Part 19

The fruit of this tree, which has the name of _beech-mast_, and is ripe in September, is palatable to the taste; but, if eaten in great quantity, it occasions giddiness and head-aches. When, however, it is dried and powdered, it may be made into a wholesome bread. The inhabitants of Scio, one of the Ionian Islands, were once enabled to endure a memorable siege by the beech-mast which their island supplied. This fruit has, occasionally, been roasted and used as a substitute for coffee. When subjected to pressure, it yields a sweet and palatable _oil_, which, if properly made, is equal, in quality, to the best olive-oil, and has the advantage of continuing longer than that without becoming rancid. Beech-oil is manufactured in several parts of France; and is used by the lower classes of Silesia instead of butter. The cakes which remain after the oil is extracted are a wholesome food, and may also be advantageously employed for the fattening of swine, poultry, and oxen.

In some countries the _leaves_ of the beech-tree are collected in the autumn, before they have been injured, by the frosts, and are used instead of feathers for beds; and mattresses formed of them are said to be preferable to those either of straw or chaff.

237. _The OAK_ (Quercus robur, Fig. 68) _is a well-known timber tree, of native growth in this country, as well as other countries in northern temperate climates._

It is to this valuable tree that our navy is indebted for its existence; and without it this invincible barrier of the country could not be supported. _Oak timber_ being hard, tough, tolerably flexible, and not very liable to splinter, is, in Europe, preferred to every other kind for the construction of ships of war. It is also well adapted to every purpose of rural and domestic economy, particularly for staves, laths, and the spokes of wheels. Until the introduction of mahogany, it was very generally used for furniture; and, in large mansions, it was customary even to line the walls of rooms with _wainscot_, or panelling of oak.

This tree is remarkable for the slowness of its growth, for its great longevity, and the dimensions to which it attains. It has, however, been remarked that the trunk of the oak seldom increases to a greater proportionate diameter than about fourteen inches in eighty years. As to its dimensions, it is stated that an oak belonging to Lord Powis, and growing, in 1764, in Bromfield Wood, near Ludlow, measured sixty-eight feet in girth and twenty-three feet in height, and contained in the whole 1455 feet of timber.

Before oak timber is in a state to be used it is requisite that the trees should be barked, and suffered to stand uncut for three or four years, that they may become perfectly dry. The _bark_ thus obtained is extensively used in the tanning of leather; and afterwards it serves as fuel, and for making hot-beds for the growth of pines, and some other plants. The astringent properties of oak-bark render it of use for medical purposes. The _saw-dust_ of this tree, and even the _leaves_, though much inferior to the bark, have been found useful in tanning. The former of these is the principal vegetable production of this country, which is used in the dyeing of fustian.

On the leaves and buds of the oak certain excrescences are formed, in consequence of the puncture of insects, as the lodgment for their eggs and a habitation for their future young. These are termed _galls_, and if, when arrived at a certain state, they are infused in a weak solution of vitriol, they impart to it a purple or violet tinge; and, after the whole colouring matter is extracted, this becomes perfectly black. Considerable quantities of galls are used in dyeing, and for other purposes.

_Acorns_, or the seeds of the oak, possess an astringent quality, and have a bitter taste, both of which may be extracted by steeping them, for some time, in cold water, or by boiling them. After this simple process, they are not an unpalatable fruit. With the ancient Britons they were an article in great request, and even constituted an important part of their food; and there can be little doubt that, carefully prepared, dried, and reduced to powder, they might, in times of scarcity, be adopted as a substitute for bread-corn. By pressure an oil is obtained from them which may be used for lamps; and a kind of coffee is prepared from them in some parts of the Continent.

The branches of the oak, as well as those of several other kinds of trees, are burned for the formation of _charcoal_; and it is a remarkable circumstance that the properties of charcoal, from whatever wood it may be made, are nearly the same. One of the most remarkable of these is, that it is not liable to decay by age. Hence it was customary, with the ancients, to char or burn the outside of stakes, or other wood, which were to be driven into the ground, or placed in water. Charcoal may be preserved without injury for an almost indefinite length of time; and, in the ancient tombs of the inhabitants of northern nations, entire pieces of charcoal are at this day frequently discovered.

