Part 7

Useful and even indispensable as many of the domestic animals of this country are to us, the rein-deer is infinitely more so to the Laplander. For travelling, and the conveyance of heavy burdens in sledges and carriages, he supplies the place of the horse; and such is the speed with which he traverses the frozen snows of that dreary region, that he is able, with ease, to perform a journey of near a hundred miles in one day. To this labour the animals are trained from the earliest period of their lives: and neither darkness nor storms can essentially impede their progress. The usual mode of travelling is in sledges, to which one or more of the animals are yoked. The sledges are extremely light, somewhat shaped like a boat, having at the back an upright board for the driver to lean against. Being rounded and not flat underneath, much dexterity is requisite in the balancing and management of them. The driver is tied in, and protected by a cover which encloses all the lower parts of his body, and shelters him from the inclemency of the weather. The rein-deer is yoked by a collar, from which a trace is brought under the belly between the legs, and fastened to the fore part of the sledge; and the animal is guided by a cord or rein fastened to its horns, and tied to a hoop held upon the driver's right thumb. He directs the course of the deer by pulling the rein on the side he would have him go, encouraging him at the same time with his voice. In general, the Laplanders can travel with ease about thirty miles without stopping.

To persons unaccustomed to the habits of the Laplanders and their animals, it will appear wonderful that they should be able to travel during the winter, by night as well as by day, the earth presenting one uniform surface of snow, and not a single vestige of human industry and labour being discernible to direct their course; the snow, at the same time, flying about in all directions, and almost blinding them. Yet it is certain that they are under no difficulty in finding the spot to which they are bound; and dangerous as these journeys may seem, they rarely experience any accident. When several persons are travelling in company, they fix bells to the harness of the animals, that the whole may be kept together by hearing when they cannot see each other, after the light of their short day has failed them. To guide them in their course, the Laplanders observe, in the day-time, the quarter whence the wind blows, and, at night, they are directed by the position of the stars. The missionary Leems, who resided ten years amongst the Laplanders, remarks that, during the whole of that time, he did not remember more than one fatal accident to have occurred from this mode of travelling.

As the rein-deer supplies, to the Laplanders, the place of a horse for conveyance and carriage, so it is an invaluable substitute for the cow in affording them food. The females supply them with _milk_, each yielding about as much as a common she-goat. This, though not so thick as the milk of the cow, is said to be sweeter and more nutritive: and produces them both butter and cheese. The mountain Laplander subsists, through the whole winter, upon these, or upon _flesh_ of the rein-deer, slaughtering two or three every week, according to the number of his family. The animals are killed by stabbing them in the neck, and the wound is so dexterously inflicted that no _blood_ flows from it; but this is found in the inside, whence it is carefully taken out, and prepared for use. The _fat_ of the rein-deer serves also for food.

Of the _skin_, after it has been properly prepared, the Laplanders make garments, gloves, shoes, and caps, which cover them from head to foot, and protect them against the cold. These skins also serve as interior coverings for tents, as linings and coverings for sledges, and as beds. They are more or less valuable, according to the season in which the animals have been killed. If slain in the spring, the hides are found to be perforated, in various parts, by a species of insect which lays its eggs in them; but if the deer be killed in winter the skin is free from these defects. The Laplander, however, desirous of obtaining the same price for a defective skin as for a perfect one, frequently attempts to defraud the purchaser by artfully closing up the holes in such manner as to render them scarcely visible.

The _horns_ are converted into handles for different kinds of instruments, and an excellent glue is made of them. The _bones_ are likewise of use; and the _sinews_ or tendons of the legs, after having been held before the fire and beaten with wooden hammers, are divided into filaments as fine as hair, which answer all the purposes of thread; and these filaments twisted together, serve for bowstrings and cords of different kinds.

So numerous and important are the uses of the rein-deer in Lapland, that there are few inhabitants of that country who do not possess them; and some of the wealthiest Laplanders have herds consisting of more than 1000 head. In the summer-time these feed on divers plants which flourish during that season; but, in winter, they either browze on the rein-deer liverwort (_Lichen rangiferinus_), which they dig up from beneath the snow with their feet and horns; or on another kind of liverwort, which hangs on the branches of fir-trees, and which affords them sustenance when the snows are too deep or too hard frozen to allow them to reach that.

Wild rein-deer live in the mountains and woods, and the hunting of them is, in general, attended with excessive fatigue; as they are endowed with astonishing muscular powers, and also possess a nicety and acuteness of precaution which can scarcely be equalled. Some idea may be formed of the difficulty of this pursuit, when it is stated that a Laplander, in chase of one of these animals, has been known to creep on his hands and knees through shrubs and moss, for nearly five miles, before he could approach within gun-shot of his prey. The various modes in which rein-deer are pursued, are too numerous and too intricate to require a detail in this place. It may be sufficient to say that they are assailed by dogs, traps, pitfalls, snares, cross-bows, and fire-arms, in all the ways which the inventive art of man can devise.

