Part 2

The principal art of Landscape Painting consists in conveying to the mind the most forcible effect which can be produced from the various classes of scenery; which possesses the power of exciting an interest superior to that resulting from any other effect; and which can only be obtained by a most judicious selection of particular tints, and a skilful arrangement and application of them to differences in time, seasons, and situation. This is the grand principle on which pictorial excellence hinges; as many pleasing objects, the combination of which renders a piece perfect, are frequently passed over by an observer, because the whole of the composition is not under the influence of a suitable effect. Thus, a Cottage or a Village scene requires a soft and simple admixture of tones, calculated to produce pleasure without astonishment; awakening all the delightful sensations of the bosom, without trenching on the nobler provinces of feeling. On the contrary, the structures of greatness and antiquity should be marked by a character of awful sublimity, suited to the dignity of the subject; indenting on the mind a reverential and permanent impression, and giving, at once, a corresponding and unequivocal grandeur to the picture. In the language of the pencil, as well as of the pen, sublime ideas are expressed by lofty and obscure images; such as in pictures, objects of fine majestic forms, lofty towers, mountains, lakes margined with stately trees, rugged rocks, and clouds rolling their shadowy forms in broad masses over the scene. Much depends upon the classification of the objects, which should wear a magnificent uniformity; and much on the colouring, the tones of which should be deep and impressive.

In the selection of a subject from Nature, the Student should ever keep in view the principal object which induced him to make the sketch: whether it be mountains, castle, groupes of trees, corn-field, river scene, or any other object, the prominence of this leading feature in the piece should be duly supported throughout; the character of the picture should be derived from it; every other subject introduced should be subservient to it; and the attraction of the one, should be the attraction of the whole. The union of too great a variety of parts tends to destroy, or at least to weaken the predominance of that which ought to be the principal in the composition; and which the Student, when he comes to the colouring, should be careful to characterise, by throwing upon it the strongest light. In his attention to this rule, however, the Student must be particular not to fall into the opposite extreme, by suffering the leading object of his composition so fully to engross his attention as to render him neglectful of the inferior parts. Because they are not to be exalted into principals, it does not follow that they are to be degraded into superfluities.

All the lights in a picture should be composed of warm tints, except they fall on a glossy or reflective surface; such as laurel leaves, glazed utensils, etc., which should be cool, and the lights small, to give them a sparkling appearance: but care must be taken not to introduce a cold colour in the principal light, which, as already mentioned, should be thrown upon the leading feature of a picture, as it conduces to destroy the breadth that should be preserved; while on the contrary, the opposition or proximity of a cool to a warm colour assists greatly in giving brilliancy to the lights. If the picture, for instance, should have a cool sky, the landscape ought to be principally composed of warm tints; as contrast of this description tends to the essential improvement of the general effect.

All objects which are not in character with the scene should be most carefully avoided, as the introduction of any unnecessary object is sure to be attended with injurious consequences. This must prove the necessity of becoming thoroughly acquainted with, and obtaining a proper feeling of, the subject. The picture should be complete and perfect in the mind, before it is even traced upon the canvas. Such force and expression should be displayed, as would render the effect, at the first glance, intelligible to the observer. Merely to paint, is not enough; for where no interest is felt, nothing can be more natural than that none should be conveyed.

Finally, it may be observed, that it is only by a due attention to each distinct part, and by a skilful combination of all, that the whole can be effective and delightful.

ON OUTLINE.

The young draftsman who is ambitious of future eminence must be close in his attention to those minute points which, skilfully combined, constitute the excellence of the painter. In the outset, it will be necessary for him to be particular in his designation of the Outline, for the perfection of which, he must possess a clear conception of his subject; otherwise, be his genius what it may, he will wander wildly, without either promoting his own satisfaction, or conveying a definite or correct idea to the observer. Too little attention has generally been paid to this point, by Students: they are too apt to appear disconcerted and discouraged, when the task wears a complexion of difficulty.

