Part 15

When dotterels are best in season they are very fat and delicate eating.

There are several birds which are sold by the London poulterers under the appellation of _plovers_. These are chiefly the GOLDEN PLOVER (_Charadrius pluvialis_), the GREY SAND-PIPER (_Tringa squatorola_), and the GREEN SAND-PIPER (_Tringa ochropus_), all of which are much esteemed for the table.

180. _The LAND-RAIL, or CORN-CRAKE_ (Rallus crex), _is distinguished by having a short and strong bill, and the legs situated far back; the feathers of the back black, edged with bay, and the wings of a reddish rusty colour._

_The usual weight of these birds is from six to eight ounces. They are found, during summer, in corn-fields, but are migratory, and seldom seen after the middle of September._

The remarkable cry of "crek, crek, crek," uttered by these birds in meadows and corn-fields before the grass and corn are cut, is well known. It is heard from the thickest part of the herbage: and, when any person approaches the spot, so great is the rapidity with which they run, that it is, almost in an instant afterwards, heard forty or fifty paces distant.

When pursued by dogs, these birds persist in keeping upon the ground, and they may sometimes be taken even with the hand. They often stop short and squat, and the dog, overshooting the mark, loses his trace. When driven to the last extremity they rise, but they fly heavily, and generally with their legs hanging down. They do not fly far before they alight: they then run off, and, before the sportsman can reach the place, are at a considerable distance. Sometimes the land-rail will alight upon a hedge, in which case it will perch and sit motionless till the pursuer (who thinks it is upon the ground) almost touches it.

When they first appear these birds are quite lean, but, before their departure, they become so fat that the author of Rural Sports informs us he has frequently been obliged to wrap his handkerchief round them, when killed, to prevent the fat which exuded from the shot-holes from soiling other birds.

The females lay twelve or more eggs of reddish cinereous white colour, marked with rusty and ash-coloured spots and blotches. The nest is loosely formed of moss or dry grass, generally in some hollow place among thick grass.

ORDER VI.--SWIMMERS, OR ANSERES.

181. _The WILD SWAN, or HOOPER_ (Anas cygnus), _is distinguished from the tame swan (182) by having the cere or naked skin at the base of the bill yellow and not black; and being of smaller size._

_These birds are found in the northern parts of Europe, Asia, and America._

On several of the lochs or lakes of Scotland wild swans are very numerous; and they are known, at a great distance, by their cry, which is not much unlike the sound of a clarionet blown by a novice in music.

About the month of August these birds change their feathers, during which, in some countries, they are killed with clubs or hunted by dogs. Their _flesh_ is esteemed a wholesome and palatable food, and the _eggs_ are considered peculiarly delicious. Of the _skins_, which are used in England, with the down upon them, for muffs, tippets, and powder-puffs, the inhabitants of Iceland and Kamtschatka make garments of different kinds. The North American Indians sometimes weave the down into ornamental dresses; and form the large feathers into caps and plumes to decorate the heads of their warriors.

182. _The TAME Swan_ (Anas olor, Fig. 47), _the largest of all British birds, is distinguished from the wild swan (181) by its larger size, and by the cere or naked skin at the base of the bill being black and not yellow._

_It is an inhabitant both of Europe and Asia._

So highly were these beautiful and stately birds esteemed by our ancestors that, by an act of Edward the Fourth, no person who possessed a freehold of less yearly value than five marks was permitted to keep them. At this day the stealing of swans is considered a felonious act; and there is a penalty for stealing the eggs, of twenty shillings each.

Swans were formerly served up at almost every great feast. At Archbishop Neville's feast in the reign of Edward the Fourth, there were no fewer than 400 of these birds. At present, the _cygnets_, or young swans, only are eaten. Considerable numbers of these are annually fattened near Norwich, about Christmas, and chiefly for the table of the corporation of that city.

The nest of the swan is formed, about the month of February, of grass, and generally among reeds near the water. The eggs are six or eight in number, of large size and white colour.