Besides the great use of charcoal in the composition of gunpowder, and to artists and manufacturers of different kinds, it has lately been employed, with considerable success, in correcting the rancid and disagreeable smell of train oil, so as to render it fit to be burned in chamber lamps; and several manufactories of this oil have been established in the neighbourhood of London. Newly-made charcoal, if rolled up in clothes which have contracted a disagreeable odour, will effectually destroy it; and if boiled with meat beginning to putrefy will take away the taint.

This substance is used by artists in the polishing of brass and copper-plates, for the drawing of outlines, and numerous other purposes. When purified, it forms perhaps the best tooth-powder that is known. The mode of purifying it is to reduce it to powder, wash it repeatedly with water, and then dry it by means of a strong heat in close vessels. This heat expels the foreign contents with which it is impregnated; but however intense, if the vessels are closed, it in no respects alters the quality of the charcoal. The vapour of burning charcoal is extremely pernicious; and persons exposed to it in confined rooms are liable to be suffocated in a very short time. The best remedy is immediately to take them into the strongest draught of cold air that can be obtained, to loosen all their garments, and apply volatile spirits to their nostrils.

238. _CORK is the external bark of a species of oak_ (Quercus suber) _which grows in Spain, Portugal, and other southern parts of Europe, and is distinguished by the fungous texture of its bark; and by its leaves being evergreen, oblong, somewhat oval, downy underneath, and waved._

The principal supply of the cork that is consumed in Europe, is obtained from Catalonia in Spain; and the culture and the preparation of it yield to the inhabitants of that province near 250,000_l._ per annum.

In the collecting of cork, it is customary to slit it with a knife, at certain distances, in a perpendicular direction from the top of the trees to the bottom; and to make two incisions across, one near the top and the other near the bottom of the trunk. For the purpose of stripping off the bark, a curved knife with a handle at each end is used. Sometimes it is stripped in pieces the whole length, and sometimes in shorter pieces, cross cuts being made at certain intervals. In some instances the perpendicular and transverse incisions are made, and the cork is left upon the trees until, by the growth of the new bark beneath, it becomes sufficiently loose to be removed by the hand.

After the pieces are detached they are soaked in water; and, when nearly dry, are placed over a fire of coals, which blackens their external surface. By the latter operation they are rendered smooth, and all the smaller blemishes are thereby concealed: the larger holes and cracks are filled up by the artful introduction of soot and dirt. The pieces are next loaded with weights to make them even; and lastly they are dried, stacked, or packed in bales for exportation.

Many of the uses of cork were well known to the ancients. Its elasticity renders it peculiarly serviceable for the stopping of vessels of different kinds; and thus preventing either the liquids therein contained from running out, or the external air from passing in. The use of cork for stopping glass bottles is generally considered to have been introduced about the fifteenth century. The practice of employing this substance for jackets to assist in swimming is very ancient; and it has lately been applied in various ways towards the preservation of life, when endangered by shipwreck. The floats of nets used for fishing are frequently made of cork: pieces fastened together make buoys, which, by floating on the surface of the water, afford direction for vessels in harbours, rivers, and other places. In some parts of Spain it is customary to line the walls of houses with cork, which not only renders them warm, but prevents the admission of moisture. The ancient Egyptians sometimes made coffins of it. On account of its lightness, cork is used for false legs; and, from its being impervious by water, it is sometimes placed betwixt the soles of shoes to keep out moisture. When burned, it constitutes that light black substance known by the name of _Spanish black_.

