise, does such and such a form represent the ancestral condition of certain plants? Is it a reversion to that form? or is it, on the other hand, the starting point of new forms?

Such questions cannot receive at present any satisfactory answer, but the evidence we have seems to indicate that pre-existing forms were simpler, and less specialised in structure than those now existing, and hence if we meet with malformations of a simple kind, we may consider them as possible reversions; while, if they present features of increased complexity, and more sharply defined differentiation, we may assume them to be evidences of a progressive rather than of a retrogressive tendency.

That monstrosities so called may become the starting points of new forms is proved by circumstance that, in many cases, the peculiarities are inherited so that a new "race" is produced and perpetuated: and if a new race, why not a new species? The difference is one of degree only.

FOOTNOTES:

[553] See Clos., 'Bull. Soc. Bot. Fr.,' 1856, vol. iii, p. 679.

[554] 'Théorie de la Feuille,' p. 26.

[555] An additional illustration of this may be cited, which has been brought under the notice of the writer by Dr. Welwitsch recently, and in which some of the leaflets of the pinnate leaf of a species of _Macrolobium_ were absent, and their place supplied by flowers arranged in cymes.

[556] The presence of a bud at the extremity once considered to be an absolute distinction between branch and leaf, which latter never forms a bud exactly at the apex--is invalidated by the case of the Nepaul barley, p. 174.

[557] 'Journ. Linn. Soc.,' vol. x, p. 103 _et seq._

[558] See also the receptacular tube (ovary?) of _Bæckea_ bearing stamens, see p. 183. It would be natural to see stamens springing from the receptacle but not from the ovary.

[559] In _Passiflora_ the organogeny of the flower clearly shows the truth of this assertion, as was indeed shown by Payer and Schleiden.

[560] See Payer, 'Organ. Veget.'

[561] It must, however, be borne in mind that no true leaf-organ has yet been seen with a bud at its exact apex (unless it be the nepaul barley), while in the case of an axial organ such a position of the bud is constant. The nearest approach is in the case of impari-pinnate leaves in which the terminal leaflet is jointed to the common rachis, and in the leaves of some _Meliaceæ_ which continue to push forth new leaflets even after the leaf has attained maturity.

[562] A singular instance of co-relation was shown by Mr. Saunders at the Scientific Committee of the Royal Horticultural Society, February 16th, 1868, in a hyacinth with perfectly green, long, tubular, erect, not horizontally spreading flowers.

[563] An illustration of this latter nature in the case of a cherry, which was surmounted by the calyx lobes, precisely as in the case of a pomaceous fruit, has been given at p. 424, _adnot._

APPENDIX

DOUBLE FLOWERS.[564]

In ordinary language, the epithet double flowers is applied to flowers of very varied structural conformation. The most common conditions rendering a flower double, in the popular acceptation of the term, are substitutions of petals or petal-like bodies for stamens and pistils, one or both. (See Petalody, p. 283.) Another very common mode of doubling is brought about by a real or apparent augmentation in the number of petals, as by multiplication, fission, or chorisis. (See pp. 66, 343, 371, 376.) Sometimes even the receptacle of the flower within the outer corolla, divides, each subdivision becoming the centre of a new series of petals, as in some very luxuriant camellias and anemones. The isolation of organs which, under ordinary circumstances, are united together, is another circumstance, giving rise, in popular parlance, to the use of the term double flower. (See Adesmy, Solution, pp. 58, 76, 82.) Prolification is another very frequent occurrence in the case of these flowers, while still other forms arise from laciniation of the petals, or from the formation of excrescences from the petals or stamens, in the form of supplementary petal-like lobes. (See Enation, p. 443.)

As these matters are all treated of under their respective headings, it is not necessary to allude to them again in detail. It may be well, however, to allude, in general terms, to the causes which have been assigned by various writers for their formation, and to the means which have been adopted by practical experimenters to secure the production of the flowers often so much esteemed by the florist. It must be admitted that, in spite of all that has been written on the subject, but very little is known about these matters. In the case of the stock the following means have been adopted by cultivators in order to obtain plants bearing double instead of single flowers. There is first the crossing of single flowers with double ones, effected by planting a double-flowered plant in proximity to a single-flowered one; but this, it is obvious, could lead to no important results, since the double flowers, having no pollen, could not possibly influence the seed, which is borne only by the single-flowered plants. Another plan is the degustation of the buds, that is to say, the chewing of the well-formed buds; it is held that the single plants can be recognised by their sweeter taste and greater consistence, and may thus be weeded out; but there is at least the disadvantage attending this method, that the plants, single as well as double, must all be grown up to the period when these buds are tolerably well advanced. A third method which has been adopted is, that of sowing the seeds at a particular lunar epoch, great confidence being placed in the plan of planting them during the last quarter of the moon, but such confidence is found to be misplaced. The plan of removing the stamens has had its supporters, but as this must be done at an early stage of development, and could only influence the result by diverting the vital force which would be expended in the maturation of the pollen, to the perfecting of the seeds, it is obvious that the plan is impracticable for all ordinary purposes, even if in any degree efficient, which from the plasticity of vegetable development, and the faculty of doubling which is inherent in the stock family, is not at all improbable. Still another mark, the presence of a fifth petal in the single or seed-bearing flower, has been held to indicate the assurance of obtaining a crop of double-flowered plants from seeds saved from flowers possessing this peculiarity. To a certain extent, doubtless, this expectation would be realised, owing to the plasticity and inherent quality just alluded to, but the proportion would be too small for any useful practical purpose.

"The gardeners of Erfurt," observes M. Chaté, who has written a book[565] on the subject, in which he makes known a means of obtaining double-flowered stocks founded on more than fifty years' practice in his family, "have, for a long time, to a certain extent monopolised the sale of seeds of these plants. To obtain these seeds, the Erfurt gardeners cultivate the flowers in pots, and place them on shelves in large greenhouses, giving them only sufficient water to prevent them from dying. So cultivated the plants become weakened, the pods shortened, and the seeds less numerous, and better ripened; and these seeds give from 60 to 70 per cent. of double flowers.

"The seeds from these plants are said to be mostly of an abnormal shape, which is so striking that experienced cultivators are able to separate those which would furnish double flowers from those which would produce single ones."

M. Chaté's method, which he calls the French one, gives still greater results, viz.: 80 per cent. of double flowers, and these produced by very simple means. "When my seeds," he observes, "have been chosen with care, I plant them, in the month of April, in good dry mould, in a position exposed to the morning sun, this position being the most favourable. At the time of flowering I nip off some of the flowering branches, and leave only ten or twelve pods on the secondary branches, taking care to remove all the small weak branches which shoot at this time. I leave none but the principal and the secondary branches to bear the pods. All the sap is employed in nourishing the seeds thus borne, which give a result of 80 per cent. of double flowers. The pods under this management are thicker, and their maturation is more perfect. At the time of extracting the seeds the upper portion of the pod is separated and placed aside, because it has been ascertained that the plants coming from the seeds situated in this portion of the pod, give 80 per cent. of single flowers. They yield, however, greater variety than the others. This plan of suppressing that part of the pod which yields single flowers in the largest proportion, greatly facilitates the recognition of the single-flowered plants, because there remains to be eliminated from among the seedlings only from 10 to 15 per cent.

This separation of the single from the double-flowered plants, M. Chaté tells us is not so difficult as might be supposed. The single stocks, he explains, have deep green leaves (glabrous in certain species), rounded at the top, the heart being in the form of a shuttlecock, and the plant stout and thickset in its general aspect, while the plants yielding double flowers have very long leaves of a light green colour, hairy, and curled at the edges, the heart consisting of whitish leaves, curved so that they enclose it completely. Such is the substance of M. Chaté's method of securing so large a proportion of double-flowered plants, and then of separating them from the remaining single ones--a method which commends itself to the good sense of the intelligent cultivator."[566]

Signor Rigamonti, a great cultivator of pinks, asserted that he was able to distinguish double from single-flowered pinks, in the seedling state. According to this gentleman, those seedlings which produce three cotyledons in a whorl in place of two, form double flowers. In the case of _Primula sinensis_ the same results occurred. Some had three leaves in a ring, others two; most had the leaves standing one over the other as usual. These were divided into three sets, and when they flowered, the first lot were all double, the second semi-double, the third single. But these statements have not been confirmed by other observers; and the writer can safely assert that seedling pinks occasionally produce three cotyledons, and subsequently single flowers. He has never observed a double flower under these circumstances, though it is true his experience in this matter has been but small.

A writer in Otto's 'Gartenzeitung,' considers that double flowers are a consequence of dryness of soil and atmosphere, and not of a luxurious soil, rich in nutritious matter, having arrived at this conclusion from an observation of the following circumstances:

"Fifty years ago we saw _Kerria japonica_ in a hothouse with single flowers. Twenty years later we met with it in several gardens, in the open air, but always with double flowers. At this time we were assured that single-flowered plants were no more to be found in the whole of Europe, and botanists forming herbaria offered considerable sums for a branch of _K. japonica_ with single flowers. We were requested to take the plant in hand for the purpose of inducing it to produce single flowers. We were advised to plant it out in a rich soil, which was done, but, by chance, the situation was sloping, consequently it did not retain moisture, and all the flowers produced for several years in succession were double. Shortly after, the captain of an English ship again brought plants bearing normal flowers from Japan, which were soon spread over the continent, and of which we received one plant. After three years all the young plants raised from cuttings were double-flowered.

"In the year 1820 we several times visited a garden in the neighbourhood of Vienna, well known on account of its plant culture. The gardener there possessed an immense plant of _Camellia japonica_ with single flowers, and some small plants raised from this by cuttings, but no other variety of camellia. He fertilised the flowers with their own pollen, harvested seeds, which he sowed, and the plants raised from them were placed in an extremely dry, lofty conservatory, where, after some years, instead of producing single flowers, they all produced double ones. The seedlings and mother plant were planted in one and the same kind of earth, and some of the flowers on the old plant also showed an inclination to become double.

"This, at that time, to us, enigmatical phenomenon, was kept in mind until we had an opportunity of instituting comparisons between the climate of Japan and China and our own, and we then concluded that in the case of a plant imported from thence, and exposed to such different climatical influences, the origin of the greater or less imperfection of its sexual organs was probably owing to this change, as we had experienced in _Kerria_ and _Camellia_; and that the sterility of many other exotic plants might be attributed to the same cause. The difference in the climatical relations of Japan and Europe is very considerable. In Japan, previous to the new growth of _Kerria_ and _Camellia_, a rainy season of three months' duration prevails; in Europe, on the contrary, dry winds prevail especially in the eastern part, where our plains are often transformed into deserts. Is it, therefore, remarkable that a plant introduced from Japan into Europe, exposed to the influences of this great diversity of climate, should produce imperfect sexual organs incapable of further propagating the plant from seeds? A rich soil, with the necessary amount of moisture, will never engender double flowers."[567]

Mr. Darwin[568] describes a peculiar form of _Gentiana Amarella_, in which the parts of the flower were more or less replaced by compact aggregations of purple scales in great numbers. A similar condition is, indeed, not uncommon in this plant, and, as Mr. Darwin also remarked, on hard, dry, bare, chalky banks, thus bearing out the views expressed by the writer in the 'Gartenzeitung' just cited. Some double flowers of _Potentilla reptans_ found growing wild near York, and transmitted to the writer by a correspondent, were observed growing along a high wall, in a dry border, close to a beaten path, bordering on a gravel pit, others were found on a raised bank, which, from its elevation and exposure to the sun, was particularly dry.

On the other hand, the double-flowered _Cardamine pratensis_, which is occasionally found in a wild state, always grows in very wet places.

Of late years a remarkable double-flowered race of _Primula sinensis_ has been obtained. In particular, Messrs. Windebank and Kingsbury, of Southampton, have succeeded in raising a set of plants in which the flowers are very double and very attractive in a florist's point of view. The corollas in these flowers are not merely duplicated, but from their inner surface spring, in some cases, funnel-shaped or tubular petals (p. 315), so regular in form as quite to resemble a perfect corolla. These tubes are attached to the inner side of the tube of the corolla, in the same way as are the stamens, these latter organs being, it appears, absent. The carpels are present, but open at the top, and bear numerous ovules, hence it was at first surmised that these plants were obtained and perpetuated, by the application of pollen from single flowers to these double-flowered varieties.

The raisers of this fine race however assert that "the double kinds are all raised from the seed obtained from _single_ flowers; the double blooms do not produce seed, as a rule, and even if they did yield seed, and it were to germinate, the plants so raised would simply produce single flowers." Semi-double flowers will produce seed, but it is necessary that they should be fertilised with the pollen from the single blooms. They rarely, however, if ever, produce really double flowers when so fertilised, and the number of semi-double flowers, even, is always small, the remainder, and, consequently, the larger part, proving single. To obtain double varieties, the raiser fertilises certain fine and striking single flowers, with the pollen of other equally fine single blooms, and the desired result is obtained. This is Messrs. Windebank and Kingsbury's _modus operandi_, the exact process or mode of accomplishment being, however, a professional secret.[569]

From what has been said, as well as from other evidence which it is not necessary to detail in this place, it may be seen that the causes assigned by physiologists, and the plans proposed by cultivators for the production of double flowers, are reducible to three heads, which may be classed under Plethora, Starvation, and Sterility. These three seem inconsistent one with the other, but are not so much so as they at first sight appear to be.

Tho advocates of the plethora theory have much in their favour: for instance, the greater frequency of double flowers among cultivated plants than among wild ones. The great preponderance of double flowers in plants derived from the northern hemisphere, when contrasted with those procured from the southern, as alluded to by Dr. Seemann, seems also to point to the effect of cultivation in producing these flowers. Now, although this is, to a large extent, due to the selection that has been for so long a period practised by gardeners, still that process will not account for the appearance of double flowers where no such selection has been exercised; as in the case of wild plants. Some double peas, observed by Mr. Laxton, appeared suddenly; they had not been selected or sought for, but they were produced, as it would appear, as a result of high cultivation, and during the period when the plant was in greatest vigour; and as the energies of the plant failed, so the tendency to produce double flowers ceased. Indeed, in reference to this subject, it is always important to bear in mind the time at which double flowers are produced; thus, an annual plant subjected to cultivation, will, it may be, produce single flowers for the firet year or two, then a few partially double flowers are formed, and from these, by careful selection and breeding, a double-flowered race may be secured. Sometimes, as in the peas before alluded to, in the same season the earlier blossoms are single, while later in the year double blossoms are produced. This happens, not only in annuals, but also in perennials, and is not infrequent in the apple; an illustration of this occurrence in this tree is given in the 'Gardeners' Chronicle' for 1865, p. 554.[570] Sometimes the flowers on a particular branch are double, while those on the rest of the plant are single.[571] On these points, the evidence furnished by a double white hawthorn in the Royal Botanic Gardens at Edinburgh is important. Professor Balfour kindly wrote as follows in reply to an inquiry respecting this plant:--"A double white hawthorn in the Royal Botanic Gardens produced double flowers in spring. It retained its leaves during autumn and winter, until the following spring. It then flowered in the second spring, but produced weak single flowers only, and has continued to do so ever since. The flowering has been always weak, since this change of flowers from double to single. Mr. M'Nab attributes the change in the duration of the leaves to the filling up of the ground round the tree, to the height of a foot and a half on the stem. He is now trying the effect of extra manure in giving extra vigour to the plant." Here, at least, the production of single flowers would seem to be the result of debilitating causes, connected with the unusual persistence of the leaves, &c., for while the tree was healthy, double flowers were produced.