A clear and decided Outline possesses a manifest superiority over an imperfect or undecided one, inasmuch as it renders unnecessary those continual references to Nature or to copy, which must be had recourse to, where the Outline is defective. He who devotes his time to the completion of a perfect Outline, when he has gained this point, has more than half finished his piece; while the author of a slovenly Outline creates for himself an infinity of trouble, in order to evade additional errors in the colouring of his subjects; and after all his efforts, finds it impossible to produce a picture perfect in any one part. To attain proficiency in the art of pencilling, the Student is recommended to practise Drawing from the casts of the antique, by which study he will acquire a growing facility in the designation of fine forms, as well as a more correct and decided mode of outlining. The Pupil will also find his progress greatly accelerated by the dedication of his leisure moments to copying objects of still life--a practice which will be found replete with advantage, when he studies combinations of subjects for compositions of landscape scenery.

In tracing the distinct objects of a landscape, it is recommended to attend more particularly to the general forms than to detail: for example, in sketching a mountain, it will be sufficient to describe the extreme Outline, without descending to the diversified and numerous ridges which may appear; for although these uneven divisions arrest the attention of the Student, when engaged in tracing the particular form of the eminence, they are lost to the eye which embraces, at one view, the whole of the scene. A greater degree of minuteness, however, ought to be observed in the Outline of the fore-ground of a picture, where the features of the object assume a more specific appearance, shewing decided forms, and obtruding all their diversities of shape upon the view. To obtain excellence in this respect, it will be necessary to make correct drawings from Nature, of weeds, plants, bark of trees, and such objects as usually constitute the foreground of a landscape.

The Student must first commence with perpendicular, horizontal, and diagonal lines, to give the hand that freedom and certainty which are necessary. The Drawing must be strongly marked in the shade and foreground of the subject, but more delicately in the lighter parts, and as the distance gradually increases. Due attention to this cannot fail to give the true spirit and perspective. The Plates of this Work should be copied in regular succession, and any bad line that may be made should be entirely expunged; for all effort to rectify, by retouching, will only give the piece a scratched and indecisive appearance, and consequently will cause confusion and mistakes in the colouring.

Any little failure must not be made the source of discouragement; and in case the Student should not have succeeded altogether so well as could be wished, in the first attempt, he ought by all means to persevere until completely successful; carefully endeavouring, in his renewed efforts, to avoid the same errors. This mode will assuredly be followed with far greater improvement than can possibly attend hasty transitions from one subject to another, without producing perfection in either.

The best and surest method of obtaining instruction from the Works of others is not so much by copying them, as by drawing the same subjects from Nature immediately after a critical examination of them, while they are fresh in the memory. Thus they are seen through the same medium, and imitated upon the same principles, without preventing the introduction of sufficient alterations to give originality of manner, or incurring the risk of being degraded into a mere imitator.

If the mind be fixed and sincere in pursuit of the Art, difficulties will be easily surmountable: they will rather quicken than damp the desire for improvement; for it is only where talent is required that Genius can be active. The accomplishment of one task will only give additional stimulus for the performance of another. Increasing pleasure will naturally flow from progressive improvement. The mind will ever be busily and pleasingly employed; for “the effect of every object that meets a Painter’s eye may give him a lesson.”

ON LIGHT AND SHADE, AND EFFECT.

It is here that the Art begins to display its varied and inexhaustible beauties, and to reward the patient and improving Student. The outline being completed in the manner prescribed by the foregoing instructions, LIGHT and SHADE, and EFFECT, should be studied in sepia or Indian ink, by which a clearer conception of each will be acquired than if practised in colours; the variety of the latter tending to perplex the mind, and to divert it from the main object. Colouring is a distinct and subsequent branch, and is only to be learnt by long and minute observation of the diversified tints and hues of Nature. The principle of Light and Shade, on the contrary, is established by theory. This subject has already been so admirably treated on, that it will be impossible to give a better insight into it than is contained in the following passages extracted from a celebrated Work.

“Shadow is a diminution of light occasioned by the interposition of some opake body, which receiving and intercepting the light that should be cast on the plane it is placed on, there gives a shadow of its own form: for light being of a communicative nature, diffuses itself on every thing not hid from it, particularly on every thing that is plain and smooth; but where there happens the least elevation, a shadow is produced which exhibits the figure of the illumined part on the plane.

