Part 16

Bean _stalks_, if subjected to a certain process, are capable of being converted into paper.

199. _VETCHES are a small species of beans_ (Vicia sativa) _which grow wild in dry meadows, pastures, and cornfields, and are also cultivated in most parts of England._

_The pods are generally in pairs; and the leaves winged, having each about six pairs of leaflets, with a branched tendril at the extremity. At the bases of each of the leaves there is a small stipule, marked with a dark spot._

The principal use of vetches is as provender for horses and cattle. They are grown so early as to allow of being fed off, or cut for this purpose, in sufficient time for turnips to be sown the same year. When the land is to be prepared for a wheat crop it is sometimes customary to plough in the vetches as manure. The _seeds_ afford a grateful food for pigeons.

200. _PEAS_ (Pisum sativum) _are a kind of seeds too well known to need any description._

There are several kinds of peas, some of which are cultivated in gardens, and others in fields. The former are principally used for culinary purposes. In the early part of the year, gardeners in the neighbourhood of London raise them on hot-beds. The kind they select for this purpose are the dwarf peas. These are sown about the middle of October in warm borders; and afterwards, towards the end of January, they are removed into the hot-beds. The inducement, of course, is the enormous prices that are paid for the earliest peas brought into the market. The podding or picking of green peas for the London market is also a valuable branch of the business of some farms within a few miles of the metropolis. Many attempts have been made to preserve green peas for use in winter; one of these is by bottling them, and another by drying them in an oven, and afterwards keeping them in paper bags; but none of the modes have been attended with complete success.

Field peas are sown about March or April, and succeed best in light, rich soils. They are generally considered an uncertain crop; but this is owing, in a great degree, to want of due attention to their culture.

In common with most other seeds of this class, peas yield a nutritive food to persons of strong stomachs. When boiled in a fresh or green state, they are both wholesome and agreeable; and, when ripe and ground into meal, they are peculiarly serviceable for the fattening of swine. The flour of peas is not unfrequently mixed by bakers amongst that of wheat for bread; but bread made of this flour alone is heavy and unwholesome. Three parts of rye-flour and one of ground peas are said to yield a palatable and nourishing bread. Peas that are freed from their husks, and split in mills constructed for the purpose, are used for soup. The haulm or _straw_ of field peas, if saved in favourable seasons, affords not only an excellent fodder for working horses, but is also an useful food for horses, cattle, and sheep.

It has been presumed that the _everlasting pea_, which is commonly grown as an ornamental flower in our gardens, would be an advantageous green food for horses and cattle.

201. _LIQUORICE is the root of a perennial plant_ (Glycyrrhiza glabra), _with winged leaves, and purplish butterfly-shaped flowers, which grows wild in the south of Europe, and is cultivated near Pontefract in Yorkshire, Worksop in Nottinghamshire, and Godalming in Surrey, and by many gardeners in the vicinity of London._

_The stalks of the liquorice-plant are usually four or five feet high. The leaves are winged, and the leaflets egg-shaped, with an odd one at the extremity. The flowers grow in long spikes from the junction of the leaves and branches. The roots are long, round, tough, of brown colour externally, and yellow within._

The principal use of liquorice is in medicine. It contains much saccharine matter, joined with some portion of mucilage; and is one of the few sweet substances which tend to allay thirst. Liquorice is an excellent medicine in coughs and hoarsenesses. When boiled in a little water, it gives out nearly all its sweetness; and this, when the moisture is evaporated, produces, by different processes, what are called _Spanish liquorice_, _liquorice cakes_, _liquorice lozenges_, and _Pontefract cakes_. The former of these is used to great extent in the brewing of porter. It is said that more than two hundred tons' weight of it are annually manufactured in Spain, a considerable portion of which is sold to the London brewers for this purpose. Liquorice powder, which is used in medicine, is often adulterated with flour, and probably also with less wholesome articles. The root itself may be employed as stopples for beer or wine bottles.