83. _The STAG, or RED DEER_ (Cervus elaphus, Fig. 9), _is a large species of deer, generally of reddish brown colour on the upper parts of the body, and white beneath; with large and much branched horns, rounded through their whole length._

_The males only are horned. The males is called_ stag, _or_ hart, _the female_ hind, _and the young one has the name of_ fawn.

_Red deer are found in the mountainous parts of Scotland; in the forest of Martindale, Cumberland; in the New Forest, Hampshire; in the woods on the river Tamar, in Devonshire; and amongst the mountains of Kerry in Ireland. On the Continent of Europe and in several parts of Asia and North America, they are very common._

The hunting of these animals was formerly considered one of the most important occupations of the English nobility, and, during the Saxton Heptarchy, it was the privileged pursuit of the sovereign and his court. By the kings of the Norman line laws of the most sanguinary description were enacted for the preservation of these the royal game, it being then deemed less criminal to destroy an individual of the human species than a beast of chase. Forests were enlarged for the shelter of wild animals, and for the more ample enjoyment of the diversion of hunting, at the expense of every principle of justice and humanity. Happily for us, the scenes of devastation which this pursuit occasioned have long ceased to exist; and those vast tracts of country which were once dedicated to hunting, are now, for the most part, applied to the advantages and comfort of man.

As, therefore, the breed of red deer is now chiefly preserved in this kingdom from motives of curiosity, rather than either an object of amusement or utility, we are indebted almost wholly to foreign countries for those parts of the stag which are important in a commercial, economical, and medical view. The _skins_ are manufactured into an excellently soft, and somewhat yellow-coloured leather, which is useful for numerous purposes. Many very extraordinary medicinal virtues were formerly attributed to the _horns_ of the stag, and indeed to nearly all parts of its body: but the experience of late years gives no countenance to them. The horns are of nearly the same nature as bones, and the preparations of them, by heat, are similar to those of solid animal substances in general. Consequently the articles denominated _spirit of hartshorn_, and _salt of hartshorn_, though formerly obtained only from the horns of different species of deer, are now chiefly prepared from bones. The former of these, which is a volatile alkali of very penetrating nature, is an efficacious remedy in nervous complaints and fainting fits; and salt of hartshorn has been successfully prescribed in fevers. The scrapings or raspings of the horns, under the name of _hartshorn shavings_, are variously employed in medicine. Boiled in water, the horns of deer give out an emollient _jelly_ which is said to be remarkably nutritive. _Burnt hartshorn_ is employed in medicine. The horns of the stag are used by cutlers and other mechanics for the handles of knives and for cutting instruments of different kinds. The _flesh_ of every species of deer has the name of _venison_; that of the young red deer is very delicate eating, that of the female is by no means bad, but that of the full-grown stag has a strong and disagreeable flavour.

These animals generally live in herds that consist of females, with their offspring, headed by one male, and they inhabit the wildest and most unfrequented parts of forests, browzing on grass, and on the leaves and buds of trees. They have a penetrating sight, and an exquisite smell, and are always on guard against the approach of danger. Their disposition, when unprovoked, is mild and peaceable; but if attacked, they prove extremely formidable opponents. The females produce their offspring (generally one each) about the end of May, or the beginning of June.

84. _The FALLOW DEER_ (Cervus dama, Fig. 10) _is a considerably smaller animal than the stag, generally of brownish bay colour on the upper parts of the body and whitish beneath, with branched horns, bent backward, compressed and broad at their extremity._

_The males only are horned. The male of the fallow deer is called_ buck, _the female_ doe, _and the young one_ fawn.

_Common as these animals are in parks throughout every part of England, they are not found wild in this country. They, however, inhabit various forests of the Continent; even as far as the south of Persia._

There is no species of food in more general request by epicures and _bon-vivans_ than the _venison_ of the fallow deer. This, when properly dressed, is an excellent aliment, and easily assimilated to the human fluids; but when half putrid, as is generally the case, it is considered very detrimental to health. The best season for killing the _bucks_ for venison is from about the first of July to somewhat later than the middle of September; and that for the _does_ is from about the middle of November to the middle of February.

The does produce one, sometimes two, and rarely three young ones each, about the beginning of June; these, for the first year, are called by the park-keepers _fawns_, if, during that time, they have no horns; the second year, if the young one be a male, it is called a _pricket_; in the third year, a _sorel_, and in the ensuing year, a _sore_; when he attains his fifth year he has the name of _buck_, and is accounted fit to be killed; but if he be suffered to live a year or two longer, he will improve both in flesh and fatness. If the young one be a female it is called during the first year, a _fawn_, during the second a _teg_, and, after that, it takes its proper name of _doe_. Such does as are intended to be killed in their season are either what have had no fawns in the preceding summer, or have had these killed and taken away.