A similar illustration came under the writer's own notice. Some seedling balsams, of a strain which from long selection and hereditary tendency produces, year after year, double flowers were, in the spring (of 1866), allowed to remain in the seed-pans for many weeks after they were ready to be potted off; they were hence partly starved, and when they bloomed, they produced single flowers only. But these same plants, when more liberally treated, produced an abundance of double flowers. Moreover, other seedlings of the same batch, but sown later, and potted off at the usual time, produced double flowers as usual. Of a like character is the fact that the double _Ranunculus asiaticus_ loses its doubleness if the roots are planted in a poor soil.

On the other hand, the way in which double stocks are stated to be produced at Erfurt, viz.: by giving the plants a minimum supply of water, and the other circumstances alluded to as showing the connection between the production of double flowers, and a deficiency of water, as well as the experiments of Mr. Monro, go to show that, so far from plethora, the inducing cause must be more nearly allied to inanition, though the impoverishing process is, to a certain extent, counteracted by only allowing a few of the seed-pods to ripen, and thus concentrating in a small number of flowers the nutriment intended for many.

Professor Edward Morren ('Bull. Acad. Roy. Belg.,' 2me ser., vol. xix, p. 224) considers the existence of true variegation in leaves, and the production of double flowers, as antagonistic one to the other; the former is a sign of weakness, the latter of strength. But it would seem that the exceptions are so numerous--so many cases of the co-existence of variegated leaves, and double flowers are known, at least in individual plants if not in species--that no safe inferences can be drawn as to this point. Since the above remarks were printed, Professor Morren has published a second paper on the subject, upholding his former views as to the incompatibility of variegated foliage (not mere colouration) and double flowers. In this paper he criticises the objections raised by the present writer and others, and examines some of the alleged exceptions. Some of these the Belgian savant finds to prove his rule, inasmuch as although there is a co-existence of variegated foliage and double flowers in these illustrations, yet the plants are weakly, the flowers ill formed, or fall off before expansion. Admitting all this, there still remain cases in which double flowers and variegated foliage do exist in conjunction, and where the plants are vigorous and the flowers well developed. Instances of this are known to cultivators in species of _Dianthus_, _Hemerocallis_, _Althæa_, _Pæonia_, _Rosa_, _Ranunculus_, _Serissa_, _Saponaria_, etc., and probably the art of the cultivator would speedily be successful in raising other examples, were it a matter of importance or interest to them to do so. At any rate, the existence of a few unimpeachable illustrations is sufficient to support the opinion of the present writer, and objected to so strongly by M. Morren that, in the present state of our knowledge, "no safe inferences can be drawn" from the facts alluded to by the Belgian professor.[572]

Mr. Darwin[573] has thrown out the suggestion that the cause for the appearance of double flowers may be sought for in some previous state of things, bringing about sterility or imperfect formation, or functional activity of the genitalia of the flower, and consequent compensatory increase of the petaline element, either in the form of an increased number of bracts, petals, &c., or in the substitution of petals for stamens and pistils, &c.

In considering these points the question arises whether they can be reconciled one with another. And there is little doubt but that they may be. The production of a flower is preceded by an arrest of vegetation; this is obvious: the current of the plant's life becomes changed, the growth of the leaves is checked, the lengthening of the branches is arrested as the flower-bud forms; moreover, there is a close relationship in a large majority of flowers between the outer envelopes of the flower and the scales of a leaf-bud; this is especially so in regard to the venation, and is admitted by all morphologists. So far, then, it may be said that the production of a flower, like that of a bud, is due to a diminution of vegetative action; and as in double flowers we have, for the most part, merely a repetition and exuberant formation of floral envelopes, so we may attribute their formation to a continuance of the same feeble vegetative action as that which produced the first or normal series. How, then, can a copious supply of rich food, such as is provided by cultivation, produce double flowers? To this question, according to our theory, the reply would be that the quantity of food is excessive, more than the plant can properly digest; and hence vegetative action is stopped, at least partially--pretty much as it would be if the plant were placed in the opposite condition of starvation. The effect of supplying a plant (or an animal) with an excessive supply of food, which it cannot assimilate, is in many respects similar to that which results from partially cutting off the supplies. And the same reasoning applies to sterility. If by high culture, or the supply of an undue quantity of nourishment, the constitution of the plant be impaired, or if the plant be pampered, it is no wonderful thing that sterility should ensue. Hence, then, may it not be asserted as a general principle that in the production of double flowers a partial arrest of development, if not of growth, however produced, is an essential preliminary? All the attendant phenomena, such as the obliteration of the stamens, the augmentation in the number of floral whorls, the occurrence of prolification, are consistent with the supposition of a primary arrest of development, more or less complete, as the case may be: at one time permanent, at another time relaxed and intermittent, or in a third set of cases the vegetative activity or power of growth may be restored, and from the centre of the flower may spring a perfect branch with perfect leaves, the production of sheaths only being superseded by the development of leaves, in which all the parts--sheath, stalk, and blade--are present.

When once the disposition to form double flowers is established, that tendency becomes hereditary: there are races of single Stocks in which, out of hundreds of plants, scarcely one double-flowered form is met with; but when the tendency to produce double blooms is set up, single flowers become the exception: thus, in the Balsams, before mentioned, not one in fifty now produces single flowers, and the seeds of these double Balsams produce double-flowered seedlings, with scarcely a "rogue" among them.

The following list of plants producing double flowers of any kind is taken from that given in 'Seemann's Journal of Botany,' vol. ii, p. 177, and to which some additions have been made. Miscalled double flowers, such as those of the _Compositæ_, _Viburnum Hydrangea_, &c., are excluded.

RANUNCULACEÆ.

Clematis Viticella, _Linn._, S. Europe. florida, _Thunb._, Japan. Fortunei, _Moore_, Japan. patens, _Desne_, Japan. Anemone japonica, _Sieb. et Zucc._, Japan. coronaria, _Linn._, S. Europe, Asia Minor. hortensis, var. _Linn._, S. Europe. palmata, _Linn._, N. Africa, Spain, Portugal. nemorosa, _Linn._, Europe, N. America, Siberia. sylvestris, _Linn._, S. Europe, Siberia. Hepatica triloba, _Chaix._, Europe. Ranunculus bulbosus, _Linn._, Europe, N. Amer. repens, _Linn._, Europe, Siberia, N. Amer. acris, _Linn._, Europe, Siberia. aconitifolius, _Linn._, Europe. gramineus, _Linn._, Italy, France, Portugal, Switzerland. bullatus, _Linn._, S. Europe. asiaticus, _Linn._, The East. Ficaria ranunculoides, _Moench._, Europe. Thalictrum anemoides, _Michæ._, N. America. Caltha palustris, _Linn._, Europe, Asia, N. America. Trollius europæus, _Linn._, Europe. nepalensis, Himalaya. Nigella damascena, _Linn._, Mediterranean. Aquilegia vulgaris, _Linn._, Europe. canadensis, _Linn._, N. America. Delphinium Ajacis, _Linn._, S. Europe. grandiflorum, _Linn._, Siberia, N. America. Consolida, _Linn._, Europe, N. America. cheilanthum, _Fisch._, Siberia. elegans, _D. C._, North America. Adonis autumnalis, _Linn._, Europe. vernalis, _Linn._, Europe, Asia. Pæonia Moutan, _Sims_, China, Japan. officinalis, _Retz._, Europe. tenuifolia, _Linn._, Tauria. albiflora, _Pall._, Siberia. paradoxa, _Andr._, S. Europe.

NYMPHÆACEÆ.

Nelumbium speciosum, _Willd._, Africa, Asia.

BERBERIDACEÆ.

Berberis, _sp. cult._

PAPAVERACEÆ.

Papaver Rhoeas, _Linn._, Europe. bracteatum, _Lindl._, Russia. somniferum, _Linn._, S. Europe, Asia Minor, Egypt. Chelidonium majus, _Linn._, Europe, Asia. Sanguinaria canadensis, _Linn._, N. America. Podophyllum peltatum, _Linn._, N. America.

CRUCIFERÆ.

Mathiola incana, _R. Br._, Mediterranean. glabrata, _D. C._ annua, _Sweet._, South Europe, Syria. Cheiranthus Cheiri, _Linn._, Europe. Iberis umbellata, _Linn._, Europe. amara, _Linn._, Europe. Cardamine pratensis, _Linn._, Europe, Asia, Africa, America. Hesperis matronalis, _Linn._, Europe, Siberia. Barbarea vulgaris, _R. Br._, Europe. Sinapis arvensis, _Linn._, Europe. Brassica oleracea. _Linn._, Europe.

CISTACEÆ.

Helianthemum vulgare, _Spach._, Europe, N. Africa.

VIOLACEÆ.

Viola odorata, _Linn._, Europe, Siberia. grandiflora, _Linn._, Europe, tricolor, _Linn._, Europe.

CARYOPHYLLEÆ.

Dianthus barbatus, _Linn._, France, Germany. chinensis, _D. C._, China. Poiretianus, _Seringe_, ? Caryophyllus, _Linn._, France, Italy. arboreus, _Linn._, Crete. hybridus (_gardens_). corymbosus, _Sibth._, Asia Minor. plumarius, _Linn._, Europe, Siberia, N. America. deltoides, _Linn._, Europe. Saponaria officinalis, _Linn._, Europe. Lychnis sylvestris, _Schkr._, Europe. vespertina, _Linn._, Europe. flos cuculi, _Linn._, Europe. Viscaria, _Linn._, Europe. chalcedonica, _Linn._, Japan, Asia Minor. Silene inflata, _Sm._; _var._ maritima, _D. C._, Europe.

ALSINEÆ.

Sagina procumbens, _Linn._, Europe.

MALVACEÆ.

Hibiscus Rosa sinensis, _Linn._, E. Indies. flavescens, _Cav._, China. alba, _Hook._, China. syriacus, _Linn._, Syria, Carniola. Althæa rosea, _Cav._, Caucasus, &c. Malva rotundifolia, _Linn._, Europe. moschata, _D. C._, Europe.

HIPPOCASTANEÆ.

Æsculus Hippocastanum, _Linn._, Europe, N. America.

GERANIACEÆ.

Geranium pratense, _Linn._, Europe, Siberia. sylvaticum. _Linn._, Europe. Pelargonium zonale, _Willd._, S. Africa. Tropæolum majus, _Linn._, Peru. minus, _Linn._, Peru. Oxalis cernua, _Thunb._, S. Africa. Impatiens Balsamina, _Linn._, E. Ind.

TERNSTRÖMIACEÆ.

Camellia reticulata, _Lindl._, China. Sasanqua, _Thunb._, China. japonica, _Linn._, Japan. Thea maliflora, _Seem._, Japan.

AURANTIACEÆ.

Citrus Aurantium, _Linn._, Asia, South Europe.

PAPILIONACEÆ.

Trifolium repens, _Linn._, Europe, S. America. Medicago sp., ?., Europe. Ulex europæus, _Link._, Europe. Spartianthus junceus, _Linn._, S. Europe. Clitoria Ternatea, _Linn._, E. India. Orobus viscoides, _D. C._, Croatia, &c. vernus, _Linn._, Europe. Genista tinctoria, _Linn._, Europe. sibirica, _Linn._, Siberia. scoparia, _Lam._, Europe. Cytisus albus, _Link._, Portugal. Anthyllis Vulneraria, _Linn._, Europe. Coronilla Emerus, _D. C._, Europe. Lotus corniculatus, _Linn._, Europe.

ROSACEÆ.

Rosa lutea, _Mill._, Europe. cinnamomea, _Linn._, Europe, N. America. spinosissima, _Linn._, Central Asia. Carolina, _Linn._, N. America. villosa, _Linn._, Europe, Central Asia. centifolia, _Linn._ damascena, _Linn._, Syria. rubiginosa, _Linn._, Europe, Asia, N. America. moschata, _Ait._, Madeira, N. Africa. canina, _Linn._, Europe. alba, _Linn._, Europe, Caucasus. indica, _Linn._, China. nivea, _D. C._, China. Eglanteria, _Linn._, Europe. gallica, _Linn._, Europe, Caucasus. pimpinellifolia, _Linn._, Europe, Central Asia. Banksiæ, _R. Br._, China. sulphurea, _Ait._, East. Rubus fruticosus, _Linn._, Europe. rosifolius, _Linn._, Mauritius, E. India. corylifolius, _Smith_, Europe. cæsius, _Linn._, Europe. Kerria japonica, _D. C._, Japan. Spiræa Filipendula, _Linn._, Europe. Ulmaria, _Linn._, Europe. prunifolia, _Sieb. et Zucc._, Japan. Reevesii, _Lindl._, China. strobilacea, _Sieb. et Zucc._, Japan. Fragaria vesca, _Linn._, Europe, N. America. Potentilla alpestris, _Hall. f._, Europe. reptans, _Linn._, Europe, Asia. Tormentilla, _Schrank_, Europe, Asia. anserina, _Linn._, Europe. Geum rivale, _Linn._, Europe.

POMACEÆ.

Cratægus Oxyacantha, _Linn._, Europe. Crus galli, _Linn._, N. America. Cydonia japonica, _Pers._, Japan. Pyrus communis, _Linn._, Europe. Malus, _Linn._, Europe. Eriobotrya japonica, _Lindl._, Japan.

AMYGDALEÆ.

Amygdalus Persica, _Linn._, Persia. communis, _Linn._, Mauritania. Prunus domestica, _Linn._, Europe. spinosa, _Linn._, Europe, N. America. avium, _Linn._, Europe. Cerasus, _Linn._, Europe. Kerii, _Steud._, Japan. japonica, _Thunb._, China, Japan. insititia, _Linn._, Europe. triloba, _Lindl._, China.

MYRTACEÆ.