In the cutting of corks for use, the only tool employed is a broad, thin, and sharp knife; and, as the cork tends very much to blunt this, it is sharpened upon a board by one whet, or stroke on each side, after every cut; and, now and then, upon a common whet-stone. The corks for bottles are cut in the length way of the bark, and consequently the pores lie across. Bungs, and corks of large size, are cut in a contrary direction: the pores in these are therefore downward, a circumstance which renders them much more defective in stopping out the air than the others. The parings of cork are sold to the makers of Spanish black.

239. _The WALNUT is a well-known shell fruit, produced by a tree_ (Juglans regia, Fig. 69), _which grows wild in the northern parts of China and Persia, and has winged leaves; the leaflets, about nine in number, large, oblong, smooth, thick; and the end one with a stalk._

Although greatly admired, both for the beauty of its foliage, and for the excellence of its fruit, the cultivation of the walnut-tree in England is by no means attended to so much as it was formerly, when its _wood_ was considered the most ornamental timber produced in our island. It is pleasingly veined, and admits of a fine polish, but its colour is much less rich than that of mahogany; and consequently, except for the making of gunstocks, it has, of late, been wholly superseded by that more favourite wood. On the Continent, however, the walnut-tree is still in request for furniture of various kinds.

The _fruit_ of the walnut-tree is covered externally with a thick and smooth green husk, the juice of which stains the fingers black. In an unripe state, before the shells are formed, the whole fruit may be made into a pickle, and also into ketchup. In medicine the unripe fruit is considered of use for the destruction of worms, and is usually administered in the form of an extract.

Walnuts become ripe about the beginning of October; and, as they grow in clusters, generally at the ends of the branches, it is customary to beat them down with long poles. The kernel, which is covered with a tough, yellow, and bitter skin, is more esteemed than that either of the hazel-nut or filbert. It yields, on pressure, a sweet kind of oil, which, in quantity, amounts to about half the weight of the kernel.

There are several varieties of walnut, which are well known to the cultivators of that tree.

240. _The HICKORY-NUT_ (Juglans alba) _is a North American species of walnut, the shell of which is very hard, does not split asunder like that of the walnut, and is of smoother and lighter colour than that_.

Its kernel is sweet and well tasted, and affords a considerable portion of oil.

241. _The HAZEL-NUT and FILBERT are well-known fruits, the former of a shrub_ (Corylus avellana, Fig. 67) _which grows in hedges and thickets; and the latter of a somewhat similar shrub, which is cultivated in orchards and kitchen gardens._

Each of these kinds of _nuts_ is much esteemed, but particularly the latter; the flavour of its kernels being very delicious. They are, however, difficult of digestion, and, when eaten in considerable quantity, sometimes produce very unpleasant effects. The oil which is obtained from hazel-nuts by pressure is little inferior in flavour to that of almonds, and, under the name of _nut-oil_, is often used by painters. Chemists employ it as the basis of fragrant oils artificially prepared, because it easily combines with and retains odours. This oil is found serviceable in obstinate coughs.

If nuts be put into earthen pots and well closed, and afterwards buried eighteen inches or two feet deep in the earth, they may be kept sound through the winter.

In many parts of the country _hazels_ are planted in coppices and hedge-rows for several useful purposes; but particularly to be cut down, periodically, for charcoal, for poles, fishing-rods, &c. Being extremely tough and flexible, the branches of the hazel are used for making hurdles, crates, withs or bands, and springles to fasten down thatch. They are formed into spars, handles for implements of husbandry; and, when split, are bent into hoops for casks. Charcoal made from hazel is much in request for forges; and, when prepared in a particular manner, is used by painters and engravers to draw their outlines.

In countries where yeast is scarce, it is not unusual to twist loosely together the slender branches of this shrub, and to steep them in ale-yeast during its fermentation. They are then hung up to dry; and, at the next brewing, are put into the wort instead of yeast. The _roots_ are used by cabinet makers for veneering: and, in Italy, the _chips_ of hazel are sometimes put into turbid wine for the purpose of fining it.