183. _The WILD GOOSE_ (Anas anser) _is distinguished by having a somewhat cylindrical bill, the body ash-coloured above and paler beneath, and the neck striate._

_Large flocks of wild geese frequent all the fenny districts of England, and are also found in the northern parts of the continents of Europe, Asia, and America._

These birds are killed on account of their _flesh_ which is an excellent and nutritive food; and they are the stock from which our common or _tame geese_ have been obtained.

Vast numbers of the latter are kept in the fens of Lincolnshire, and other parts of England, and chiefly for the sake of their quills and feathers. Of these they are unmercifully stripped, whilst alive, once every year for the former, and five times for the latter. The _quills_, or large feathers of the wings, are termed firsts, seconds, and thirds, from the order in which they grow. The last two kinds are those principally used in writing, on account of the larger size of their barrels. And as the utility and value of quills, in the making of pens, greatly depend on their firmness and elasticity, different expedients have been contrived to harden them. The most simple of these is to thrust the barrels, for a few moments, into hot sand or ashes, afterwards to press them almost flat with a penknife, and then to restore their roundness by the fingers, with the assistance of a piece of leather or woollen cloth, removing at the same time their external roughness by the friction. But when great numbers are to be prepared, other methods are adopted. Aqua-fortis is frequently employed in the preparation of quills, by which they are stained a yellow colour.

All the best _feathers_ that are used in this country for making beds, bolsters, and pillows, are those of geese: and such as are obtained in the county of Somerset are generally esteemed the best. Great quantities of goose and other feathers are annually imported from the north of Europe; but these being insufficient for the demand, the feathers of cocks and hens, and also of ducks and turkeys, all of which are much inferior to those of geese, are frequently mixed with them. The best mode of preserving feathers is to expose them, in a room, to the rays of the sun; and, as soon as they are thoroughly dried, to put them loosely into bags, in which they should be well beaten to cleanse them from dust and filth. Of late years feathers have been manufactured into hats.

The usual weight of a fine goose is fifteen or sixteen pounds, but it is scarcely credible how far this weight may be increased, by cramming the birds with bean-meal, and other fattening diet. It some places it is customary to nail them to the floor by the webs of the feet, to prevent any possibility of action, and thus to fatten them the more readily. In Vienna the _livers_ of geese are esteemed a great delicacy. They are eaten stewed, and some of the German poulterers have a method of making them grow to an enormous size.

In the choosing of geese for the table, care should be taken that the feet and legs be yellow, which is an indication of the bird's being young: the legs of old geese are red. If recently killed, the legs will be pliable, but if stale they will generally be found dry and stiff.

These birds are denominated _green geese_ until they are three or four months old; and, at this immature age, they are held by many persons in great esteem for the table.

Besides the present, there are several other species of goose, which are useful on account of their quills and feathers, and likewise as supplying mankind with food.

184. _The WILD DUCK_ (Anas boschas) _is distinguished by the general cinereous colour of its plumage, by having a narrow white mark round the neck, the bill being straight, and the tail feathers of the male curved upward._

_The male is called_ mallard, _or_ drake, _and the female has the name of_ duck.

_Wild ducks are very common, in most of the fenny parts of England: they are also found on the continent of Europe, in Asia, and America._

One mode of catching wild ducks, in the fens of Lincolnshire and some other countries, is by what are called _decoys_. These are ponds, generally formed in marshy situations, and surrounded with wood or reeds, and if possible with both. The wild birds are attracted into nets placed in the ditches of the decoy, by ducks trained for the purpose, and called decoy-birds. The latter fly abroad, but regularly return, for food, to the pond of the decoy, where they mix with tame ducks, which never quit the place. When it is required to catch the wild birds a quantity of hemp-seed is thrown into the ditches. The decoy and tame ducks lead them in search of this, along the ditches, which generally have reed-skreens at certain intervals on each side, to prevent the decoy-man from being seen. And as soon as they have advanced to the part of the ditch over which the net is extended, the man appears behind. Fearful of returning past him, and unable to escape by flight, they proceed onward to the end of the net, which terminates on the land, and are there caught by a man stationed for the purpose. The trained birds return back, past the decoy-man, into the pond again. The general season for catching wild ducks is from the latter end of October until the beginning of February; and we are informed that, in ten decoys which are near Wainfleet, as many as 31,200 wild ducks, wigeon, teal, and other water fowl, were caught in a single season.