Myrtus communis, _Linn._, S. Europe. Punica Granatum, _Linn._, S. Europe, Marocco.

PHILADELPHACEÆ.

Philadelphus Coronarius, _linn._, S. Europe. Deutzia Crenata, _sieb. Et Zucc._, Japan.

ONAGRACEÆ.

Fuchsia globosa, _Lindl._ (and var. hort. pl.), Mexico. Epilobium tetragonum, _D.C._, Europe. Clarkia pulchella, _Pursh._, California. elegans, _Douglas_, N. America.

PORTULACACEÆ.

Portulaca grandiflora, _Hook_, Chili.

GROSSULARIACEÆ.

Ribes sanguineum, _Pursh._, N. America.

SAXIFRAGACEÆ.

Saxifraga granulata, _Linn._, Europe.

UMBELLIFERÆ.

Daucus Carota, _Linn._, Europe.

RUBIACEÆ.

Ixora grandiflora, _De Cand._, E. India. Serissa foetida, _Comm._, China, Japan. Gardenia Fortuniana, _Hook._, China. florida, _Linn._, China, E. India. radicans, _Thunb._, Japan.

CAPRIFOLIACEÆ.

Lonicera Periclymenum, _Linn._, Europe. Sambucus nigra, _Linn._, Europe.

CAMPANULACEÆ.

Campanula latifolia, _Linn._, Europe, Asia. Tenorei, _Morett_, Naples. Trachelium, _Linn._, Europe. Vidallii, _H. C. Wats._, Europe. pyramidalis, _Linn._, S. Europe. rotundifolia, _Linn._, Europe, N. America. persicifolia, _Linn._, Europe. glomerata, _Linn._, Europe, Asia. Medium, _Linn._, Europe. rhomboidea, _Linn._, Europe. Platycodon grandiflorum, _D. C._, Siberia.

ERICACEÆ.

Calluna vulgaris, _Linn._, Europe, N. America. Rhododendron indicum, _Sweet._, E. India. ponticum, _Linn._, Asia Minor. Azalea nudiflora, _Linn._, N. America. glauca, _Lam._, N. America. Arbutus Unedo, _Linn._, S. Europe. Erica Tetralix, _Linn._, Europe. cinerea, _Linn._, Europe. hyemalis, gardens.

EPACRIDACEÆ.

Epacris impressa, _R. Br._, Australia.

PRIMULACEÆ.

Primula villosa, _Jacq._, Europe. Auricula, _Linn._, Europe. denticulata, _Smith_, E. India. acaulis, _Jacq._, Europe. clatior, _Jacq._, Europe. prænitens, _Ker._ = sinensis, _Lindl._, China. Lysimachia Nummularia, _Roem et Schult._, Europe. Anagallis tenella, _Linn._, Europe.

JASMINACEÆ.

Jasminum officinale, _Linn._, S. Europe. Sambac., _Ait._, E. India. hirsutum, _Hook._, China. grandiflorum, _Lindl._, S. Europe.

OLEACEÆ.

Syringa persica, _Linn._, Persia. vulgaris, _Linn._, Europe, Persia.

APOCYNEÆ.

Vinca minor, _Linn._, Europe. major, _Linn._, Europe. Nerium odorum, _Ait._, E. India. Oleander, _Linn._, S. Europe. Tabernæmontana coronaria, _Willd._, E. India. Allamanda cathartica, _Aubl._, S. America.

CONVOLVULACEÆ.

Calystegia sepium, _R. Br._, Europe, America, Asia. pubescens, _Lindl._, China. Convolvulus tricolor, _Linn._, S. Europe. Ipomoea pandurata, _Meyer_, S. America.

SOLANACEÆ.

Datura cornigera, _Hook._, Peru. fastuosa, _Linn._, S. America, Egypt. arborea, _Linn._, S. America. chlorantha, _Hook._ humilis, _Desf._ Petunia nyctaginiflora, _Juss._, S. America. violacea, _Hook_, S. America. Solanum Dulcamara, _Linn._, Europe.

GENTIANACEÆ.

Gentiana Amarella, _Linn._, Europe.

OROBANCHACEÆ.

Orobanche sp.

SCROPHULARIACEÆ.

Mimulus luteus, _Linn._, Chili. Antirrhinum majus, _Linn._, S. Europe. Digitalis purpurea, _Linn._, Europe. Linaria vulgaris, _Mill._, Europe, N. America. Veronica, sp. Calceolaria, var. cult.

GESNERACEÆ.

Achimenes longiflora, _D. C._, Mexico. Gloxinia var. hort.

VERBENACEÆ.

Clerodendron fragrans, _Willd._, Japan. Verbena var. hort.

NYCTAGINEÆ.

Mirabilis Jalapa, _Linn._, Trop. America.

LAURINEÆ.

Laurus nobilis, _Linn._, S. Europe. Sassafras, _Linn._, N. America.

IRIDACEÆ.

Gladiolus tristis, _Linn._, Cape of Good Hope. Crocus aureus, _Sibth_, Europe, Asia Minor. Susianus, _Curt._, Asia Minor. pusillus, _Tenore_, Italy. vernus, _Smith_, S. Europe. Iris sibirica, _Linn._, Europe. Iris Kæmpferi, _Siebold_, Japan.

AMARYLLIDACEÆ.

Galanthus nivalis, _Linn._, Europe. Leucoium vernum, _Linn._, Europe. Sternbergia lutea, _Gawl._, Europe, Asia Minor. Hippeastrum equestre, _Herb._, S. America. Narcissus cernuus, _Salisb._, S. Europe. Telamonius, _Schult._, Europe. lobularis, _Schult._ concolor, _Schult._, Portugal. biflorus, _Curt._, Europe. italicus, _Ker._, Italy. incomparabilis, _Curt._, Italy. Cypri, _Haw._, Cyprus. Pseudo-Narcissus, _Linn._, Europe. poeticus, _Linn._, Europe. Jonquilla, _Linn._, S. Europe, East. Tazetta, _Linn._, S. Europe. poculiformis, _Salisb._, S. Europe.

ORCHIDACEÆ.

Orchis Morio, _Linn._, Europe. mascula, _Linn._, Europe. pyramidalis, _Linn._, Europe. Ophrys fucifera, _Linn._, Europe. See also pp. 380, 509.

HYDROCHARIDACEÆ.

Hydrocharis Morsus ranæ, _Linn._, Europe.

ASPHODELEÆ.

Asphodelus luteus, _Linn._, S. Europe.

LILIACEÆ.

Tulipa Gesneriana, _Linn._, Asia Minor. sylvestris, _Linn._, S. Europe. Scilla autumnalis, _Linn._, Europe. nutans, _Smith_, S. Europe. Convallaria majalis, _Linn._, Europe, America. Polygonatum, _Linn._, Europe. Trillium grandiflorum, _Spreng._, America. Fritillaria Meleagris, _Linn._, Europe. imperialis, _Linn._, Persia. Lilium Martagon, _Linn._, Europe. candidum, _Linn._, Syria, Persia. Hyacinthus orientalis, _Linn._, East. Polianthes tuberosa, _Linn._, E. India. Hemerocallis disticha, _Don._, Nepal. Kwanso, gardens. fulva, _Linn._, S. Europe.

COLCHICACEÆ.

Colchicum autumnale, _Linn._, Europe. Tofieldia calyculata, _Wahl._, Europe.

BUTOMACEÆ.

Sagittaria latifolia, _Willd._, N. America. sagittifolia, _Linn._, Europe, Asia, America.

COMMELYNACEÆ.

Tradescantia virginica, _Linn._, N. America. alba, gardens.

FOOTNOTES:

[564] This appendix forms a portion of a paper published in the 'Proceedings of the International Botanical Congress,' London, 1886, p. 127, and which it has been deemed advisable to reproduce with sundry additions and modifications.

[565] 'Traité des Giroflées,' per E. Chaté.

[566] Leading Article in the 'Gardeners' Chronicle,' p. 74, 1866.

[567] Otto's 'Gartenzeitung,' 1866.

[568] 'Gard. Chron.,' 1843, p. 628.

[569] 'Gard. Chron.,' 1867, p. 381.--Art. "Chinese primroses."

[570] See also p. 79, fig. 36. A similar flower is figured in 'Hort. Eystett. Ic. Arb. Vern.,' fol. 5. "Fructus nondum observatus est fortassis alimento uberius in flores refuso, nullus sperari possit."

[571] See De Candolle, 'Plant. Rar. Genev.,' 1829, p. 91; and Alph. de Candolle.' Géog. Bot.,' p. 1080.

[572] See 'Gardeners' Chronicle,' 1868, p. 1113.

[573] Ibid., 1843, p. 628.

NOTE.

During the progress of the foregoing pages through the press, several additional illustrations of particular malformations have come under notice. Some of the more important of these may here be recorded.

_Fasciation_ (see p. 11).--The following plants may be added to the list:--_Acer eriocarpum_, _Arabis albida_, _Brassica oleracea_, var., _Guarea_, sp., _Artabotrys_ sp. In all, with the exception of the first-named, the fasciation occurred in the inflorescence. In some species of _Artabotrys_, indeed, fasciation and curvation of the inflorescence are common.

_Synanthy_ (p. 39).--Several additional instances of adhesion of two or more flowers in _Calanthe vestita_, _C. Veitchii_, and other forms of this genus may be cited. These furnish further illustrations of the much greater liability of some plants to particular changes as compared with others. _Scilla bifolia_, _Gagea arvensis_, and _Viola odorata_ may be added to the list of synanthic plants.

_Alterations of placentation, &c._ (see pp. 98, 483).--M. Casimir De Candolle, in a letter to the author, dated March 8th, 1869, thus writes of the existence of a double row of carpels in _Pyrus spectabilis_ and _Cratægus Oxyacantha_, "a longitudinal section of a double flower of _Pyrus spectabilis_ shows two rows of carpels, placed one above another. The arrangement of the vascular bundles shows that the upper row is external in relation to the lower series. The carpels of the latter are wholly coalescent as in a pear, while those of the upper verticil are only partially coherent or sometimes quite distinct. The placentation is constantly axile in the inferior row and parietal in the upper one. The number of ovules in each carpel of the superior row varies greatly, and they are often, but not always, inserted in two longitudinal ranks, as is constantly the case in the lower carpels. Double flowers of _Cratægus Oxyacantha_ present the same anomalies." For analogous instances in _Digitalis_, see p. 98. See also p. 380, _Saxifraga_.

_Prolification_, p. 120.--A. P. De Candolle, "Organographie Végétale," tab. 40, figures an instance of suppression of one lobe of the ovary in _Iris chinensis_, and of the presence at the base of the flower of an adventitious and imperfect flower-bud, as in the _Phlomis_, mentioned at p. 119.

_Monoecious Misleto_, p. 193.--In this specimen, exhibited at one of the meetings of the Scientific Committee of the Royal Horticultural Society in 1869, there were both male and female flowers on the same bush. The plant was of the male sex, with numerous long slender whip-like, somewhat pendulous, branches bearing comparatively large broad yellowish leaves, and fully developed male flowers at the end. From the side of one of these male branches, near the base, protruded a tuft of short, stiff branches, bearing small, narrow, dark green leaves, ripe berries and immature female flowers. There was no evidence of grafting or parasitism, of the female branch on the male, the bark and the wood being perfectly continuous so that the only tenable supposition is that this was a case of dimorphism.

_Adventitious leaflet and pitcher_, see pp. 30 and 355. In a species of _Picrasma_, in which the leaves are impari-pinnate and spread horizontally, an adventitious leaflet was observed to project at right angles to the plane of the primary leaf. It emerged at a point nearly corresponding to that at which the normal pinnæ were given off. The appearance presented was thus like that of a whorl of three leaves, except that the shining surface of the adventitious leaflet, corresponding to the upper face of the normal leaflets, was directed towards the axis, _i.e._, away from the corresponding portion of the neighbouring pinnæ, while the dull surface, corresponding to the lower part of an ordinary leaflet, looked towards the apex of the main leaf, or away from the axis. In one instance, a stalked pitcher was given off from the same point as that from which the supernumerary leaflet emerged, the pitcher being apparently formed from the cohesion (congenital) of the margins of a leaflet.

In the normal leaf of this plant there is between the bases of the pinnæ, a small reddish gland or stipel? attached to, or projecting from, the upper surface of the rachis. It appeared from some transitional forms that the adventitious leaflet, just mentioned, was due to the exaggerated development of this gland, but no clue was afforded as to the origin of the ascidium. It was not practicable to examine the arrangement of the vascular bundles in the rachis.

_Additional labella in Phaius._--A flower of _Phaius grandiflorus_ was found in the same condition as the _Catasetum_, mentioned at pp. 291 and 382.

_Tubular stem._--A species of _Sempervivum_, exhibited by Mr. Salter, of Hammersmith, at one of the summer exhibitions of flowers at the Royal Horticultural Society in 1868, under the name of _S. Bollei_, deserves notice from its bearing on the question of such structures as the calyx-tubes, the hip of the rose and such like, see pp. 394, 482. In this plant the leaves appeared to be arranged some on the outside, others on the inside, of an erect hollow cylinder, some six inches in height. The oldest leaves were outside, the youngest within, so that the appearance presented was as if the summit of the axis had been pushed or drawn in, much as the finger of a tight glove might be invaginated in withdrawing it from the hand.

The plant in question thus furnishes an actual illustration of the supposititious case mentioned at p. 482.

_Double flowers_, see pp. 499, et seq.--The following species may be added to those already recorded: _Lychnis coronaria_, _Hibiscus mutabilis_, _Lotus major_, _Pisum sativum_, _Godetia_ sp., _Ipomoea purpurea_, _Convolvulus minor_, _Heliotropium peruvianum_, _Trillium grandiflorum_, and _Phaius grandiflorus_.

INDEX TO SUBJECTS.

A.

Abortion, 455, 467 of axile organs, 455 calyx, 460 corolla, 460 indusium, 467 leaves, 458 ovules, 466 perianth, 460 pistil, 464 receptacle, 457 stamens, 463

Acaulescence, 393

Acaulosia, 393, 456

Acheilary, 398

Adesiny, 58, 76

Adhesion, 32 of axes, 50, 55 embryos, 56 leaves, 33 parts of flower, 34 roots, 53

Adventitious buds, 156, 176 flowers, 174, 176, 180 gemmæ, 173 leaves, 162 roots, 156 shoots, 161

Albinism, 337

Alternation, 3, 485

Androecium, enlargement of, 430 meiophylly of, 398 meiotaxy of, 405 of orchids, 380 pleiotaxy of, 379 polyphylly of, 361

Androgynism, 193

Anther (see connective), contabescence of, 463 morphology of, 291 ovuliferous, 200 petalody of, 291 sutures of, 291

Apilary, 397

Apostasis, 440

Aphylly, 395

Arrangement, 1

Ascidia, 30, 313 bibliography, 30 plants with, 30

Atrophy, 454 (see abortion)

Antophyllogeny, 355

Avalidouires (vines), 211

Axes, abortion of, 455 adhesion of, 50, 55 cohesion of, 9 enation from, 444 enlargement of, 418 fission of, 60 suppression of, 398

Axile organs, see Axes

B.