242. _The HORNBEAM_ (Carpinus betulus, Fig. 73) _is a forest tree which grows to the height of sixty or seventy feet, yet seldom exceeds fifteen or eighteen inches in diameter, has smooth white bark, marked with grey spots, and leaves about three inches long and two broad, oval, pointed, and serrated._

As a timber-tree the hornbeam is more esteemed on the Continent than in this country. It grows readily in stiff soils, particularly on the sides of hills; and is easily transplanted. The _wood_, which is white, hard, and tough, is used by turners; and is wrought into cogs for mill-wheels, screw-presses, the heads of beetles, handles of working tools, and other instruments and machinery in which great strength is required. As fuel it is preferred, on account of its readier inflammability, to most other kinds of wood. The _inner bark_ is used, in some countries, for dyeing yellow.

From the foliage of the hornbeam being luxuriant, and admitting of being clipped, without injury, into any of those forms which the old French garden style required, this tree was formerly much more planted in England than it is at present. It preserves a great portion of its withered leaves through the winter; and, if properly planted as a hedge, it forms an excellent fence. The German husbandman, when he erects a fence of hornbeam, throws up a parapet of earth, with a ditch on each side, and plants his sets (which he raises from layers) in such a manner that every two plants may be brought to intersect each other, in the form of a St. Andrew's cross. In that part where the plants cross, he scrapes off the bark, and bends them closely together with straw. In consequence of this operation the two plants consolidate into a sort of indissoluble knot, and push, from the place of junction, horizontal slanting shoots, which form a living palisado or _chevaux de frise_; so that such a protection may be called a rural fortification. These hedges, being annually and carefully pruned, will, in a few years, become impenetrable in every part. It is not uncommon in Germany, to see the high roads thus guarded for many miles together; and great advantage might be derived from adopting the same plan in many parts of our own kingdom.

243. _The PLANE-TREE_ (Platanus orientalis, Fig. 71) _is distinguished by having broad leaves, each with about five principal divisions, and these subdivided into smaller ones._

By the ancient Greeks and Romans the plane-tree was highly valued, on account of its grateful shade; and the latter were much delighted by training it in such manner as to admit of their sitting beneath its branches. Wherever they built their magnificent colleges for the exercise of youth, in the gymnastic arts, as riding, wrestling, running, leaping, throwing the discus, &c. and where also the gravest philosophers met to converse together and improve their studies, they planted avenues and walks of plane trees for refreshment and shade.

Though now frequently planted in parks and pleasure grounds, the sycamore (122) is, in many instances, preferred to it. The plane, though a native of Asia and the southern parts of Europe, is very hardy, grows rapidly, and will flourish in any common soil, and in any aspect.

Its _wood_, at a certain age, becomes much veined; and, consequently, is valuable for many kinds of domestic furniture, but particularly for tables.

244. _The CABBAGE-TREE_ (Areca oleracea) _is an American species of palm, which grows to the height of a hundred feet and upwards, and is destitute of leaves until within a few feet of the summit. The leaves, sometimes near twenty feet long, are winged, and the leaflets are entire._

Such is the general elegance of this tree that it is frequently denominated the queen of woods. Its _fruit_, which grows in bunches from the top, is an oblong and obtuse kind of berry, of bluish purple colour, and about the size of an olive. The sheaths of the flowers, and the floral leaves, when first developed, are folded round each other, enclosed in a thin, green, and spongy bark, eight or nine inches in circumference, and constitute the part which is denominated the _cabbage_. This is white, and, when boiled, is esteemed a great luxury. It is also eaten raw as a salad, and fried with butter; and its taste is said to resemble that of an artichoke. This part is likewise frequently made into a pickle with vinegar and spices.

We are informed that the cabbage-tree was first introduced into Jamaica by Admiral Knowles, when governor of that island; and that it has since been cultivated there with great attention. But it is chiefly planted for its beauty, being considered too valuable to be often cut down for the small portion of food which it thus affords, however delicious that may be.