“The diversity of luminaries occasions a difference of shadows; for if the body that illumines be larger than the body illumined, the shadow will be less than the body. If they be equal, the shadow will be equal to the illumined; and if the luminary be less than the object, the shadow will be continually enlarging as it goes farther off.

“From what has been observed we draw this conclusion: that the same object may project shadows of different forms, though still illumined on the same side; the sun giving one form, the torch or lamp another.

“The sun always makes its shadow equal to the object; that is, projects it parallel-wise. It is certainly of consequence to observe these rules precisely, and not take the rules for candles, lamps, and the like, in lieu thereof.

“The shadow of objects given by a torch or lamp is not projected in parallels, but in rays proceeding from a centre: whence the shadow is never equal to the object, but always larger; and grows larger as it recedes further.

“To find a shadow, two things are supposed, viz., light and body. Light, though quite contrary to shadow, is yet what gives it its being; as the body, or object, is what gives its form and figure. To conceive the nature of shadows more clearly, and render the practice more easy, it must be observed, that there are two points to be made use of: one of them, the foot of the light, which is always taken on the plane the object is placed upon; the other, the luminous body;--the rule being common to the sun, torch, etc., with this difference, that the sun’s shadow is projected in parallels, and that of the torch in rays, from the centre, as before mentioned. But as all objects on earth are so small in comparison of the sun, the diminution of their shadows is imperceptible to the eye, which sees them all equal, neither broader nor narrower than the object that forms them. On this account, all the shadows caused by the sun are made in parallels.

“To find the shadow of any object whatever opposed to the sun, a line must be drawn from the top of the luminary, perpendicular to the plane where the foot of the luminary is to be taken; and from this, an occult line to be drawn through one of the angles of the plane of the object; and another, from the sun to the same angle. The intersection of the two lines will express how far the shadow is to go. All the other lines must be drawn parallel hereto.

“All given shadows must appear darker than that part of the object not illumined, for this reason--those parts of objects not illumined receive the reflection of the brightness around them; while the shadow given can receive no reflection but from the object in shade.”

Having thus given the origin of Light and Shade, it will be necessary next to proceed to give some idea of the various effects of Nature, and the class of scenery suitable to each effect; as the great merit of a picture depends on the most appropriate Effect given to each scene.

Abrupt and irregular lines are productive of a grand or stormy Effect; while serenity is the result of even and horizontal lines, where no roughness or intersections appear, to invade the mild harmony of beauty.

Morning Effect, for instance, may be displayed in any composition the form and character of which are pleasing to the eye--where the pendent forms of trees, combined with other objects, communicate to the mind a delightful impression; and a similar observation will hold good with respect to Mid-day, which may be produced in various situations: but owing to the great glare of light in such Effects, hay-fields, corn-fields, or any busy scene on rivers, etc., are suitable for the Effect, and as regards Evening and Twilight. Such Effects being calculated to convey to the mind impressions of grandeur, the composition should be studied, to produce such an Effect; and the Colouring ought to be perfectly in unison with the peaceful repose or the gloomy majesty which controls the scene.

A flat country, on the marshy banks of a winding river, should be seen beneath a grey, clouded sky. The transient effect adapted to such a landscape is produced by the fleeting lights of the sunbeams, struggling, between the interstices of the blowing clouds. The old Pollard Willow is strictly characteristic of this scene, being indigenous to countries of this description; and its situation in the landscape might be such, as to carry the eye through all the various meanderings of the stream.

In landscapes which may have been selected solely with a view to the display of some particular object, and which are low, and, on the whole, less prolific in interest, and less gratifying to the eye, than others might have been, an additional feature of interest should be thrown into the sky, to aid, by the contrast it would afford, the effect of the whole, which otherwise might appear unsatisfactory; taking care, at the same time, not to invade or to injure the prominent character of the picture. On the other hand, however, where the scene itself is naturally full of interest, the picture will of course admit of a less beautiful and imposing; sky: although in this case, as in the former, due attention should be paid, to support the character of the whole. At the same time it ought to be fully explained, that these observations must be understood as by no means intended to confine the exertions of the Student entirely to the particular subjects which have been chosen for illustration in the various Effects of this Work; as it will be obvious, in drawing from Nature, the Student will find subjects very different, equally adapted to this purpose; and in his selections from the objects which may present themselves to his notice, he will of course find, in his own taste, a guide which will be more or less correct, in proportion as he has cultivated and refined it.