Barley, Nepaul, 174

Bigarades cornues, 303

Bladder-plums, 465

Bracts, multiplication of, 358 staminody of, 298 phyllody of, 242

Buds, adventitious on fruits, 178 on leaves, 170, 174 in ovary, 180 on petals, 177 in pith, 171 on roots, 160 (see flower-buds, prolification) variations of, 336

Bulbs, displacement of, 84 multiplication of, 172, 350

Burrs, 347, 420

C.

Catacorolla, 450

Calycanthemy, 283 Calyphyomy, 34

Calyx, abortion of, 461 dialysis of, 70 meiophylly of, 396 meiotaxy of, 403 obsolete, 460 petalody of, 283 pleiotaxy of, 374 polyphylly of, 359 solution of from ovary, 77

Calyx-tube, 394, 480, 509

Carnation wheat-ear, 371

Carpels (see Pistil, Fruit, Ovary), adventitious, 182 dialysis of, 73 enation from, 453 fission of, 68 in ovary, 182

Cauliflower, 421

Cenanthy, 408

Chloranthy, 273, 279 bibliography, 280 remarks on, 279 plants subject to, 280

Chorisis, 59, 343 parallel, 344 collateral, 344

Chromatism, 339

Cladodes, 328

Classification, teratology in relation to, 488

Cohesion of leaves, 21, 25 of petals, 28 pistils, 29 sepals, 27 stamens, 29 stems, 9

Colour, alterations of, 337

Columella, 395

Coniferæ, leaves of, 217, 352, 484 inflorescence of, 245 scales of, 192, 245, 484

Compensation, 488

Connective, petalody of, 293

Consistence, alterations of, 432

Contabescence, 463

Contortion, 317

Co-relation, 486

Cornute leaves, 328

Corolla, abortion of, 461 dialysis of, 71 duplicate, 376 hose in hose, 377 meiophylly of, 397 meiotaxy of, 403 pleiotaxy of, 374 polyphylly of, 359 virescence of, 338

Cotyledons, increased number of, 370 shoots, below, 161

Cuttings, formation of, 159

D.

Dédoublement, 59 (see Chorisis)

Deflexion, 209

Deformities, 311

Degeneration, 470

Depauperate ferns, 466

Diadelphia, 29

Dialysis, 58, 69 of calyx, 71 carpels, 73 corolla, 72 plants subject to, 72 of leaves--margins of, 70 stamens, 73

Diaphysis, 103

Dioecious plants, 192, 193

Dimorphism, 333

Dimorphic flowers, 403

Direction, changes of, 201

Diremption, 87

Disjunction, see Dialysis, Fission, Solution

Displacement, 84 of bulbs, 84 carpels, 96 flower-parts of, 91 inflorescence, 85 leaves, 87 ovules, 96 placentas, 96

Distension, 419

E.

Ecblastesis, 107, 138

Elongation, 433 of parts of flower, 438 flower-stalks, 435 inflorescence, 434 leaves, 437 nucleus of ovule, 269 placenta, 440 receptacle, 440 root, 434 thalamus, 440

Embryos, adhesion of, 56 increased number of, 369

Enation, 443 from axile organs, 444 carpels, 453 corolla, 449 foliar organs, 445 sepals, 448 stamens, 453

Enlargement, 417 of androecium, 430 axile organs, 418 buds, 420 flower stalk, 421 fruit, 431 gynoecium, 430 perianth, 428 placenta, 425

Epanody, 226

Epistrophy, 226

Etiolation, 337

Eversion, 204

Excrescences, 444 (see Enation)

F.

Fasciation, 11 plants affected with, 20, 508

Fastigiation, 202

Ferns, crested, 63, 447 depauperated, 466 exindusiate, 467 supra-soriferous, 189

Filaments, see Stamens petaloid, 290 4-winged, 290

Finger and toe, 69

Fission, 59 of carpels, 68 leaf-organs, 61, 66 plants, subject to, 66 of petals, 66 stem-organs, 60 stamens, 68

Flattening, 328

Floral organs, displacement of, 91 elongation of, 439 metamorphy of, 281

Florets, increased number of, 351, 390

Flowers, adventitious, 174 on fruits, 177 on leaves, 174 in ovary, 180 on petals, 177 on spines, 177 apetalous, 404 double, 490, 510 hermaphrodite, 196 homomorphic, 188 increased number of, 390 mutilated, 403 unisexual, 193

Flower-stalk, enlargement of, 421

Flower-bud (see Prolification), replaced by leaves or scales, 164 in place of leaf-buds, 176

Foliar organs (see leaves), adhesion of, 32

Foliar organs, cohesion of, 21, 25 enation from, 445 fission of, 61 suppression of, 396

Form, alterations of, 213 juvenile, persistence of, 217

Frondescence, 241, 279, see Phyllody, Virescence

Fruit, adhesion of, 44 enlargement of, 431

G.

Gemmæ, formation of, 173

Glands, formation of, 473

Gnaurs, 158, 347, 417, 419

Grafting, 53, 56

Greffe des Charlatans, 56

Growth interrupted, 327 irregular, 228

Gymnaxony, 211

Gynantherus, 305

Gynoecium (see pistils) enlargement of, 430 meiophylly of, 399 meiotaxy of, 406 pleiotaxy of, 388 polyphylly of, 363 suppression of, 406

H.

Hairs, formation of, 472

Hermaphroditism, 197

Heterogamy, 190

Heteromorphy, 311

Heterophylly, 330

Heterotaxy, 156

Homology, 476

Homomorphy, 188

Hose in hose corollas, 291, 377

Hypertrophy, 415, see Enlargement

I.

Independence, 58

Indusium, abortion of, 467

Inflorescence, displacement of, 84 elongation of, 434 prolification of, 102, 115

Interrupted growth, 327

Inversion of organs, 206

Irregularity, 213

Irregular growth, 228

K.

Knaurs, (see gnaurs)

Kail, 426

L.

Laciniation, see fission

Layering, 156

Leaders, formation of, 203

Leaf-sheath, 477

Leaves, see foliar organs abortion of, 458 adhesion of, by surfaces, 33 to stem, 34 adventitious, 162-165, 509 cornute, 328 displacement of, 86 elongation of, 437 enlargement of, 421 frondiferous, 355 geminate, 352 multiplication of, 358 nature of, 477 palmate-passage of to pinnate, 439 spiral torsion of, 326 supernumerary, 353

Lily, double white, 375

M.

Meiotaxy of androecium, 405 of calyx, 403 corolla, 403 gynoecium, 405

Meiophylly of androecium, 398 of calyx, 397 corolla, 397 gynoecium, 399 perianth, 397

Mellarose, 134

Metaphery, 91

Metamorphy, 239, 281 calycanthemy, 283 chloranthy, 273 petalody, 283 phyllody, 241 pistillody, 302 sepalody, 282 staminody, 298

Mischomany, 348

Monadelphia, 29

Monoecious, 192, 193, 509

Monosy, 58

Morphology, 479

Multiplication, see pleiotaxy, pleiophylly of bracts, 358, 371 bulbs, 350 cotyledons, 370 embryos, 369 florets, 351 foliar organs, 352 whorls, 371

N.

Nepaul Barley, 174

Number, alterations of, 341 increased, 343, 353 diminished, 392

O.

Orchids, androecium of, 380 prolification in, 153

Organs, rudimentary, see Atrophy

Ovary, inferior, nature of, 394, 482 solution from calyx, 77 stamens in, 184

Ovules, abortion of, 466 increase of, 367 in place of pollen, 200 polliniferous, 183 petalody of, 297 phyllody of, 262 pistillody of, 310 suppression of, 407 malformations of, 262 bibliography of, 272

P.

Parasitical plants, 55

Peduncles, elongation of, 435

Peloria, 207, 228 bibliography of, 227, 239 regular, 219 plants subject to, 226 irregular, 229 plants, subject to, 239

Perianth, abortion of, 460 enlargement of, 428 meiophylly of, 396 pistillody of, 303 pleiotaxy of, 375

Persistence, xxxvi _adnot._, 217

Petalody, 283 of accessory organs, 297 anther, 291 calyx, 283 connective, 292 ovules, 297 pistils, 297 stamens, 284 plants, subject to, 295

Petals, cohesion of, 28 enation from, 448 fission of, 66 phyllody of, 251 staminody of, 298 tubular, 23, 314

Phyllode, 328

Phyllody, 240 (see Virescence, Chloranthy) of accessory organs, 272 bracts, 242 calyx, 244 plants subject to, 250 in Conifers, 245 of corolla, 251 plants subject to, 252 of ovules, 262 plants subject to, 271 pistils, 256 plants subject to, 261 stamens, 253 plants subject to, 256

Phyllomania, 352

Phyllomorphy, see Phyllody

Phyllotaxy, 1, 320

Pistil, abortion of, 464 cohesion of, 29 petalody of, 296 staminody of, 298

Pistillody, 302 of ovules, 268, 310 perianth, 302 sepals, 302 stamens, 303 plants subject to, 310

Pitchers, 30, 313, 509, see Ascidia

Placentation, changes in, 96, 508 bibliography, 100 nature of, 483

Placenta, elongation of, 439 enlargement of, 421

Pleiomorphy, 228

Pleiophylly, 353

Pleiotaxy, 371 of androecium, 375 bracts, 371 calyx, 374 corolla, 376 gynoecium, 388 perianth, 375

Plien, 346

Plymouth Strawberry, 275

Polyadelphia, 29

Pollen in ovules, 183 abortion of, 463 replaced by ovules, 200

Polyclady, 346

Polycotyledony, 370

Polyembryony, 369

Polymorphy, 328

Polyphylly of androecium, 361 of calyx, 350 corolla, 359 plants subject to, 360 of flower, 363 gynoecium, 363

Polyphylly, bibliography, 364 plants subject to, 364

Position, changes of, 83 relative, 485

Prolification, 100 axillary, 138 foliar, 141 floral, 142 plants affected with, 148 bibliography of, 154 complicated, 151 of embryo, 155 of flower, 115 coincident changes, 128 median foliar, 116 median floral, 119, 508 plants affected with, 137 of fruit, 134 inflorescence, 102 bibliography, 115 median foliar, 103 median floral, 105 lateral floral, 107 lateral foliar, 106

R.

Receptacle, abortion of, 457 elongation of, 116, 440 spiral torsion of, 325

Reflexion, 209

Regularity, 213

Rhizotaxy, 1

Rose Willow, 166, 168

Roots, adventitious, 156 elongation of, 434

Rudimentary organs, 469

S.

Saint Valery Apple, 135, 282, 304, 375, 388

Savoys, 426

Scales, formation of, 164, 448, 470

Scape, leaves on, 163

Seeds, abortion of, 407 union of, 50

Sepals, adhesion of, to petals, 34 cohesion of, 27 enation from, 448 phyllody of, 243 pistillody of, 303 staminody of, 298

Sepalody, 282

Separation, 58

Sex, changes of, 190, 509

Shamrock, four-leaved, 356

Shoots below cotyledons, 167; _see_ Leaders

Size, alterations in, 411

Solenaidie, 21, 316

Solution, 59, 76 bibliography, 82 of calyx, 77 plants subject to, 82 of stamens, 82

Spathes, increased number of, 357

Speiranthy, 91, 325

Spiral torsion, 319 plants subject to, 325 of leaf, 326 of receptacle, 324

Spines, 456

Sports, 336

Spurs, formation of, 228, 315

Stamens, see Androecium abortion of, 463 adhesion of, 34, 35 cohesion of, 29 compound, 294, 345 dialysis, 73 enation from, 453 fission of, 68 in ovary, 183 petalody of, 283 phyllody of, 253 pistillody of, 303 tubular, 316

Staminody, of accessory organs, 301 of bracts, 298 petals, 298 pistils, 299 sepals, 298

Stasimorphy, 216

Stem, see axes

Stipules, increased number of, 357

Strawberry, Plymouth, 275 blind, 195

Suppression, 393 of androecium, 405 flower, 408 foliar organs, 395

Suppression of ovules, 407 remarks on, 409 of seeds, 407

Symmetry, 213

Synanthy, 37 bibliography, 45 plants subject to, 44, 508

Syncarpy, 45

Syngenesia, 29

Synophty, 57

Synspermy, 50

T.

Tendrils, adventitious, 326 formation of, 473

Thalamus, see Receptacle

Thorns, 456

Torsion spiral, 319

Tubers, 421 in axils of leaves, 142

Tubes, formation of, 312, 509 (see Ascidia, Solenaidy, Spurs)

Tubular petals, 314 stamens, 316

U.

Union, 8

Unisexuality, 195

Uovoli, 420

V.

Varieties, dwarf, 411

Venation, 338

Virescence, 338

Viviparous plants, 106, 168

W.

Warts, 444

Wheat-ear carnation, 371

INDEX OF NAMES OF PLANTS.

[In the following Index the names of the orders that are incidentally mentioned are printed in small capitals, those of the genera and species in ordinary type. The names are inserted as found in the several records, &c., without in general any attempt having been made to determine their accuracy. For this reason the authority for the specific name is rarely given, such citations being here unnecessary if not impracticable. It may, however, be assumed that the names made use of are those generally adopted by naturalists.

This index will be found useful for statistical purposes. It will show at a glance, at least approximately, how often certain genera and species are affected with malformation, as contrasted with others. The nature of the malformation may of course be ascertained by referring to the particular page indicated by the number. The proportion of wild to cultivated plants may also be approximately ascertained, and the effects of cultivation estimated. The disproportionate frequency with which some species are affected, e.g., _Trifolium repens_, &c., as contrasted with other closely allied, and perhaps equally common species, under apparently identical conditions, is also made manifest.]

A.