These birds are the original to which we are indebted for our valuable breed, the common or _tame duck_.

185. _The TEAL and WIGEON_ (Anas crecca _and_ penelope) _are two small species of duck, of which the former has a green spot on each wing, and a white line about and beneath the eyes; and the latter has the tail somewhat pointed, the under part near the tail black, the head brown, the front white, and the back waved with ash-coloured and blackish marks._

Both these species are common in England, and are killed for the table.

186. _The EIDER DUCK_ (Anas mollissima, Fig. 48) _is about twice the size of the common duck, and known by its bill being cylindric, and the cere or naked skin at the base being divided into two parts at the back, and wrinkled._

_These birds inhabit the northern parts of Europe, Asia, and America, and generally form their nests on small islands not far from the sea-shore._

The nests of eider ducks are constructed, externally, of marine plants, and lined with white down, which the birds pluck from their own breasts. This is the substance called _eider down_. It is collected, from the nests, by the bird-catchers, who, for that purpose, carefully remove the females, and then take away a certain portion both of down and eggs from each. More down is plucked from their breasts, and more eggs are laid to supply the place of those that have been taken. The nests are plundered in the same manner as before; and when the young ones are fledged, the whole of the down that remains is collected. It is generally reckoned that the down of one nest, after it has been picked and cleansed, will weigh about a quarter of a pound; and the bulk of the whole quantity may easily be imagined, when it is stated that three quarters of an ounce of eider down is more than sufficient to fill the crown of a large hat. The use of this down is for making beds, but, particularly, for making what are called down quilts, a kind of covering almost like a feather bed, which is used in the northern countries of Europe, as a protection against cold, instead of a common quilt, or blanket.

The _flesh_ and the _eggs_ of these birds are used for food, and their _skins_ are sewed together and made into under garments by the inhabitants of Greenland.

187. _The PUFFIN_ (Alca arctica, Fig. 49) _is a marine bird about the size of a pigeon, and distinguished by having a large bill compressed at the sides and marked with four grooves; the top of the head, a ring round the throat, and all the upper parts of the plumage, black, and the under parts white._

_These are birds of passage, arriving in this country about the beginning of April, and leaving it in August. They are chiefly found on rocks and elevated ground, in unfrequented places, near the sea-shore._

The breeding of puffins is encouraged in the island of Prestholme, North Wales, and other parts of the British dominions, as a source of profit. The birds, which, in some places, are numerous beyond all calculation, form their nests in holes in the ground, each nest containing only a single white egg. The young ones are seized before they are quite fledged; and, after the bones are taken out, the skin is closed round the flesh, and they are pickled in vinegar impregnated with spices. In this state they are sold as a delicacy for the table. The flesh of the old birds is rank and unpalatable, in consequence of their feeding on seaweeds and fish. We are informed, by Dr. Caius, that in Roman Catholic countries, puffins are permitted to be eaten instead of fish during Lent, and on other fast days.

188. _PENGUINS_ (Fig 50.) _are a tribe of marine birds with straight and narrow bills, furrowed at the sides; the legs situated so far back that they walk in an upright position; and the wings small, not calculated for flight, and covered with a broad and strong membrane._

_Most of the penguins are found in different islands of the South Seas._

Vast numbers of these birds inhabit the Falkland islands, and, to mariners, they have sometimes afforded a very seasonable supply of food. They are in general extremely fat, and must be skinned before they are eaten. Sometimes they have been salted and packed in casks to supply the place of beef. These birds are so fearless of the approach of mankind, that there is no difficulty in knocking them down and killing them with sticks.