The soil in which liquorice is cultivated should be deep, light, and sandy; and the roots, which strike deeply into the ground, should be planted in rows, at the distance of a foot and half or two feet from each other. Three years elapse, after the roots are planted, before the liquorice is in perfection.

202. _SAINT-FOIN_ (Hedysarum onobrychis) _is a British perennial plant with winged leaves, somewhat pyramidal bunches of butterfly-shaped flowers, marked with red, white, and purple; and oblong, hairy pods, each containing a single seed._

This plant is cultivated in several of the farming districts of England, as food for horses and cattle; and it succeeds best on dry and chalky lands, in high and exposed situations. The seed should be sown in February or March, and, during the first year, the plants should remain untouched. In the ensuing summer a crop of hay may be obtained from them; and after this the saint-foin may regularly be mown twice every year, for ten or fifteen years. When intended for hay, saint-foin should not be cut before it is in full bloom, about the beginning of July, as otherwise the quality of the hay would be much injured. Some farmers assert that saint-foin, when cows are fed with it, both increases the quantity and improves the quality of their milk; but, in the opinion of others, the quality is rather injured than improved by it. No pasture is considered more excellent for sheep than this. Saint-foin is also sometimes sown with clover, and sometimes with barley.

203. _COMMON RED or BROAD CLOVER_ (Trifolium pratense) _is a well-known field plant, much cultivated in this country._

Clover is chiefly grown in firm and good soils, either as green food for horses and cattle, or to be cut for hay. On grass farms it is sometimes sown in conjunction with spring corn, and sometimes with ray-grass (51); and its utility in the fattening of cattle is well known. This species of clover grows wild, in meadows and pastures of most parts of Europe; and, in some countries, during a scarcity of provisions, the flowers have been made into a kind of bread. In Sweden the heads are used as a green dye.

204. _LUCERN_ (Medicago sativa) _is a perennial plant with small purple butterfly-shaped flowers, twisted pods, the stem erect and smooth, and the leaves in threes._

Although a wild plant in nearly every country of the temperate parts of Europe, this useful vegetable has only of late years been introduced into cultivation. It flourishes most luxuriantly in deep, rich, and friable loams, and cannot be too strongly recommended as food for cattle. The value of lucern may be considerably increased by sowing it with oats; and, though an expensive crop, it yields great profit.

205. _INDIGO is a blue dye prepared from a plant_ (Indigofera tinctoria) _with a shrubby stem, oblong, smooth, and winged leaves, bunches of flowers shorter than the leaves, and cylindrical pods slightly curved, which grows in America and the West Indies._

The culture of indigo is an object of considerable importance in the West Indian islands, and in some parts of America. The grounds appropriated to it are sown about the middle of March, in rows fifteen inches asunder. The plants come into flower about three months afterwards, and are in a state to be cut about the month of August. They are cut with a kind of reaping hook, a few inches above the root. The plants are then laid in strata, in a vat or cistern constructed of strong mason-work, and so much water is poured in as will cover them. In this state they are left to ferment, and the fluid or pulp, which is first green, afterwards becomes of deep blue colour. It is now drawn off into another vat, where it is strongly and incessantly beaten and agitated, until the colouring matter is united into a body. The water is then let off by cocks in the sides of the vat; and the indigo, after undergoing some further preparations, is cast, in boxes or moulds, into small pieces, each about an inch square, and packed up for sale. The vapour which issues from the fermented liquor is extremely injurious to the negroes who attend the process; and as peculiar attention is requisite both to this and the granulating of the pulp, many indigo-planters have failed in the manufacture of this article.

Indigo is employed by dyers, calico-printers, and paper-stainers, to an extent so great that nearly 500,000 pounds' weight of it are annually imported into this kingdom. The _stone-blue_ used by laundresses, and the colours called _Saxon-blue_, and _green_, are made from indigo. Painters use it as a water-colour. This article is frequently adulterated with earth, ashes, and pounded slate. The genuine drug ought to be of rich, dark blue colour, approaching to black; and, when broken, should display the lustre of copper. It ought not to sink in water, nor to leave any sediment when dissolved.