Abies Brunoniana, 245 excelsa, 21, 61, 192, 298, 325, 456, Larix, 90 pectinata, 52

Acacia, 329

Aceras anthropophora, 238

Acer, 359, 364, 367, 508 platanoides, 66, 459 pseudo-platanus, 20, 371

Aceranthus, 225, 226

Achimenes, 106, 114, 296 longiflora, 506

Aconitum, 148, 231, 359, 360, 399, 404, 407, 464 Napellus, 39, 44, 238

Acorus, 225

Actæa spicata, 251, 252

Adenium obesum, 417

Adenorophium luxurians, 254

Adonis, 262, 295 autumnalis, 500 vernalis, 500

Adoxa, 367

Ærides odoratum, 398

Æschynanthus, 44, 297

Æsculus Hippocastanum, 50, 66, 295, 369, 438, 459, 501

Affonsea, 364

Afzelia, 397

Agaricus, xxiii, 54

Agave, 177, 432 Americana, 33, 45

Angelica, 365

Agrimonia, 137, 406

Agrostemma, 148 Githago, 271

Agrostis alba, 169

Ailanthus glandulosa, 21

Aira alpina, 169 cæspitosa, 169

Ajuga Iva, 404 pyramidalis, 20 reptans, 243

Alcea, 149, 297

Alchemilla minima, 171

Aldrovanda vesiculosa, 86

Alisma, 115, 329 natans, 107 parnassifolia, 167

ALISMACEÆ, 115

Allamanda, 296 cathartica, 288, 390, 505

Allium, 106, 114, 170, 299, 360, 365, 367 fragrans, 369 vineale, 150

Alliaria officinalis, 269, 271

Almond, see _Amygdalus_.

Alnus, 349 fruticosa, 192 imperialis, 459 incana, 21 glutinosa, 66, 244, 349 laciniata, 65

Alopecurus pratensis, 169

Alsine media, 67, 252, 404

Alstroemeria, 319, 326

Althæa, 295 rosea, 20, 501

Alyssum, 137 incanum, 252

AMARYLLIDACEÆ, 115, 138, 150

Amaryllis, 307, 310, 432

Ambrina ambrosioides, 397

AMENTACEÆ, 114, 435

Amorpha, 21, 397 fruticosa, 23, 30, 243

AMYGDALEÆ, 500; see _Rosaceæ_

Amygdalus, 122, 137, 155, 295, 297, 364 communis, 250, 252, 369, 503 Persica, 74, 176, 503

Anagallis, 73, 138, 141, 150, 288, 296, 360, 365, 367 arvensis, 117, 161, 256, 263, 271, 278, 281, 284 collina, 44, phoenicea, 141, 253, 271, 441, 461 tenella, 505 Webbiana, 281

Anomodon alternatus, 49

Ananassa, 350

Anchusa, 132, 138, 339, 365 ochroleuca, 125, 259, 262, 281 paniculata, 262

Androsace maxima, 16, 20

Anemiopsis californica, 63, 66

Anemone, 113, 121, 136, 140, 142, 148, 258, 289, 295, 296, 297, 360, 374, 430, 463, 491, (see _Hepatica_) coronaria, 107, 250, 256, 339, 499 hortensis, 107, 250, 339, 499 japonica, 161, 499 nemorosa, 250, 256, 339, 499 palmata, 499

Anemone pavonina, 499 Pulsatilla, 250 rivularis, 165 sylvestris, 250, 499

Angelica, 114, 137, 143, 150 Razoulzii, 244, 437

Anthemis arvensis, 20 nobilis, 20 retusa, 44

Anthoxanthum, 61 odoratum, 61

Anthriscus, 442

Anthurium Scherzerianum, 358

Anthyllis, 295

Antirrhinum majus, 20, 22, 24, 31, 44, 57, 73, 82, 104, 114, 121, 131, 225, 226, 227, 230, 233, 235, 238, 253, 272, 296, 301, 315, 316, 318, 363, 365, 378, 398, 505

Apargia, 114 autumnalis, 20

Apium, 82, 113, 150 graveolens, 66, 158 Petroselinum, 370, 437

APOCYNACEÆ, 137

Apple, St. Valery, 135, 282, 304, 375, 388

Aquilegia canadensis, 500 Skinneri, 266, 271 vulgaris, 24, 70, 127, 136, 220, 226, 252, 257, 260, 261, 271, 280, 286, 287, 288, 293, 295, 74, 390, 500

Arabis, 148, 508 alpina, 397, 461, 463 pumila, 170 sagittata, 44

Araucaria, 245

Arbutus Unedo, 291, 292, 296, 377, 504

Archidendron, 365

Ardisia serrulata, 369

Arenaria serpyllifolia, 461 tetraquetra, 398, 399, 464, 469

Armeria, 114

Aristolochia Clematitis, 38, 45, 314 caudata, 231, 238 sipho, 23

Armoracia rusticana, 64, 299

Arnoseris, 114

Artabotrys, 456, 508

Artemisia, 405

Artocarpus, 407

Arum, 329 maculatum, 66, 225, 227, 245, 358

Asparagus officinalis, 12, 19, 21, 320, 325, 471

Asphodelus, 138, 296

Asphodelus luteus, 506 ramosus, 298, 310

Asplenium Trichomanes, 190

Astrantia, 114 major, 368

Athamanta, 82, 137, 149 Cervaria, 250, 442

Atriplex, 227 hortensis, 224

Atropa Belladonna, 44

Aucuba, 21 japonica, 21, 197

AURANTIACEÆ, 137, 149, 502

Avena, 319, 351, 391 chinensis, 298

Azalea, 35, 114 glauca, 504 indica, 44, 73, 166, 209, 289, 296 nudiflora, 504

B.

Babingtonia, 185

Bæckea diosmifolia, 183

BALSAMINEÆ, 359, 404, 501

Balsam, see _Impatiens_

Bamboo, see _Bambusa_

Bambusa, 307, 310, 324, 365

Barbarea, 295 vulgaris, 310, 500

Barkhausia, taraxacifolia, 20

Barley, Nepaul, 174

Bauhinia, 328

BEGONIACEÆ, 114

Begonia, 31, 81, 106, 114, 162, 170, 352 frigida, 199, 303, 310 fuchsioides, 281 phyllomaniaca, 170

Bellevalia, 408, 461, 467 comosa, 348

Bellis perennis, 17, 20, 31, 106, 114, 164, 244

Berberis, 272, 295, 458, 460, 500 vulgaris, 20

Beta, 19, 325, 365 vulgaris, 20

Betonica Alopecuros, 42, 44, 226

Betula alba, 66, 346, 456, 472 populifolia, 66

Bidens, 114, 165, 223

BIGNONIACEÆ, 222

Bignonia, 272, 296, 327

Bikkhia, 80

Blitum, 45 polymorphum, 397, 458

Bocconia, 224 cordata, 310

Bowiea volubilis, 409

BORAGINACEÆ, 132, 138

Bouchea hyderabadensis, 166

Bougainvillea, 339

Brachythecium plumosum, 49

Brassica, 20, 136, 139, 295, 364, 367 Napus, 27, 205 oleracea, 30, 33, 66, 67, 106, 113, 136, 141, 142, 148, 250, 252, 264, 271, 280, 351, 408, 421, 426, 442, 445, 501, 508 Rapa, 181

Breynia, 198

Bromelia, 103

Bromus velutinus, 358

Broussonettia papyrifera, 331, 459

Bruniaceæ, 80, 81

Brunia microphylla, 81

Bryonia, 360, 367

Bryophyllum calycinum, 158, 171, 483 proliferum, 166

Bryum cæspititium, 49

Bunias, 97, 136, 280, 360

Bunium creticum, 159 flexuosum, 20

Bupleurum, 149, 459 falcatum, 15, 20

BUTOMACEÆ, 507

Buxbaumia indusiata, 49

Byrsonima, 137

BYTTNERIACEÆ, 362

C.

Cabomba aquatica, 458

CACTACEÆ, 81, 113, 149, 395

Cactus, 160

Cachrys taurica, 197

Cæsalpinia, 365 digyna, 48

Cakile maritima, 246, 250

Calanthe, 227, 398, 402, 508 vestita, 39, 45, 227, 402, 508

Calceolaria, 41, 44, 230, 233, 284, 296, 397, 405, 406, 505 crenatifolia, 238 floribunda, 316 rugosa, 238

Calendula, 114, 138, 339, 370 officinalis, 252, 280, 339

Calla palustris, 357

Callitriche, 196 autumnalis, 406 vernalis, 406

Caltha, 136, 148, 295 palustris, 141, 250, 442, 500

Calluna, 296, 504

Calycophyllum, 249, 283, 429

Calystegia, 114, 296

Calystegia Sepium, 505 pubescens, 505

Camellia japonica, 288, 295, 297, 491, 494, 502 reticulata, 502 Sasanqua, 502

CAMPANULACEÆ, 80, 114, 127, 131, 138, 139, 150, 334

Campanula, 71, 72, 73, 82, 138, 150, 250, 285, 296, 365, 367, 404, 442, 472 canescens, 403 colorata, 403 glomerata, 242, 300, 504 latifolia, 504 Medium, 20, 37, 44, 61, 251, 448, 504 persicifolia, 44, 284, 300, 429, 504 pyramidalis, 281, 504 Rapunculus, 429 rapunculoides, 20, 252, 300, 310, 375 rhomboidea, 504 rotundifolia, 377, 378, 504 Tenorei, 504 thyrsoidea, 20 Trachelium, 504 Vidallii, 504

Campanumæa, 80, 81

Camphorosma monspeliaca, 456

Canna, 285

Cannabis, 82, 194, 197 sativa, 81

Cannamois virgata, 197

CAPPARIDACEÆ, 148, 390

CAPRIFOLIACEÆ, 45

Capsella bursa pastoris, 298, 361

Cardamine, 295, 357 hirsuta, 398 Impatiens, 404 pratensis, 65, 170, 181, 495, 500 sylvatica, 398

Carduus arvensis, 20 crispus, 166, 339 heterophyllus, 260, 262, 250 tataricus, 250, 260, 262

Carex, 115, 138, 150, 191, 194, 350 acuta, 143, 198 cæspitosa, 199 glauca, 143, 199 maritima, 369 paludosa, 199 vulpina, 428

Carica Papaya, 199

Carlemannia, 398

Carlina, 114 vulgaris, 20

Carpinus, 346 Betulus, 66

Carthamus, 138

Carum, 82, 114, 365 Bulbocastanum, 159 Carui, 244, 271, 285, 339, 437

CARYOPHYLLACEÆ, 99, 113, 120, 137, 139, 140, 148, 250, 379, 397, 398, 404, 406, 407, 410, 418, 442, 443, 448

Casuarina rigida, 325

Cassia, 364, 369 marylandica, 30

Castanea vesca, 11, 66, 104, 114, 319, 435

Catabrosa aquatica, 351

Catalpa, 399

Catasetum, 291, 296, 334 eburneum, 384

Cattleya amethystina, 401 Forbesii, 34, 384, 398 marginata, 223, 227 Mossiæ, 224, 227, 238 violacea, 383, 397

Caucalis leptophylla, 33

Caulophyllum, 75, 125

Caylussa, 137

Cedrus Libani, 61

CELASTRACEÆ, 149

Celastrus, 149

Celosia, 19, 20

Centaurea, 37, 114 collina, 34 Jacea, 43, 243 Scabiosa, 20 moschata, 44

Centranthus, 247 macrosiphon, 250 ruber, 42, 44

Cephalotus follicularis, 314

Cerastium, 62, 97, 262, 397, 398 glomeratum, 280, 358, 463 tetandrum, 463 triviale, 252, 280 vulgatum, 252, 404

Cerasus, 74, 117, 149, 250, 260, 424, 489 avium, 262 caproniana, 364 Lauro-cerasus, 64, 66, 370 vulgaris, 252, 262

Ceratonia Siliqua, 30

Cercis, 364 siliquastrum, 325

Chamærops humilis, 300

Chærophyllum, 113

Cheiranthus, 121, 131, 136, 148, 295, 364 Cheiri, 20, 33, 35, 36, 250, 252, 271, 404, 427, 500 var. gynantherus, 305, 310

Cheiranthus incanus, 250

Chelone, 361 barbata, 238

Chelidonium majus, 66, 170, 280, 295, 500

CHENOPODIACEÆ, 397, 405, 406

Chenopodium, 45, 365, 367 glaucum, 397 murale, 428 Quinoa, 62, 66 Vulvaria, 458

Chirita sinensis, 170

Chlorophytum Sternbergianum, 107

Chorozema ilicifolium, 21

Chrysanthemum, 16, 72, 365 indicum, 20, 188, 472 Leucanthemum, 20

Chrysosplenium, 367

Cichorium Intybus, 20, 44

Cicuta virosa, 406

CINCHONACEÆ, 429

Cionidium Moorei, 190

Cirsium, 114, 138 arvense, 250, 457 lanceolatum, 20 tricephalodes, 252, 339

Cissus, 211

CISTACEÆ, 137

Cistus vaginatus, 473

Citrus, 137, 149, 364, 453 Aurantium, 33, 35, 44, 56, 75, 134, 303, 310, 335, 369, 388, 389, 391, 502

Clarkia, 24, 295 elegans, 177, 503 pulchella, 503

Cleistanthus polystachyus, 198

Clematis, 136, 148, 288, 295, 367 florida, 499 Fortunei, 499 patens, 499 Viticella, 28, 499

Cleome, 137, 148

Cleonia lusitanica, 238

Clerodendron fragrans, 506

Cliffortia, 396

Clinacium dendroides, 49

Clitoria Ternatea, 231, 238, 295, 502

Clusia rosea, 11

Cluytia semperflorens, 198

Cneorum, 365

Cnicus palustris, 20

Cnidium, 113

Cobæa scandens, 73, 82, 272, 326, 365

Coccoloba platycladon, 328

Cochlearia Armoracia, 64, 299, 310, 331

Cocos, 115, 365 nucifera, 429

Codiæum variegatum, 31, 314, 326, 328, 459

Coelebogyne ilicifolia, 369

Cola acuminata, 370

Colchicum autumnale, 45, 67, 73, 250, 287, 296, 406, 407, 507

Coleus, 365, 459

Columnea Schiedeana, 226

Columbine, see _Aquilegia_

Colutea, 465

Commelyna, 73, 296, 507

COMMELYNACEÆ, 245, 507

COMPOSITÆ, 72, 73, 86, 107, 114, 127, 131, 138, 165, 223, 226, 235, 339, 406, 407, 430, 434, 437, 439, 442

Conceveiba macrophylla, 198

CONIFERÆ, 56, 65, 103, 114, 191, 245, 369, 435

Conium maculatum, 114

Conostephium, 120

Convallaria maialis, 73, 150, 250, 296, 360, 367, 375, 400, 442, 507 Polygonatum, 507

CONVOLVULACEÆ, 114, 137, 150

Convolvulus, 73, 114, 137, 142, 150, 296, 510 arvensis, 20 Sepium, 20, 108, 250 tricolor, 505