In the _leaves_ of this tree there is a thread-like substance, which is sometimes spun, like hemp, and made into different kinds of cordage. The sockets or grooves formed by the broad part of the footstalks of the leaves are used by the negroes as cradles for their children; and on the inner sides of the very young footstalks there are tender pellicles, which, when dried, may be converted into paper. The _trunks_, when cleared of the pith, serve as water pipes and gutters. Of the _pith_ a kind of sago is made; and in this pith, after the trees are felled, there is bred a large species of caterpillar which the inhabitants of some of the West Indian islands eat as a great delicacy.

245. _The CATECHU, ARECA, or BETEL-NUT-TREE_ (Areca catechu), _is a species of palm which grows in the East Indies._

_It is generally from thirty to forty feet high, and its trunk is six or eight inches in diameter. The leaves, which grow on the summit, are winged, having the leaflets folded back; and the fruit is a pulpy berry with thin skin, containing a nut about an inch in length, and of a rounded conical form._

The _kernel_ of the areca-nut, which is covered by a thin, smooth, and yellowish shell, is somewhat like a nutmeg, but contains, in the centre, a white, soft, greyish, and almost liquid substance, which becomes hard as the nut ripens. This fruit is in general use by the Indians, who cut it into slices, mix it with other substances, wrap it in the leaves of betel (22), and chew it much in the same manner as the common people of our country chew tobacco. The consumption of these nuts in India is almost beyond calculation. They are an article of considerable trade, from port to port; and also from India to China, but they are seldom brought into England, though they might be of use in some of our manufactures.

The drug called _catechu_, and formerly _terra japonica_, was supposed to be an extract prepared from the above nuts; but it is now ascertained to be made from the wood of a species of mimosa.

MONADELPHIA.

246. _The SCOTS FIR_ (Pinus sylvestris), _which has its name from growing wild in different parts of Scotland, is known from other trees of the same tribe by having its slender and somewhat needle-shaped leaves in pairs; its cones or seed-vessels somewhat egg-shaped, mostly in pairs, as long as the leaves, and the scales blunt._

This useful tree flourishes with greatest luxuriance on the north and north-east sides of hills, in a poor and sandy soil, especially where this is mixed with loam. If planted among rocks, or in bogs, it seldom attains a large size; in black soil it becomes diseased; and in chalky land it frequently pines away and dies.

Its _timber_, under the name of _deal_, is employed as the wood-work of houses; for rafters, flooring, doors, the frames of windows, tables, boxes, and other purposes, infinitely too various to be enumerated. Frigates, and other ships of large size, have sometimes been constructed of deal but these are by no means so durable as vessels that are built of oak. Much of the deal which we use is imported from Norway, and other northern parts of Europe. That from Christiana, which is called _yellow deal_, or _red deal_, is frequently brought over in planks, but more commonly in boards, each about ten inches and half in width. The wood of such trees as are raised in England is equal to the foreign wood in weight and durability, but its grain is generally coarser.

The _outer bark_ of the fir-tree may be used in the tanning of leather; and it is said that, in the northern parts of Europe, the soft, white, and fibrous _inner bark_ is, in times of scarcity, made into a kind of bread. For this purpose it is dried over a fire, reduced to powder, kneaded with water, and a small portion of corn-flour, into cakes, and baked in an oven. Children in Norway are very fond of the fresh bark, in the spring of the year, either shaved off with a knife, or grated with a rasp.

_Common Turpentine_ is the resinous juice chiefly of the Scots fir, obtained by boring holes into the trunks of the trees, early in spring, and placing vessels beneath for its reception. It is of brown colour; and has a strong odour, and disagreeable taste. In the distillation of turpentine an essential oil is produced, called _oil of turpentine_, which is extremely pungent. When the distillation is continued to dryness, the substance which remains is known by the name of _common resin_ or _rosin_; but, if water be mixed with it, while yet fluid, and incorporated by violent agitation, a substance is formed called _yellow resin_.