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CLASS XVIII.--POLYADELPHIA.

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DECANDRIA.

206. _CHOCOLATE is a kind of cake or hard paste, sometimes made of different ingredients, but the basis of which is the pulp of the cacao or chocolate nut, a produce of the West Indies and America._

_The chocolate tree_ (Theobroma cacao, Fig. 54,) _both in size and shape, somewhat resembles a young cherry tree, but it separates near the ground into four or five stems. The leaves are each about four inches in length, smooth but not glossy, and of dull green colour. The flowers are saffron-coloured, and very beautiful._

The _fruit_ of the chocolate-tree somewhat resembles a cucumber in shape, but is furrowed deeper on the sides. Its colour, while growing, is green; but, as it ripens, this changes to a fine bluish red, almost purple, with pink veins; or, in some of the varieties, to a delicate yellow or lemon colour. Each of the pods contains from twenty to thirty nuts or kernels, which in shape are not much unlike almonds. These are arranged in rows, surrounded by a sweet pulpy substance, and are called _cacao_ or _chocolate-nuts_.

Plantations of chocolate trees are numerous on the banks of the river Magdelana, in South America, and in the Caraccas; but, at present, there are very few in our own colonies. They are usually formed in morassy situations; and are sheltered from the intense heat of the sun by larger trees which are planted among them. There are two principal crops of chocolate-nuts in the year; the first in June, and the second in December. As soon as the fruit is ripe, it is gathered, and cut into slices; and the nuts, which at this time are in a pulpy state, are taken out with the hand; for the thinness of their husk precludes the possibility of using a machine. They are then laid in skins, or on leaves, to be dried in the sun. They have now a sweetish acid taste, and may be eaten like any other fruit. When perfectly dry they are put into bags, each containing about a hundred weight; and, thus packed, are exported to foreign countries.

Previously to the preparation of these nuts into the substance which we call chocolate, they are gently roasted, or parched over the fire, in an iron vessel, after which process their thin external covering is easily separated. The kernel is then pounded in a mortar, and subsequently ground on a smooth warm stone. Sometimes a little arnatto (173) is added; and, with the aid of water, the whole is formed into a paste. This, whilst hot, is put into tin moulds, where in a short time it congeals; and in this state it is the chocolate of the shops. In South America and Spain other modes are adopted; the chocolate is mixed with sugar, long pepper (21), vanilla, cinnamon, cloves, almonds, and other ingredients, according to the taste of the respective inhabitants. Mr. Edwards was of opinion, that the cakes of chocolate used in England were made of about one half genuine chocolate, and the remainder of flour, or Castile soap.

Chocolate was first introduced into Europe by the Spaniards, and that from the Caraccas is considered the best. It should be used whilst new, as neither the seeds nor the cakes will keep well more than two years. The chocolate used in this country must be manufactured in England, for, by an Act of the legislature, the importation of chocolate paste is prohibited, under heavy penalties. The mode in which this substance is immediately prepared for use is well known.

By the natives of South America chocolate _nuts_ are used for food, and also as a circulating medium instead of coin: about 1200 of them being considered equal in value to a dollar.

A white oily matter, about the consistence of suet, is obtained by bruising these nuts, and boiling the pulp. The oil is by this means liquefied, and rises to the surface, where it is left to cool and congeal, that it may the more easily be separated. This, which is called _butter of cacao_, is without smell, and, when fresh, has a very mild taste. Its principal use is as an ingredient in pomatums. From the nuts, when slightly roasted, an oil is sometimes obtained by pressure, which is occasionally used in medicine.

ICOSANDRIA.