Conyza squarrosa, 20

Corallorhiza innata, 238

Circeia, 410

Corchorus acutangulus, 397

Coreopsis, 20, 73, 114, 138 Drummondi, 339

Cornus, 37, 44, 358 mas, 358, 374 sanguinea, 44 suecica, 374

Coronilla, 106, 113, 149, 295 Emerus, 502

Correa, 72, 73, 370

Cortusa Mathioli, 133, 138, 263

Corydalis aurea, 280 solida, 243 tuberosa, 235, 336, 238

Corylas Avellana, 21, 31, 48, 66, 114, 349, 354, 364, 365, 368

Cotoneaster microphylla, 21

Cotula foetida, 19, 20

CRASSULACEÆ, 113

Crassula, 113 arborescens, 26, 31

Cratægus, 82, 113, 149, 295, 364, 404, 419 Crus galli, 503 monogyna, 44, 400

Cratægus Oxyacantha, 57, 66, 78, 317, 370, 503, 508 tanacetifolia, 107, 162

Crepis, 271 virens, 20

Crinum, 432

Crocus, 29, 35, 45, 67, 287, 289, 296, 319, 361, 399, 400, 434, 462 aureus, 506 nudiflorus, 302 pusillus, 506 vernus, 506

Crozophora tinctoria, 198

CRUCIFERÆ, 73, 76, 98, 113, 136, 139, 141, 148, 257, 297, 364, 379, 406, 410, 428, 442, 500

Cryptomeria japonica, 103, 114, 245, 435

Cucubalus, 149

Cucumis, 36, 82, 138, 248, 259, 326, 367

CUCURBITACEÆ, 71, 80, 81, 137, 247

Cucurbita, 197, 201, 250, 307, 310, 365, 474

Cuphea miniata, 211, 424

Cupressus funebris, 218

CYCADEÆ, 56, 369

Cyclamen, 67, 104, 114, 296, 319, 359, 360 linearifolium, 329

Cyclodon, 80

Cydonia vulgaris, 71, 79, 295, 423 japonica, 503

Cynanchum fuscatum, 369 nigrum, 369

Cynosurus cristatus, 169

CYPERACEÆ, 115, 138, 150, 169, 350

Cypripedium, 27, 92, 381, 386 candidum, 401 Hookeræ, 386 insigne, 91

Cyrtanthus, 177

Cytisus, 113, 295, 336 albus, 502 Laburnum, 21, 66, 157, 189, 222, 226, 231, 238, 356, 459 nigricans, 15, 104

D.

Dactylis, 115 glomerata, 169

Dahlia, 44, 72, 188, 244, 433 variabilis, 20

Danaë, 60

Daphne indica, 21 odora, 21

Datura, 285, 291, 296, 365, 378, 407

Datura arborea, 505 cornigera, 505 chlorantha, 505 fastuosa, 296, 379, 450, 505 humilis, 505

Daucus Carota, 53, 57, 82, 113, 121, 124, 125, 137, 149, 244, 250, 252, 256, 260, 262, 296, 298, 339, 365, 368, 369, 370, 457, 504

Delphinium, 44, 136, 148, 225, 283, 286, 295, 344, 364, 367, 374, 388, 399, 407 Ajacis, 250, 252, 261, 271, 339, 500 amoenum, 261 cheilanthum, 500 Consolida, 373, 500 crassicaule, 252, 256, 261, 271, 339 dictyocarpum, 271, 432 elatum, 20, 126, 237, 238, 261, 267, 271, 309, 310, 339 elegans, 500 grandiflorum, 500 peregrinum, 219, 226

Dendrobium, 227 nobile, 94, 398 normale, 224, 383

Desmodium canadense, 271 marylandicum, 467

Deutzia, 295 crenata, 503

Dianthus, 67, 113, 121, 129, 137, 139, 145, 146, 149, 166, 261, 268, 289, 295, 297, 310, 360, 364, 371, 379, 397, 471 arboreus, 501 barbatus, 325, 404, 501 Caryophyllus, 501 corymbosus, 501 deltoides, 501 hybridus, 501 plumarius, 501 Poiretianus, 501 sinensis, 370, 501

Dictamnus, 121, 122, 137, 140 albus, 256, 271 Fraxinella, 252, 262, 271, 278, 280

Dielytra, 236, 237

Digitalis lutea, 60 orientalis, 238 purpurea, 20, 40, 44, 73, 98, 121, 129, 137, 150, 226, 233, 238, 296, 298, 315, 365, 373, 398, 459, 472, 505

DILLENIACEÆ, 398

Dionæa, 308 Muscipula, 310

Diosma, 369

Diphaca, 365

Diplotaxis, 136, 148, 364 muralis, 252, 458 tenuifolia, 73, 250, 261, 274, 280, 397, 398, 430

DIPSACACEÆ, 86, 107, 114, 138

Dipsacus, 419, 429 fullonum, 20, 62, 66, 281, 320, 321, 325 Gmelini, 325 pilosus, 20, 325 sylvestris, 10, 20

Dipterocarpus, 249

Ditaxis lancifolia, 380

Dodecatheon, 138

Dodonæa viscosa, 20

Draba, 364

Dracocephalum austriacum, 238 moldavicum, 20 speciosum, 320, 325

Dracontium pertusum, 25

Drosera intermedia, 170, 265, 271, 277, 473

E.

Ebenus cretica, 26

Eccremocarpus scaber, 222, 226, 326

Echeveria, 113

Echinophora maritima, 252

Echium pyrenaicum, 20 simplex, 20 vulgare, 374

Echinocactus, 149, 178, 417

Elegia, 115

Empetrum nigrum, 197

Encamptodon perichætialis, 174

EPACRIDACEÆ, 120, 137

Epacris, 103, 137 impressa, 61, 379, 504

Epidendrum, 114 elongatum, 107 Stamfordianum, 401

Epimedium, 23, 226 Musschianum, 390

Epiphyllum, 328

Epipactis palustris, 325

Epilobium, 81, 137, 273 angustifolium, 20 hirsutum, 246, 250, 252, 256, 262, 281, 442 palustre, 271 tetragonum, 503

Episcia bicolor, 170

EQUISETACEÆ, 189, 350

Equisetum, 61, 325 fluviatile, 325 limosum, 325 Telmateia, 323, 325

Eranthis hyemalis, 23, 70

ERICACEÆ, 114, 119, 137

Erica, 21, 73, 137, 296 cinerea, 504 hyemalis, 378, 504 multiflora, 372 Tetralix, 286, 310, 405, 406, 504

Eriobotrya japonica, 295

Erodium, 463

Ervum Lens, 20, 25, 66

Erucago, 136

Erucastrum Pollichii, 271 canariense, 280

Eryngium, 113, 368, 442 viviparum, 104

Erysimum, 136, 148 Barbarea, 252 cheiranthoides, 252 officinale, 252

Erythrochiton hypophyllanthus, 32, 174

Escholtzia crocea, 250

Eucomis, 103

Eugenia Jambos, 369

Euonymus japonicus, 20 latifolius, 369

EUPHORBIACEÆ, 114, 150, 369, 395

Euphorbia, 114, 150, 365, 371, 395 Characias, 20 Cyparissias, 20, 244 Esula, 198, 307, 310 exigua, 20 geniculata, 253, 256 helioscopia, 56 Lathyris, 244 rosea, 369 palustris, 106, 299 Peplus, 162 pusilla, 244 segetalis, 281

F.

Faba, see _Vicia_ vulgaris, 397

Fabiana, 237

Fagus silvatica, 65, 66, 197, 318, 370, 459

Festuca, 115 nemoralis, 169 ovina, 169

Ficaria, (see _Ranunculus Ficaria_) ranunculoides, 70, 295, 500

FICOIDEÆ, 43

Ficus Carica, 114, 204, 435 stipulata, 332

Filago, 114 germanica, 108

FILICES, 21, 190, 447

Fourcroya, 115

Fragaria, xxxvi _adnot._, 250, 295 alpina, 271 botryformis, 47 monophylla, 396 vesca, 20, 70, 116, 195, 275, 281, 406, 503

Fraxinus excelsior, 13, 21, 66, 325, 396, 421 Ornus, 21

Fritillaria imperialis, 21, 45, 296, 462, 506 Meleagris, 506

Fuchsia, 35, 38, 44, 57, 81, 91, 127, 199, 247, 250, 288, 290, 291, 292, 294, 295, 316, 359, 360, 364, 367, 400, 443 globosa, 503 Funckia, 369

G.

Gagea, 365, 367 arvensis, 375, 508

Gaillardia, 269, 271

Galanthus, 296 nivalis, 300, 506

Galeobdolon luteum, 226, 238

Galeopsis, 429 Ladanum, 238 ochroleuca, 44 Tetrahit, 429

Galium Aparine, 205, 325 Mollugo, 321, 325 verum, 325

Gaudichaudieæ, 334

Gardenia, 296, 377 florida, 504 Fortuniana, 504 radicans, 504

Gaura biennis, 20

Genista, 295 tinctoria, 502 sibirica, 502 Scoparia, 502

GENTIANACEÆ, 137, 150, 505

Gentiana, 71, 73, 137, 150, 252, 296 Amarella, 166, 305, 310, 371, 505 campestris, 250, 299, 442 purpurea, 389

GERANIACEÆ, 113, 137, 501

Geranium, 20, 137, 221, 246, 250, 252, 292, 295, 418 columbinum, 461 nodosum, 34, 65 pratense, 501 sylvaticum, 501

GESNERACEÆ, 38, 114, 222, 505

Gesnera, 33, 44, 95, 171, 339, 357, 427 Geroltiana, 88, 89 zebrina, 355

Geum, 121, 137, 465 coccineum, 275 rivale, 122, 130, 131, 250, 252, 281, 503

Gilia capitata, 281 glomeruliflora, 253, 271

Gladiolus, 21, 296 tristis, 506

Glancium luteum, 66

Gleditschia, 30, 177, 364 triacanthos, 44, 48

Glochidion, 310

Gloxinia, 171, 206, 207, 222, 226, 238, 284, 291, 296, 365, 451, 506

Glyceria aquatica, 169 fluitans, 169, 278

Godetia, 295, 510

Godoya, 374

Gomphia, 281

Gongora, 35

Goodenia ovata, 21, 31

GRAMINACEÆ, 115, 138, 278, 350, 391

Gratiola, 296

Guarea, 508

Gypsophila, 149

H.

Habenaria, 138, 238 chlorantha, 382

Halenia, 222 heterantha, 222, 226

Hedera Helix, 65

Hedypnois, 114

Helianthemum, 132, 137, 295, 404 vulgare, 501

Helianthus, 38, 44, 66 annuus, 20 tuberosus, 20

Helleborus, 23, 288 foetidus, 442 olympicus, 284

Heliotropium peruvianum, 510

Helwingia, 174

Hemerocallis, 138, 296, 310, 507 disticha, 507 fulva, 507

Hepatica, 295, 463 triloba, 500

Heracleum, 82, 113, 137, 150, 262, 365, 368 Sphondylium, 252, 256, 339

Hermesia castaneifolia, 194

Herreria parviflora, 141, 150

Hesperis, 19, 136, 295 matronalis, 20, 252, 280, 325, 500

Heterocentron, 354

Hibiscus, 137, 293, 295, 297, 360, 510 albus, 501 flavescens, 501 Rosa sinensis, 501 Syriacus, 20, 501

Hieracium, 138 aureum, 17 præaltum, 339 Pilosella, 20 umbellatum, 20

HÏPPOCASTANEÆ, 501

Hippeastrum, 296 equestre, 506

Hippuris, 196 vulgaris, 325, 406

Hodgsonia, 326, 474

Holeus mollis, 169

Honckenya peploides, 196, 406, 461

Hordeum, 115, 351 nepalense, 174, 175 trifurcatum, 174, 175

Humulus Lupulus, 193, 244, 435, 472

Hyacinthus, 138, 150, 262, 296, 360, 361, 486 _adnot_ comosus, 409 orientalis, 21, 45, 48, 54, 172, 189, 286, 299, 348, 507 Pouzolzii, 170

Hydrangea, 417

Hydrocera triflora, 359

HYDROCHARIDACEÆ, 506

Hydrocharis, 296 morsus ranæ, 506

Hydrocotyle, 113

HYDROPHYLLACEÆ, 138

Hydrophyllum, 138

Hymenocallis, 404 americana, 462, 463

Hyoscyamus, 430

Hypericum, 442 perforatum, 369, 458

Hypnum triquetrum, 49

Hypochæris, 73, 138 radicata, 250, 339, 437, 457

Hyssopus officinalis, 20, 325

I.

Iberis, 295, 364 amara, 500 umbellata, 500

Ilex Aquifolium, 21, 66, 447

Impatiens, 161, 231, 295, 299 Balsamina, 238, 502

Imperatoria, 82

Indigofera, 459

Inula, 20

Ionopsidium acaule, 362

Ipomoea, 296, 510 pandurata, 505

IRIDACEÆ, 138, 506

Irina, 64 glabra, 65

Iris, 138, 286, 296, 359, 360, 361, 365, 401, 430 Kæmpferi, 506 sibirica, 506 versicolor, 45

Isochilus, 386

Ixia carminosa, 84

Ixora, 296 grandiflora, 504

J.

Jasione, 20, 114

JASMINACEÆ, 137, 504

Jasminum, 137, 296, 360, 400 grandiflorum, 288, 505 hirsutum, 505 nudiflorum, 21 officinale, 21, 505 Sambac, 505

Jatropha Pohliana, 254, 256

Juglans, 244, 400 nigra, 396 regia, 66, 193

JUNCACEÆ, 115, 167, 169

Juncus, 115, 317 articulatus, 431 conglomeratus, 325 uliginosus, 107

Juniperus virginiana, 194 sinensis, 217

Jussicua, 81, 180

Justicia oxyphylla, 25

K.

Kerria, 295

Knautia arvensis, 20, 114

Kochia Scoparia, 430

L.