Penguins form their nests in holes in the ground, and generally lay one egg in each nest. The _eggs_ are an excellent food.

189. _PELECANS, or CORVORANTS, are a tribe of birds distinguished by their bills being hooked at the end, and furnished with a nail at the point and a pouch beneath, and having their face naked._

_There are more than thirty known species of pelecans, some of which are found in nearly every part of the world._

Of these the most remarkable species is the great, or WHITE PELECAN (_Pelecanus onocrolalus_). It is furnished with a bag attached to the lower mandible of its bill, so large as to be capable of containing a great number of fish. On these the pelecan feeds, and, by means of this bag, is enabled to convey them as food for its offspring. We are informed that the inhabitants of Mexico sometimes obtain a supply of fish by cruelly breaking the wing of a live pelecan, and then tying the bird to a tree. Its screams are said to attract other pelecans to the place, which give up a portion of the provisions they have collected to their imprisoned companion. As soon as this is observed the men, who are concealed at a little distance, rush to the spot, and take away all except a small portion, sufficient for the support of the prisoner.

The Chinese train one of the species (_Pelecanus sinensis_) to catch fish, and the birds are so well trained that they do not appear to swallow any, but such as are given to them for encouragement and food.

190. The GANNET (_Pelecanus bassanus_, Fig. 51) is a species of pelecan so numerous, and, at the same time, so important to the inhabitants of some parts of Scotland, that, in the island of St. Kilda only, more than 20,000 are said to be annually killed by the inhabitants as food. The young birds, however, alone are eatable; and, to obtain these and the eggs, the bird-catchers undergo the greatest risks. They not only climb the rocks, but even allow themselves to be lowered from the top of the most dangerous precipices, by ropes, to the ledges on which the nests are placed. As gannets and their eggs are a principal support of the inhabitants of St. Kilda throughout the year, they are preserved, for this purpose, in a frozen state, in small pyramidal stone buildings covered with turf and ashes.

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CLASS III.--AMPHIBIA.

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ORDER I.--REPTILES.

191. _The GREEK TORTOISE_ (Testudo græca) _is a species of reptile of dirty yellow and black colour; with four feet, and a somewhat hemispherical shell, consisting of thirteen middle convex pieces, and about twenty-five marginal ones._

_These animals are about eight inches long, and three or four pounds in weight. They are found in woods of many of the countries of the Continent, and in most of the islands of the Mediterranean._

In nearly all countries where these tortoises abound they are considered valuable as food; and are cooked in various ways, but are chiefly used for soup. By some people the _blood_ is eaten without any culinary preparation.

Each tortoise towards the end of June lays, in the sand, from thirty to forty _eggs_, of round shape, and about the size of those of a pigeon. These eggs, when boiled, are in particular esteem for the table. In some parts of Italy it is customary to collect and bury them in places dug in the earth; and when the young ones appear, they are fed and taken care of until they are in a fit state to be killed for the table.

In their habits the animals are mild and peaceable; and, being furnished with a house which they continually carry about with them, and into which they can, in an instant, withdraw their head, legs, and tail, they have no danger to fear from their enemies. So great is the strength of their shell that instances have occurred of their having been run over, even by waggons, without injury. Tortoises have been known to live to the age of more than 100 years.

192. Several other kinds of tortoises serve for food as well as the present; particularly the _ROUND TORTOISE (Testudo orbicularis)_, which is in great request for the tables of the opulent inhabitants of Germany and Hungary.