The _horns_ of fallow deer are used for all the same purposes as those of the stag (83); and their hides, under the name of _buck-skin_ and _doe-skin_, have long been celebrated for their softness and pliability; and the manufacturing of them into breeches and gloves affords subsistence to a very numerous and industrious class of people.

Extensive herds of fallow deer associate together in large parks. These animals are less savage than red deer, yet when offended they often become ferocious. They feed on several kinds of vegetables, and on the leaves, bark, and young branches of trees; many of which, particularly hollies, are cut down, by park-keepers, in the severe weather of winter, for their subsistence.

85. _The ROE or ROE-BUCK_ (Cervus capreolus) _is a small species of deer, not more than two feet and half high at the shoulder, of reddish brown colour, which has short erect horns, divided towards their extremity into two or three points._

_The males only have horns._

_Small flocks of these animals are found wild in several of the mountainous districts of Scotland, and also in the mountainous woods of Germany, Switzerland, and other parts of the continent of Europe, as well as in those of North America._

In some countries the _venison_ of the roe is esteemed, during the proper season, equal to that of any other species of deer. There is, however, a great difference in it, according to the country in which the animals have fed, and the different races or varieties of the animals themselves. The flesh also of the bucks which have passed their second year is said to be tough and not well flavoured, whilst that of the does, though of much greater age, is tender. Those animals that are fed in parks, plains, and valleys, are also greatly inferior to such as have resided among mountains.

In America the _skins_ of roes are an important object of commerce. They are very light, and are capable, for some time, of resisting the effects of moisture. Of these skins the American Indians make bags or bottles, in which they are able to keep oil, honey, butter, and other similar substances. They are also converted into clothing, and are sometimes dressed as furs, but the hair soon falls off. The _hair_ itself is valuable for the stuffing of horse-collars and saddles, and it has the advantage of not becoming knotty like that of the ox. The _horns_ are used in making handles for knives and for other purposes.

86. _The CHAMOIS_ (Antilope rupicapra, Fig. 11) _is a kind of antelope about the size of a goat, with short, erect, round, and smooth horns, which are hooked backward at the tips._

_Its colour is dusky yellowish brown on the upper parts of the body, with the cheeks, chin, throat, and belly, yellowish white. The horns, which are common to both the sexes, are generally about eight inches in length, but shorter in the female than the male._

_These animals inhabit many of the mountainous parts of Europe, particularly the Alps and Pyrenees._

There are few pursuits more arduous and difficult than the hunting of the chamois. Being wholly confined to rocky and mountainous situations, dogs are nearly useless in it; and such are the sagacity and acuteness of perception of these animals, that they take alarm at the most distant approach of danger, and the stratagems which are practised to come within gun-shot of them are almost innumerable. They associate in flocks consisting of from four or five to nearly a hundred in number; and, when alarmed, they are able to spring, at a single leap, up rocks the perpendicular height of which is more than twenty feet, and in this case, by a few bounds, they throw themselves entirely out of the reach of their pursuers. If hard pressed, they will sometimes turn upon the hunter and attack him with fury; and instances have been related of men, thus attacked, having been thrown down precipices and destroyed by them.

The chief objects of this pursuit are the _flesh_ and the _skin_. The former is, in general, a nutritious and wholesome food, and the latter is useful in numerous ways. When dressed, it forms a soft, warm, and pliable leather, which has the name of _shammoy_, and is manufactured into breeches, vests, and gloves, that are very durable and are much used by the labouring classes of people on the Continent. Of late years, however, the art of tanning has been brought to so much perfection, that excellent shammoy leather is made from the skins of the goat, the sheep, and the deer. The _horns_ of the chamois are often cut into heads for canes, and the farriers of the Continent sometimes sharpen and use them for the bleeding of cattle. The _blood_ of these animals is used medicinally, and, in Switzerland, is a celebrated nostrum for the cure of pleurisy and some other complaints.

87. _The COMMON ANTELOPE_ (Antilope cervicapra, Fig. 12) _is a quadruped distinguished by having spiral, round, and expanded horns, each marked with a great number of prominent rings; and the body of a brown colour, clouded with whitish and dusky shades and marks_.

_It is found in several parts of Africa and India._

One mode of hunting these and some other species of antelope is by the hunting leopard and the ounce, but the most frequent mode of killing them is with guns.