207. _The CITRON, LIME, and LEMON, are different varieties of the fruit of a small evergreen shrub, the original or parent stock of which_ (Citrus medica) _was imported from Asia into the southern parts of Europe._

_The_ citron _is oblong, with a very thick rind; the_ lemon _is oblong with a small lump or protuberance at the end; and the_ lime _has no protuberance, has a very thin rind, and is about the size of a small egg. These are the principal marks of discrimination betwixt these fruits, but they are not quite constant._

_The lemon shrub_ (_Fig. 56_) _has large and slightly indented shining leaves, of somewhat oval shape, but pointed; and on the footstalks of the leaves there is no remarkable appendage. The flowers are large and white, but purplish on the outside of the petals._

It is generally supposed that the _citron-tree_ was first introduced from Assyria and Media into Greece, and thence into the Southern parts of Europe, where it is now cultivated to considerable extent. It is also grown in the islands of the West Indies. The fruit, partaking of the same quality as the lemon, with the exception of being somewhat less acid, is seldom eaten raw; but, preserved in sugar as a sweetmeat, it is much used by confectioners and others. The principal consumption of citron is on the Continent, where it is also occasionally employed in medicine.

The _lemon-tree_ is a native of Upper Asia, whence, like the citron, it was brought into Greece, and afterwards transplanted into Italy. The _juice_, which is one of the sharpest and most agreeable of all acids, is used in cookery, confectionary, medicine, and in various other ways. By calico-printers it is very extensively employed, as a discharger of colour, to produce, with more clearness and effect, the white figured parts of coloured patterns that are dyed with colours formed from iron. Its juice is procured by simply squeezing the fruit, and straining it through linen or any loose filter; and in Sicily, and other parts of the Mediterranean, it forms an important article of commerce. Being one of the most valuable remedies for the scurvy, with which we are acquainted, it generally constitutes part of the sea store of ships that are destined for long voyages.

Several modes have been recommended for preserving lemon juice. One of these is to put it into bottles, with a small quantity of oil, which, floating on the surface, prevents the immediate contact of the air, and retards the decomposition of the acid; though, in this case, the original fresh taste soon gives place to one which is less grateful. In the East Indies lemon juice is sometimes evaporated, by a gentle heat, to the consistence of a thick extract. Sometimes it is crystallized into a white and acid salt; but what is sold in the shops, under the name of _essential salt of lemons_, for taking out ink-stains and iron-mould spots from linen, is only a preparation from the juice of sorrel.

The external part of the _rind_ has a grateful aromatic and bitter taste, which renders it useful in cookery. When dried it is considered a good stomachic, promotes the appetite, and is otherwise serviceable as a medicine. It is often candied and made into a sweetmeat, under the name of _lemon chips_. When distilled it yields a light and almost colourless oil, which, in smell, is nearly as agreeable as the fresh peel, and is frequently employed as a perfume.

Lemons are sometimes preserved in syrup. Small ones with thick rinds are converted into a grateful pickle; and a marmalade and syrup are also made of them. For the purpose of keeping the fruit, it is recommended that a fine packthread about a quarter of a yard long, should be run through the protuberance at the end of the lemons: the ends of the string are to be tied together, and suspended on a hook in an airy situation, and in such manner that each lemon may hang perfectly free and detached.

The cultivation of the _lime_ is much attended to in several parts of North America and the West Indies. Its juice affords a more grateful acid than that of the lemon, which is there in little repute, and is, comparatively, but seldom seen. A plate of limes is said to be a constant dish at entertainments in the West Indies; and the juice is used for all the same purposes as that of lemons is with us.

208. _ORANGE_ (Citrus aurantium, Fig. 55). _The difference betwixt orange and lemon-trees is immediately known by the former having a kind of winged appendage on the leafstalks, of which the latter are destitute._

We are informed that the first orange-tree introduced into Europe was sent as a present, from some part of Asia, to the Conde Mellor, prime minister of the King of Portugal. It was the only one of a great number which were contained in the same chest that survived; and it became the parent stock of multitudes of subsequent trees.

The delightful perfume of an orange grove is such as to scent the air for miles, and the _flowers_ appear in succession during the whole summer; and flowers and ripe fruit are found on the same tree. Orange flowers are valued as a perfume, and yield their flavour to rectified spirits; and, in distillation, both to spirits and water. In Portugal and Italy a fragrant red-coloured oil is obtained from them, which, by some persons, is considered of more delicate and agreeable perfume than even ottar of roses.