LABIATÆ, 138, 429

Laburnum (see _Cylisus_), 65, 157, 189, 222, 226

Lacistema, 359

Lactuca, 114 sativa, 11, 20, 33, 44, 313

Lambertia, 365

Lampsana, 114

Lamium, 73, 238, 361 album, 62, 63, 66, 86, 409 amplexicaule, 404 purpureum, 66, 325, 404

Larix, 114 europæa, 21, 90, 245, 435 microcarpa, 192

Lathyrus latifolius, 262 tuberosus, 30

Laurus, 296, 362 nobilis, 506 Sassafras, 250, 331, 506

Lavatera trimestris, 20

Lebeckia, 459

Lecythis, 149, 180

LEGUMINOSÆ, 48, 71, 73, 106, 113, 122, 137, 139, 146, 147, 149, 272, 276, 429, 434, 444

Leitneria floridana, 194

Leontice, 125

Leontodon, 17, 20, 44, 163, 243, 442

Lepidium, 148, 364 sativum, 57

Lepyrodia hermaphrodita, 197

Leskea sericea, 49

Leucanthemum, 86

Leucobryum giganteum, 194

Leucoium, 150, 296 æstivum, 84, 138, 350 vernum, 350, 506

Lilium, 73, 106, 115, 296, 367, 375, 421 auratum, 73, 289, 400 bulbiferum, 45 candidum, 21, 286, 325, 375, 507 cruentum, 21 lancifolium, 35, 400, 443 longiflorum, 310 Martagon, 21, 286, 325, 507 tigrinum, 306, 310

Linaria, 137, 229, 230, 233, 296, 316, 361, 365, 367, 405 æruginea, 238 chalepensis, 238 Cymbalaria, 238 decumbens, 238 Elatine, 238 origanifolia, 238 Pelisseriana, 238 pilosa, 238 purpurea, 20, 44, 238 spuria, 238 triphylla, 238 vulgaris, 162, 226, 234, 235, 238, 316, 374, 505 triornithophora, 238

Linum, 335

Linum usitatissimum, 20

Liquidambar, 362

Listera ovata, 398

LOBELIACEÆ, 72, 114

Lobelia, 211, 424

Lolium, 86, 113, 115, 351 perenne, 61, 169, 325

Lonicera, 38, 44, 73, 82, 226, 271, 281, 296, 297 brachypoda, 358 Caprifolium, 408 Periclymenum, 66, 226, 251, 256, 262, 263, 338, 379, 404, 406, 504 Xylosteum, 252, 358

Lopezia, 298, 410

Lotus, 113, 295, 360, 510 corniculatus, 104, 377, 436, 502 uliginosus, 363

Lowea, 396

Lunaria, 136, 364

Lupinus, 106, 165, 226, 280 polyphyllus, 238

Lycaste Skinneri, 93, 95, 291

Lychnis, 113, 137, 148, 295 chalcedonica, 501 Coronaria, 107, 510 dioica, 67, 252, 262, 280, 404, 464 flos cuculi, 501 sylvestris, 252, 501 vespertina, 501 Viscaria, 501

Lycium, 365, 367 europæum, 250

Lycopersicum, see _Solanum_ esculentum, 389

Lysimachia, 119 Ephemerum, 271, 281 nummularia, 505 vulgaris, 20, 87

Lythrum, 335 Salicaria, 374

M.

Mælenia, 403

Mæsa, 145, 371

MAGNOLIACEÆ, 122

Magnolia, 288, 388, 440 Campbelli, 427 fuscata, 304, 310, 427

MALPIGHIACEÆ, 137, 334, 403, 404, 406

Malus, 78, 79, 388, 389, see _Pyrus_

MALVACEÆ, 137, 149, 288, 292, 295, 362, 395

Malva, 295 crispa, 448 moschata, 501 rotundifolia, 501 sylvestris, 252

Mangifera, 159, 369

Marchantia, 174

Marcgraavia, 23 umbellata, 332

Masdevallia, 27, 95

Mathiola, 136, 148, 295 annua, 361, 500 incana, 20, 38, 44, 68, 299, 500 glabrata, 500

Matricaria Parthenium, 281

Maxillaria, 383

Medicago, 137, 149, 262, 295, 364, 502 lupulina, 404, 432 maculata, 218, 271

Melastoma, 74, 125, 424

Melia Azedairach, 21

Melianthus major, 298, 407

Melilotus, 137, 139, 147, 149, 262 arvensis, 374 leucantha, 432 macrorhiza, 271 officinalis, 404

Melittis, 361

Mentha, 238, 361, 459 aquatica, 325 viridis, 325

Mercurialis, 62, 194, 365 annua, 198 perennis, 66

Mesembryanthemum, 26

Metrosideros, 103

Miconia, 355

Mimosa, 365 Lophantha, 31

Mimulus, 73, 284, 296 luteus, 505

Mnium serratum, 49

Mirabilis, 296, 418 Jalapa, 506

Modecca, 326

Mollugo Cerviana, 398

Momordica Elaterium, 20

Monarda fistulosa, 298

Morus, 193, 354, 459

Mozinna, 399 peltata, 194

Musa, 245, 407

Muscari, 408, 461 comosum, 340, 467

MUSCI, 174

Mussænda, 249, 283, 429

Myosotis cæspitosa, 281 palustris, 375 scorpioides, 20

Myosurus, 440

Myristica moschata, 194

MYRTACEÆ, 80, 149, 362, 395

Myrtus, 295, 310 communis, 503

N.

Narcissus, 21, 67, 138, 286, 296, 360, 365, 443 aureus, 506 biflorus, 34, 45, 506 chrysanthus, 38, 45 concolor, 506 Cypri, 506 Jonquilla, 506 incomparabilis, 38, 45, 301, 506 italicus, 506 lobularis, 506 major, 154 montanus, 301 poculiformis, 506 poeticus, 24, 33, 301, 506 pseudo-narcissus, 506 Tazetta, 45, 300, 506 Telamonius, 506

Nasturtium, 136, 271 amphibium, 181

Nelumbium, 295 speciosum, 500

Nepeta diffusa, 238

Nepenthes, 328, 473

Nephrodium molle, 447

Nerium Oleander, 62, 66, 296, 301, 377 odorum, 505

Neuropeltis, 32

Nicandra physaloides, 458

Nicotiana, 23, 31, 73 rustica, 281

Nigella, 220, 262, 295, 297, 364, 374, 399 damascena, 226, 269, 271, 286, 375, 500

Nuytsia, 371

NYMPHÆACEÆ, 148

Nymphæa, 50, 141, 143, 148, 285, 295 alba, 162 dentata, 256, 261 guineensis, 170 Lotus, 277, 280

O.

Octadenia, 364

Odontoglossum Alexandræ, 387, 403 Uro Skinneri, 463

OEnanthe, 82, 114, 360, 365, 457 crocata, 80, 359, 457

OEnothera, 44, 367 striata, 252

Olea europoea, 21, 157, 420

ONAGRACEÆ, 81, 137, 406, 503

Oncidium, 67, 114, 227 abortivum, 462 bicolor, 45 Cebolleta, 107

Oncidium cucullatum, 91 heteranthum, 224 ornithorhyncum, 43

Ononis minutissima, 404 monophylla, 396

Opercularia, 38

Ophrys, 114 apifera, 360, 398 aranifera, 35, 42, 45, 238, 298, 383, 384, 385, 386, 398 insectifera, 27, 301, 382 fucifera, 506

Opuntia, 81, 113, 149, 180 fragilis, 107, 178 monacantha, 178 Salmiana, 107, 178, 179

ORCHIDACEÆ, 27, 34, 42, 91, 112, 114, 128, 138, 150, 153, 209, 223, 290, 345, 360, 366, 367, 380-387, 397

Orchis, 138, 150, 153, 154, 227, 296 conopsea, 238 latifolia, 238 mascula, 153, 154, 238, 299, 387, 506 militaris, 387 Morio, 238, 382, 384, 387, 506 palustris, 366 papilionacea, 238 pyramidalis, 128, 238, 506 sambucina, 63, 66 simia, 238

Ornithogalum, 114, 360, 365, 367 longebracteatum, 171

OROBANCHACEÆ, 137

Orobanche, 73, 137, 209, 296, 505 gracilis, 442

Orobus, 295 vernus, 502 viscosus, 502

Ouvirandra, 458

OXALIDACEÆ, 403

Oxalis, 295, 329, 404, 459 Acetosella, 404 carnea, 502

P.

Pæonia, 295, 300, 364, 399, 407 Moutan, 500 officinalis, 261 paradoxa, 500 tenuiflora, 500

PALMACEÆ, 155

Panax, 331

Papaver, 289, 295, 297, 473 bracteatum, 28, 304, 310, 500 nudicaule, 310 orientale, 250

Papaver Rhoeas, 429, 458, 500 somniferum, 28, 305, 310, 500

PAPAVERACEÆ, 99, 500

PAPILIONACEÆ, 397, 502, see _Leguminosæ_

Paris quadrifolia, 31, 358, 360, 367, 396

Paritium, 137

Parnassia, 364

Paronychia serpyllifolia, 473

Parthenium inodorum, 243

Passiflora, 137, 201, 301, 365, 463, 473 coerulea, 185 palmata, 185 quadrangularis, 181

PASSIFLORACEÆ, 137

Pastinaca, 82 sativa, 272

Pavia, 137

Pedicularis, 238 euphrasioides, 238 sylvatica, 44, 223, 226, 238

Peganum, 363

Pelargonium, 22, 23, 25, 63, 107, 113, 208, 221, 225, 295, 336, 360, 373, 389, 418, 419, 434 grandiflorum, 86 inquinans, 30, 226 zonale, 106, 226, 501

Peltaria, 137 alliacea, 250, 251, 252

Pentstemon, 226, 455

Pereskia, 107, 113, 149 Bleo, 179

Perilla, 459

Persica (_Amygdalus_) vulgaris, 44, 250, 252, 503

Petalostylis, 296

Petunia, 254, 256, 291, 296 nyctaginiflora, 505 violacea, 34, 44, 250, 253, 505

Phaius grandiflorus, 107, 509, 510

Phalænopsis, 238 amabilis, 227 equestris, 231, 238 Schilleriana, 224

Pharbitis, 73

Phaseolus, 21, 298, 364

PHILADELPHACEÆ, 113, 137, 149

Philadelphus, 113, 137, 142, 149, 295, 364, 367 coronarius, 503 speciosus, 178, 298

Philyra brasiliensis, 198

Phleum, 115, 138 phalaroides, 169 pratense, 325

Phlomis, 138 biloba, 72 fruticosa, 119, 238

Phlox, 73

Phoenix dactylifera, 318

Phylica, 325

Phyllanthus longifolius, 198

Phyllarthron, 64, 396

Phyteuma odoratum, 271 orbiculare, 20 spicatum, 166, 252

Phytolacca, 20

Picea, see _Abies_ Lowii, 203 nobilis, 203 Nordmanniana, 203 Webbiana, 203

Picrasma, 509

Pimpinella magna, 66 Saxifragra, 66

Pinckneya, 429

Pinus, 11, 19, 114, 318, 346, 471, (see _Abies_, _Larix_, _Cedrus_) alba, 192 pinea, 90, 218 Pinaster, 13, 21 sylvestris, 21, 349

Pistacia Lentiscus, 197

Pisum, 137, 295 sativum, 27, 30, 31, 95, 166, 302, 372, 432, 472, 502, 510

Platycodon, 296 grandiflorum, 504

PLANTAGINACEÆ, 114

Plantago, 114, 136 Coronopus, 458 lanceolata, 61, 104, 108, 110, 111, 243 media, 20, 111 major, 65, 108, 109, 111, 243, 372, 374 maritima, 108

Platanus, 50

Plectranthus fruticosus, 238

PLUMBAGINACEÆ, 114

Plumbago, 360

Poa alpina, 169 annua, 169 bulbosa, 169 pratensis, 169 trivialis, 169

Podalyria myrtillifolia, 44

Podocarpus, 426

Podophyllum, 295 peltatum, 500

Podospermum laciniatum, 247, 250

Poggendorffia, 294

Pogonia ophioglossoides, 238, 386

Poinsettia, 340

Polemonium coeruleum, 20, 66, 253, 305, 310, 404

Polianthes, 296

Polygala vulgaris, 399

POLYGONACEÆ, 114, 138, 150

Polygonatum anceps, 42, 45 multifolium, 23, 31

Polygonum, 114, 365 orientale, 31, 390 viviparum, 106, 169

Polypodium anomalum, 190

POMACEÆ, 70, 71, 77, 79, 142, 405, 503

Pomaderris elliptica, 355

Pomax, 38

Populus, 202, 309 alba, 66

Portulaca, 295

Potamogeton, 329 bifolium, 434

Potentilla, 139, 140, 149, 295, 374, 438 alpestris, 503 argentea, 280 anserina, 503 major, 374 nepalensis, 250, 252, 275, 280 reptans, 503 Tormentilla, 503

Poterium, 113 Sanguisorba, 107 polygamum, 281

Primula, 71, 73, 114, 121, 138, 150, 296, 335, 360, 365, 367 acaulis (see _vulgaris_), 45, 248, 250, 308, 310, 377, 504 Auricula, 45, 133, 271, 282, 504 denticulata, 20, 504 elatior, 45, 250, 504 calycanthema, 283 imperialis, 103 officinalis, 250, 283 prænitens, 271, 504 (see _sinensis_) sinensis, 24, 45, 95, 98, 103, 133, 253, 256, 262, 263, 271, 281, 297, 314, 315, 389, 429, 441, 449 variabilis, 104 veris, 17, 20, 35, 39, 45, 105, 164 villosa, 504 vulgaris, 17, 70, 106 (see _acaulis_ and _officinalis_)

PRIMULACEÆ, 98, 114, 118, 121, 133, 138, 150, 262, 339, 366, 504

Prismatocarpus, 114, 150, 178

Prunella vulgaris, 226

Prunus, 137, 203, 295, 300, 360, 364, 367 (see _Cerasus_, _Amygdalus_, _Persica_) Armeniaca, 44 Cerasus, 74 domestica, 366, 464 Lauro Cerasus, 21, 446 spinosa, 44

Prunus sylvestris, 21

Pseudostachyum polymorphum, 168

Psittacanthus, 371

Ptelea, 364

Pterandra, 290

Pteridophyllum, 331

Pterisanthes, 328

Pteris quadriaurita, 333

Punica Granatum, 21, 295, 325

Pyrethrum, 114 inodorum, 431 Parthenium, 339

Pyrus, 82, 107, 113, 121, 137, 149, 203 communis (Pear), 36, 66, 162, 178, 422, 423, 503 dioica, 304 japonica, 161 Malus (Apple), 44, 78, 79, 166, 210, 250, 282, 295, 310, 325, 327, 375, 406, 420, 503 spectabilis, 508 torminalis, 325

Q.

Quercus, 51 Cerris, 66 pubescens, 66

R.