Their _skins_ are sometimes dressed with the hair on, and sometimes as leather; and the _flesh_ constitutes an excellent kind of venison. The _horns_ are convertible to nearly all the same purposes as the horns of the different kinds of deer; and they are also occasionally used as weapons.

88. _The COMMON GOAT_ (Capra ægagrus, Fig. 13) _is distinguished by having hollow, compressed, and rough horns, which grow first upright, and then bend backward._

_Both the male and female are horned._

_These animals are found wild in many of the mountainous countries of the European continent, of Africa, Persia, and India._

In many parts of Europe the goat is an animal essentially serviceable to the necessities and the comforts of mankind; affording even during its life, though fed on the most barren and uncultivated grounds, an abundant supply of milk and cheese.

Goats' _milk_ is not only considered to be thicker, but to have a richer flavour than that of the cow; and, in some situations, especially on ship-board, where the goat thrives better than any other animal, it is peculiarly valuable. This creature eats readily every sort of refuse vegetables, and is kept at little expense. In a medicinal view goat's milk is an useful substitute for that of asses. It is of very peculiar nature, as its oily and coagulate parts do not separate spontaneously; they throw up no cream, and yield scarcely any butter. But this milk affords a very large proportion of _cheese_. Hence, in Switzerland, and other mountainous countries best adapted to the pasturage of goats, cheese is the chief produce of the dairies.

The flesh of the _goat_, when full grown, is rank, hard, and indigestible; yet, in some countries, it is eaten both in a fresh and salted state. That of the kid is peculiarly rich, and, by many persons, is considered even preferable to lamb.

When properly tanned, the _skin_ of the goat is manufactured into gloves and other articles of dress. There is a way of preparing these skins by maceration, so as to separate the surface or grain from the coarse under parts, after which they are dyed of various colours for different uses.

_Morocco leather_ is chiefly made from the skins of goats, tanned and dyed in a peculiar manner. The manufacture of this leather was originally invented in the kingdom of Morocco, whence it has its name. The colours that are chiefly communicated to it are red and yellow, the former of which is produced by cochineal, and the latter by a yellow kind of berries. Morocco leather is also dyed black, green, and blue. Until within the last few years, the consumers of this kind of leather in England have depended wholly on a foreign supply: there are now, however, several manufactories of it in the neighbourhood of London, from which the most beautiful moroccos may be had at prices that have superseded the necessity of importing it from abroad. For leather of inferior quality, and particularly for such as is to receive a yellow colour, sheeps' skins are often substituted. The reason why goats' skins have been principally adopted for the manufacture of morocco is, that they take the dye better, and that they are susceptible of richer and more beautiful colours, than those of any other animals.

Goat-skins, as well as the skins of sheep, are sometimes made into parchment. The _skins of kids_ are thin and of beautiful texture; they are consequently well adapted for ladies' gloves and shoes. On the Continent they are made into stockings, bed-ticks, and sometimes into hangings for beds, into sheets, and even into shirts.

Although the _fleece_ of the goat is by no means so valuable as that of the sheep, yet it has been found extremely useful. The long and shaggy coated goat, which is bred in many parts of this country, has, at the roots of the long hair, a fine and beautiful soft wool. The latter, though scarcely known to our manufacturers, has long been used in Russia for gloves, stockings, and other articles of dress, which are highly valuable. About a pound of this wool, in an unsorted state, was, some years ago, sent from Russia to be made into shawls. As the quantity was too small to admit of being manufactured into a web by itself, the chain was formed of silk, and the woof of yarn made from the goat's wool. The fabric, when completed, was compared with the finest Indian shawls; and, notwithstanding the hardness of the silken part, it was decidedly more soft and beautiful than any of these. Of the above-mentioned small quantity of wool three full-sized shawls and one waistcoat were made. Their colour was a dull white, with a delicate and scarcely perceptible glance of red through it; and their texture was so much admired, that Dr. Anderson, to whose care they were consigned, states, that if a hundred of them had been offered for sale, they would have produced at least twenty guineas each.

The _long hair_ of goats, particularly that of the males, is used by peruke-makers, for lawyers and judges' wigs. Previously to its being used, it goes through several processes of preparation. The fine hair of kids is sometimes employed in the manufacture of hats. Goat's hair is occasionally made into a strong and coarse kind of cloth.

Of the _horns_ of these animals the country people make handles for tucks, and knives of different kinds. The _fat_ or suet, which, in general, is very abundant, may be made into candles, which, in whiteness and quality, are greatly superior to those of the best tallow of the sheep and ox.

Goats are active and mischievous animals, of hardy nature, which delight in rocky and mountainous situations. They are sometimes very injurious to young plantations, from their propensity to peel and destroy the trees. The females usually have two, sometimes three, and rarely four young ones at a birth; and, in our climates, the duration of their life is said not often to exceed eleven or twelve years.