METHOD OF LAYING ON THE TINTS.

It will be necessary that the Pupil should be provided with good hair pencils, sepia or Indian ink, and saucers to mix each separate shade in; also paper strained upon a proper drawing-board.

The outline being made very correct, the Pupil will mix up three or four different shades, according to the number of distances there may be in the copy, and carefully match them to each, commencing with the sky, and keeping the drawing-board a good deal sloped, which will assist the tint to follow the pencil in the part where he is at work. He will also be particularly careful always to lay it on clear to the outline. After he has gone over the sky, in all the principal parts, sufficient to produce the effect, he will next proceed to lay in all the shades, or masses of shadow, which usually form the general effect of the composition; beginning always with the third distance in the landscape; afterwards the second or middle distance; and then working the fore-ground in the same way. It ought to be observed as an invariable rule, that the pencil should be tolerably full of colour, in order that it may float, which will give clearness to the work. After having gone over the whole in the shadows, the Learner will mix a tint something lighter than each shadow, which must be used upon the lights in blending the dark into the lights, such as in fractured stone, brick, broken plaister, etc., and in those parts of trees where it is required to break the shadows into the light branches by small touches; which will give a finish to the appearance of the drawing, and soften or blend together any parts which may appear too abrupt. In the finishing, a dark shade should be mixed up, with which those parts in the shadows which require to be marked out in the outline may be finished up; and a proper depth should be given to the dark parts: but care should be taken not to use this dark tint in any bright light, as it would render the part harsh, and unpleasant to the eye.

It must be observed, that in putting on all tints or shadows the Student must accustom himself to working with his board straight before him; and in laying on his tints, must be particularly careful to begin by laying them close to the outline, and not by repeated touches, or dragging the pencil backward and forward in a timid manner, without any decided method--a fault that is chiefly owing to the outline not being made correct; for where the Pupil has made a correct and decided outline, all timidity vanishes, and he will work with spirit and freedom. The reverse is the cause of so many failures in the commencement of the Art.

ON COLOURING.

The effect having been studied in Sepia or Indian ink, in the Colouring of his subject the young Student should be particularly attentive to the adaptation of his colours to the composition and effect of the piece. In Morning and Evening effects we naturally look towards the light which at those periods of the day is marked by a mild beauty which gratifies and attracts, yet divested of that dazzling noontide effulgence which weakens and repulses, the eye. Those objects which are seen against the strongest light must wear a neutral tint, which may be termed negative harmony; for were they to be garbed in the rich and full-dress liveries of Nature, the influence of the lustres behind them would in a great measure be rendered nugatory, and the effect weak and full of error: on the contrary, in the representation of broad sunshine or mid-day, those parts of the piece which are visited by, but not seen against, strong lights, will admit of a rich and beautiful harmony of colour, without doing violence to truth, or infringing on the economy of Nature; and this may be called positive harmony, or a picture of colour.

Every tint should be laid on with clearness and decision, so that the object may receive its proper tone at the first touch of the hair pencil; nor is less skill required in the choice and appropriation of the colours, which should be diversified as much as is consistent with the unison necessary to the production of harmony. Objects which are exposed to the light require a higher finish and more glowing warmth of colour than those which are shrouded in shade; while the minutest parts of the former ought to be touched with the utmost care, so as to render visible and striking all that the broad and bright radiance of the sun may be supposed to develope. The latter will admit of a less laboured and less perfect delineation. In the lights of a picture, attention to this rule is indispensable, where it is necessary to distinguish, with so much correctness of detail, those very objects which in shadow would permit that intimacy of union which would almost make them appear as one.

The light aerial tints should be laid on the remotest parts of a picture, gradually brightening into more rich and decided tones as they approach the nearer and more prominent objects; taking care to preserve the same atmosphere throughout the picture.

TEMPLE OF FANCY[C]