193. _The HAWK'S-BILL TURTLE_ (Testudo imbricata, Fig. 53) _is a marine species of tortoise, of yellowish and brown colour, which has fin-shaped feet each with two claws, thirteen plates in the middle of the shell, and twenty-one round the margin, lying somewhat loosely over each other at the edges._

_This animal, which is from two to three feet in length, is a native of the American and Asiatic seas; and is also sometimes found in the Mediterranean._

The plates or scales of the hawk's-bill turtle constitute that beautifully variegated and semi-transparent substance called _tortoise-shell_. This, after having been softened by means of boiling water, is capable of being moulded into almost any form; and is in request by opticians and other artists for many purposes both useful and ornamental. The ancient Greeks and Romans were so partial to the use of tortoise-shell that they decorated with it their doors, the pillars of their houses, and even their beds; and the great consumption of it at Rome may be imagined by the relation of Velleius Paterculus, who informs us that, when the city of Alexandria was taken by Julius Cæsar, the magazines or warehouses were so full of this article that he proposed to have it made the principal ornament of his triumph.

The best tortoise-shell which is brought into this country pays an import duty of 1s. 4½d. per pound; and the quantity vended at the East India Company's sales in 1808 was no less than 13,728 pounds.

The _flesh_ of the hawk's-bill turtle is not only of bad flavour, but is said to be even in some degree poisonous; persons who have partaken of it having been seized with vomiting and other unpleasant symptoms. The _eggs_, however, are esteemed peculiarly delicious.

194. _The COMMON, or GREEN TURTLE_ (Testudo mydas, Fig. 52), _is a marine species of tortoise, distinguished by its oval shape; by the fore-feet only having two claws, the scales neither folding upon each other, nor having any ridge, and the middle scales being thirteen in number._

_These, which are the largest kind of tortoise that is known, are sometimes six feet and upwards in length, and five or six hundred pounds in weight._

_They are found, and generally in great numbers, on the unfrequented sea-shores of most countries within the torrid zone._

This species of turtle is one of the most valuable gifts of Providence, to the inhabitants of tropical climates, and to mariners frequenting those climates. It affords them an abundant supply of agreeable and nutritive food. So numerous are they, in some places, that instances have occurred of forty or fifty having been obtained in the course of three hours. They are generally caught whilst asleep on the shore. The seamen go gently to the places where they are found, and successively turn them on their backs. From this position they are unable to recover their feet, and thus are perfectly secured until a sufficient number can be collected for conveyance on ship-board. Turtles are sometimes killed with spears whilst lying at the bottom of the sea in shallow water, or whilst swimming on the surface.

The females dig hollow places in the sand of the sea-shore, a little above high water mark; and in these they deposit sometimes more than a hundred eggs, carefully concealing them, from observation, by scratching over them a thin layer of sand. These eggs, which are wholesome food, are nearly globular, each two or three inches in diameter, and covered with a strong membrane, somewhat like wet parchment. They consist of a yolk, which by boiling hardens like that of other eggs, and of a white that is incapable of being hardened by heat.

The parts of the turtle most in esteem are those about the belly, which are of delicate white colour, somewhat resembling veal; and the green fat, which possesses a very peculiar odour. The whole is extremely nutritious, and of a soft gelatinous nature; but, as it contains a large proportion of strong fat, it should not be eaten without salt and pepper, or other spice; and should be carefully avoided in every form by invalids and persons whose digestive powers are impaired. The flesh of the turtle is sometimes cut into pieces and salted, and in this state forms an article of traffic in the West Indies. Not only the flesh, but even the intestines and eggs are salted. The _fat_ yields a greenish yellow oil, which is used in lamps for burning, and when fresh with food. The inhabitants of some countries convert the upper _shells_ of turtles into canoes, troughs, bucklers, and other useful articles; and sometimes adopt them as a covering for houses.

It does not appear that the turtle has been introduced into England, as an article of luxury for the table, more than seventy or eighty years. We import these animals chiefly from the West Indies.

195. _The EDIBLE FROG_ (Rana esculenta) _is distinguished by its back being angular, and by having three yellowish stripes which extend from the muzzle almost to the hind legs._

_These animals are not only common in England, but are found in ponds, ditches, and fens, in nearly all the temperate parts of Europe._