The _juice_ of the orange, when ripe and of good kind, is extremely sweet, grateful, and wholesome. In fevers, and other complaints, it is of considerable use for allaying heat and quenching thirst; and, in scurvy, it has been found a very valuable remedy. The _rind_, which yields a grateful aromatic bitter, is sometimes used in medicine, and, in particular, has obtained notice for the cure of intermittent fevers or agues. It is frequently preserved in syrup, and also in sugar, under the name of preserved _orange-peel_, and _orange-chips_; and is much esteemed in desserts.

In cookery and by confectioners, oranges are used in numerous ways; for marmalade, in biscuits, cheesecakes, jelly, puddings, and tarts; and an agreeable wine is prepared from oranges, with water, sugar, and some other ingredients.

_Seville_, or _bitter oranges_ are a large, dark-coloured, and rough-skinned variety of the common species. These are much used in medicine and cookery.

_Bergamot_ is a well-known perfume, obtained from the rind of a variety of orange much cultivated near the town of Bergamo in Italy, whence it has obtained its name. The rind is cut into small pieces, and the oil is pressed out into glass vessels. Sometimes a fragrant water is distilled from the peel.

209. _The SHADDOCK_ (Citrus decumana) _is a yellowish green fruit, of the orange kind, as large as the head of a child, with twelve or more cells, and contains a red or whitish pulp. It is very common in many parts both of the East and West Indies._

In hot climates the shaddock is much esteemed on account of its agreeable flavour, which is a pleasant mixture of sweet and acid. It is safely eaten, even in considerable quantities, and is esteemed very salubrious. The rind is thick, and has a disagreeable bitterish taste. This fruit is indebted, for its name, to a Captain Shaddock, who is said to have first brought it from China, or, as some say, from Guinea, and transplanted it into one of the West Indian islands.

210. _CAJEPUT is a greenish coloured oil produced from the fruit of a tree_ (Melaleuca leucodendron) _which grows in the East Indies._

_This tree has a long flexible trunk; with linear spear-shaped, alternate leaves, which are smooth, ash-coloured, and each with five nerves. The flowers are white, and in long, terminal spikes._

The _leaves_ of the cajeput tree have an aromatic odour, somewhat resembling that of cardamom seed (15); and they yield, by distillation, an essential oil, which manifests this aromatic principle still more strongly.

Among the Malays cajeput oil is a medicine in great repute; but its uses are so little known in this country that it is rarely kept even in the shops of the metropolis. In acute rheumatism and gout, however, it has been known to afford immediate relief by being rubbed on the part affected; but it ought not to be applied without great care, as it is very powerful in its effects. Cajeput oil is one of the most valuable remedies which have hitherto been discovered for the toothache. From whatever cause this affection of the face may proceed, whether from a carious or hollow tooth, rheumatic acrimony, or cold, this oil has generally been found efficacious in removing it. It is best applied by being dropped on lint, and placed in the cavity of the tooth, or round the gum. Hence it deserves a place in the medicine chest of every private family.

If taken internally, in a dose of five or six drops, it heats and stimulates the whole system; and it is said to have had a beneficial effect in dropsies and intermittent fevers. In India it is used, both internally and externally, in palsies, deafness, gout, rheumatism, and several other complaints.

Its odour is remarkably destructive to insects. A few drops of it, in a cabinet or drawer in which animal or vegetable specimens of natural history are kept, in a dried state, have, on this account, been found useful.

Cajeput oil is chiefly prepared in the island of Bouro, one of the Moluccas; and it is imported into Europe from the East Indies. But, from its high price, it is so frequently adulterated, that it is seldom to be had genuine in Europe.

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CLASS XIX.--SYNGENESIA.

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ÆQUALIS.

211. _The ARTICHOKE_ (Cynara scolymus) _is a well-known plant which is grown chiefly for culinary purposes, and was originally imported into this country from the south of Europe._