Raphanus sativus, 161, 252, 327, 360, 369

RANUNCULACEÆ, 113, 122, 136, 148, 195, 246, 339, 410, 499

Ranunculus, 19, 55, 113, 119, 258, 288, 295, 296, 297, 360, 367, 407 aconitifolius, 500 acris, 67, 250, 436, 500 aquatilis, 458 asiaticas, 500 auricomus, 195, 285, 397, 406, 461, 469 bulbosus, 17, 20, 44, 195, 406, 500 bullatus, 500 Ficaria, 70, 96, 195, 261, 368, 406 fluitans, 433, 437 gramineus, 500 Lingua, 44, 67 Philonotis, 20, 339 tripartitus, 20, 46 repens, 23, 252, 261, 500

RESEDACEÆ, 137, 148

Reseda, 67, 137, 141, 148 lutea, 252, 271 Luteola, 61, 112, 399 odorata, 20, 44, 280 Phyteuma, 252, 261

RESTIACEÆ, 115, 167, 189, 350, 463

Restio, 115, 194

Rhamnus catharticus, 463 Frangula, 280

Rhinanthus crista galli, 238

Rhodiola rosea, 197

Rhodora, 73

Rhododendron, 72, 73, 91, 133, 137, 176, 289, 290, 296, 453 indicum, 504 linearilobum, 72

Rhus Cotinus, 62, 66, 348, 409, 467, 472 Toxicodendron, 66

Ribes, 296 nigrum, 66, 296 sanguineum, 503

Richardia æthiopica, 337, 358

Ricinus communis, 198, 300

Ricotiana, 364

Robinia, 365 Pseudacacia, 44, 204, 317, 325, 396

ROSACEÆ, 70, 71, 77, 80, 113, 121, 122, 137, 149, 246, 274, 405, 406, 502

Rosa, 21, 77, 79, 82, 113, 121, 130, 137, 139, 149, 151, 152, 162, 176, 184, 185, 186, 204, 246, 247, 250, 257, 258, 262, 271, 274, 288, 289, 295, 367, 368, 394, 473, 502 alpina, 209 arvensis, 307, 310, 404 Banksiæ, 502 berberifolia, 396 canina, 502 centifolia, 31, 502 Carolina, 502 cinnamomea, 502 damascena, 502 diversifolia, 280 Eglanteria, 502 gallica, 31, 502 indica, 502 moschata, 502 nivea, 502 pimpinellifolia, 502 rubiginosa, 502 spinosissima, 502 sulphurea, 502

RUBIACEÆ, 45, 80

Rubia tinctorum, 322, 325

Rubus, 137, 252, 279, 399, 406, 429, 465 arcticus, 67 cæsius, 281, 285, 502 corylifolius, 502 fruticosus, 66, 281, 374, 380, 461, 502 Idæus, 396 rosifolius, 502

Rudbeckia, 82, 114, 127

Ruellia clandestina, 403, 404

Rumex, 45, 138, 150, 325 arifolius, 278, 281 crispus, 304, 310, 448 scutatus, 278, 281, 431

Ruscus, 328, 470 aculeatus, 60, 318, 348, 445

Russellia juncea, 20

RUTACEÆ, 137, 149

Ruta, 363, 367, 371

S.

Sagina, 397 procumbens, 501

Sagittaria, 296, 329 latifolia, 507 sagittifolia, 325, 507

Salisburia adiantifolia, 61

Salix, 166, 168, 244, 310, 326, 349 babylonica, 202, 257, 262, 299, 309, 326 calyculata, 29 capræa, 271, 299 cinerea, 41, 45, 189, 299 fragilis, 357 monandra, 29 nigricans, 299 pendula, 357 repens, 194 silesiaca, 299 vitellina, 21

Salpiglossis straminea, 44

Salvia, 226 officinalis, 66 pratensis, 36 Verbenaca, 87

Sambucus, 296, 359, 360, 365, 367 nigra, 21, 55, 66, 164, 325, 396 racemosa, 66

Sanguinaria, 295 canadensis, 500

Sanguisorba, 113 officinalis, 107

SANTALACEÆ, 122, 138, 150

SAPINDACEÆ, 137, 448

Saponaria, 28, 67, 76, 149, 295, 297, 300, 360, 379 officinalis, 97, 301, 501

Sarothamnus, 360, 363 Scoparius, 363

Saxifraga, 33, 44, 106, 113, 296, 390 crassifolia, 307, 310 decipiens, 288 foliosa, 281 granulata, 298, 504 irrigua, 20 longifolia, 404

Saxifraga mutata, 20

SAXIFRAGACEÆ, 80, 81

Scabiosa, 35, 106, 114, 138, 141, 296, 297, 429 agrestis, 252 arvensis, 325 atropurpurea, 62, 66 Columbaria, 252, 281

Scandix, 125

Schismatopera distichophylla, 194

Schoenodorus, 364 _adnot_

Schoenus cephalotes, 245

Schoenodon, 365

Sciadopitys verticillata, 352

Scilla, 296 autumnalis, 507 nutans, 507

Scirpus lacustris, 325

Scolopendrium D'Urvillei, 332 vulgare, 64, 314, 326, 328, 459, 467

Scorzonera, 19 octangularis, 247, 250

Scrophularia, 114, 455, 463 aquatica, 226, 238, 262, 281 arguta, 334 nodosa, 44, 106, 281

SCROPHULARIACEÆ, 114, 121, 137, 150, 222, 505

Secale cereale, 55, 115

Sechium edule, 81, 202

Sedum cristatum, 18, 20 reflexum, 20

Selenipedium caudatum, 224, 227

Selinum, 82, 114 caruifolium, 281

Sempervivum, 105, 113, 204, 509 montanum, 310 sediforme, 164 tectorum, 292 _adnot_, 308, 310

Senecio, 44, 114 vulgaris, 247, 250, 252, 339, 432, 437, 439, 457

Serissa, 296, 377, 504

Sesamum, 365 indicum, 238

Seseli, 113, 281 coloratum, 166

Sideritis, 238, 365

Silaus, 113, 365

Silene, 44, 137, 148, 295, 301 conica, 68 Otites, 464 inflata, 501

Sinapis, 57, 136, 270, 295, 371 arvensis, 181, 250, 261, 264, 271, 280, 501

Sinningia purpurea, 431

Sisymbrium, 136 officinale, 250, 261, 271, 280

Sisymbrium tenuifolium, 252

Slateria, 74

SOLANACEÆ, 150, 430, 505

Solanum, 73, 125, 150, 296, 360, 365, 367, 370, 424, 453 amazonicum, 430 Dulcamara, 66, 288, 430, 504 esculentum, 74 cornutum, 430 Lycopersicum, 38, 44, 74, 171, 391, 442 tridynamum, 430 tuberosum, 54, 142, 288, 333, 420 Vespertilio, 430

Sophora, 55

Spartianthus, 295 junceus, 502

Spartium, 295 junceum, 18, 21 Scoparium, 21

Spathiphyllum, 245

Spilanthes, 138, 365 oleracea, 44

Spinacia oleracea, 31, 197

Spiræa, 21, 137, 295 Filipendula, 503 oblongifolia, 252 prunifolia, 503 Reevesii, 503 strobilacea, 503 Ulmaria, 503

Spiranthes, 319

Splachnum vasculosum, 49

Stachys, 138, 339, _adnot_ germanica, 310 lanata, 375 sylvatica, 74, 253, 271, 281

Stackhousia juncea, 334

Stangeria paradoxa, 172

Stapelia, 20

Staphylea pinnata, 30

Stauntonia latifolia, 194

Stellaria, 148, 404, 406 media, 271, 279, 280

STELLATÆ, 396, 408

STERCULIACEÆ, 362, 464

Sterculia platanifolia, 20, 256

Sternbergia, 296 lutea, 506

Stratiotes aloides, 406

Strelitzia juncea, 459 regina, 25

Streptocarpus Rexii, 15, 44, 226, 227, 461

Strophanthus, 326

Suaeda, 365 fruticosa, 430 maritima, 20, 21

Suregada, 198

Symphoricarpus racemosus, 66

Symphyomyrtus, 38

Symphytum, 71, 138, 365 officinale, 253, 262, 263, 271 Zeyheri, 271

Syringa, 296, 360, 367 persica, 44, 61, 66, 284, 505 vulgaris, 79, 505

T.

Tabernæmontana, 296 coronaria, 504

Tacsonia pinnatistipula, 294

Tamus communis, 21

Taraxacum, 164 (see _Leontodon_)

Taxodium, 114 distichum, 444

Taxus baccata, 11, 21, 90

Tetragonia, 113 expansa, 142, 180

TETRAGONIACEÆ, 149

Teucrium campanulatum, 226, 233, 238

Thalictrum, 205, 500 minus, 307, 310

Thea, 295, 502

Thelymitra, 224

Thesium, 121, 123, 138, 150

Thlaspi arvense, 250, 271 bursa-pastoris, 252, 428

Thuja occidentalis, 319 orientalis, 21

Thymus Serpyllum, 325, 405, 406

Thysselinum, 137, 365 palustre, 437, 457

Tigridia, 360, 361, 365 Pavonia, 35, 462

Tilia asplenifolia, 66, 459 europæa, 22, 30, 65 parvifolia, 66

Tiliaceæ, 137, 362

Tithonia, 26

Tofieldia, 296 calyculata, 300

Torenia scabra, 406

Torilis, 82, 149 Anthriscus, 256, 271, 281, 339, 406, 441, 442

Tradescantia, 245, 296, 360, 365, 367, 404 virginica, 88, 507

Tragopogon, 19, 20, 73, 114, 431 orientale, 250 pratense, 247, 250, 442, 457

Trapa natans, 202, 364

Trichostomum rigidulum, 49

Trifolium, 106, 113, 121, 137, 139, 149, 295, 360, 364

Trifolium hybridum, 262, 399, 406, 407 pratense, 20 repens, 20, 23, 68, 70, 98, 145, 146, 226, 231, 238, 250, 252, 256, 260, 262, 265, 271, 276, 279, 356, 368, 397, 399, 406, 407, 434, 436, 438, 502 resupinatum, 20

Trillium grandiflorum, 507, 510

Trinia vulgaris, 405

Triphasia aurantiaca, 369

Triticum, 86, 115, 350, 391 repens, 106, 325 vulgare, 55, 113

Triumfetta, 137, 252, 259, 260, 262, 265, 271, 280

Trollius europæus, 66, 295, 500

TROPÆOLACEÆ, 149, 501

Tropæolum, 149, 398, 283 majus, 20, 222, 225, 226, 232, 238, 251, 252, 254, 256, 271, 280, 295, 310, 406, 442, 501 minus, 501

Tulipa, 35, 45, 67, 75, 84, 85, 138, 262, 300, 302, 348, 359, 360, 361, 365, 367, 388, 390, 421 Gesneriana, 31, 250, 310, 315, 442, 507 sylvestris, 507

Turritis, 271 glabra, 252

Typha, 189

U.

Ulex, 295, 360 europæus, 377, 502

Ulmus americana, 66 campestris, 31, 52, 62, 157, 325, 353, 427

UMBELLIFERÆ, 37, 71, 73, 80, 107, 113, 121, 127, 131, 132, 137, 139, 140, 143, 149, 150, 162, 244, 257, 261, 339, 358, 395, 405, 406, 407, 437, 439

Uredo candida, 279

URTICACEÆ, 114

Urtica dioica, 62, 66, 194

Usteria, 283

V.

Vaccinium, 68

Valantia cruciata, 44

VALERIANACEÆ, 114

Valeriana, 114, 165, 419 dioica, 325 officinalis, 325

Valisneria spiralis, 319, 433

Verbascum, 73, 116, 137, 225, 253, 430 australe, 35 nigrum, 226, 251 phlomoides, 281 Thapsus, 404

Verbena, 67, 68, 506

Veronica, 60, 150, 296, 334, 360, 361, 365, 375, 505 austriaca, 66 Beccabunga, 468 Chamædrys, 442 latifolia, 459 longifolia, 325 spicata, 325, 374

Viburnum, 44, 296, 417 Opulus, 473

Vicia, 30, 365, 369, 472 Faba, 434

Vinca, 137, 296 herbacea, 389 major, 505 minor, 44, 99, 358, 390, 505 rosea, 31

Viola, 23, 137, 225, 229, 289, 295, 297, 405 grandiflora, 501 hirta, 226, 238 odorata, 20, 94, 220, 226, 238, 286, 404, 429, 501, 508 tricolor, 461, 501

VIOLACEÆ, 137, 334, 403, 406, 500

Viscum album, 56, 369, 509

VITACEÆ, 137

Vitex incisa, 238

Vitis, 417 vinifera, 20, 29, 34, 44, 66, 137, 157, 182, 183, 211, 280, 374, 422, 424

W.

Wedelia perfoliata, 442

Weigela rosea, 358

Welwitschia, 162, _adnot_

Wildenovia, 115, 167, 168

Wistaria, 364 sinensis, 226

X.

Xanthosoma appendiculatum, 31

Xanthoxylum, 21

Xylophylla, 328

Y.

Yucca, 361 flexilis, 361

Z.

Zamia, 170

Zea Mays, 21, 113, 136, 191, 197, 300, 310, 350, 369, 466

Zingiber Zerumbet, 224, 227

Zinnia, 44 elegans, 20

Zygopetalum maxillare, 398

ERRATA.

The reader is requested to make the following corrections:--

Page 182. Fig. 94 should be 94*.

Page 194. The reference 3 applies not to the nutmeg but to the hop, figured at p. 193.

Page 309. Fig. 165 legend--for _Sempervivun tecotorum_ read _Sempervivum tectorum_.

PRINTED BY J. E. ADLARD, BARTHOLOMEW CLOSE.

Transcriber's Notes:

Page xx and 202: 208. Passage of pinnate to palmate leaves in horse-chesnut 439 'chesnut may be old spelling for chestnut?'. Changed as most are spelled chestnut.

Page 65: Naturforscherversammlung Changed Naturvorschefversamlung to Naturforscherversammlung to match other occurrence. (See footnote 528).

Page 145: So far as the andraecium is concerned, the stamens Changed to androecium to match other occurrences.

Page 149: Echinocactus changed from Echinocatus to match other occurrences.

Page 397: The species mentioned are _Ambrina ambrosiodes_, Changed to ambrosioides to match index page.

Page 502: Medicago sp., ? ., Europe. The ? mark replaces a blank in original for a missing attribution.

Page 503: ONAGRARIÆ changed to ONAGRACEÆ to match other occurrences, especially the index referrence.

Footnote 126: 'Neue Denkschriften der allgemeine Schweizerischen Gesellschaft,' Perhaps this should be: allgemeinen. Unchanged.

Index Alströmeria, 319, 326 Changed to Alstroemeria to match referenced pages.

DIPSACACEÆ, 86, 107, 114, 138 All dipsaceæ changed to dipsacaceæ to match index and current spelling.

Errata changes listed were made.

Inconsistent hyphenation: co-existent and coexistent Lauro-cerasus and Laurocerasus mid-rib and midrib outgrowth and out-growth