Part 21

Several persons likewise assured us that we should have rain before to morrow night. The reason they gave for this conjecture was, that this morning at sun rising, from their windows they had seen every thing very plainly on the other side of the river, so that it appeared much nearer than usual, and that this commonly foreboded rain. This presage was likewise pretty exactly fulfilled.

The Indians before the arrival of the Europeans, had no notion of the use of iron, though that metal was abundant in their country. However they knew in some measure how to make use of copper. Some Dutchmen who lived here, still preserved the old account among them, that their ancestors on their first settling in New York had met with many of the Indians, who had tobacco pipes of copper, and who made them understand by signs, that they got them in the neighbourhood: afterwards the fine copper mine was discovered, upon the second river between Elizabeth-town and New York. On digging in this mine, the people met with holes worked in the mountain, out of which some copper had been taken, and they found even some tools, which the Indians probably made use of, when they endeavoured to get the metal for their pipes. Such holes in the mountains have likewise been found in some parts of Pensylvania, viz. below Newcastle towards the sea side, and always some marks of a copper ore along with them. Some people have conjectured, that the Spaniards, after discovering Mexico, sailed along the coasts of North America, and landed now and then, in order to enquire whether any gold or silver was to be met with, and that they perhaps made these holes in the mountains: but supposing them to have made such a voyage along the coasts, they could not immediately have found out the copper mines; and they probably did not stop to blast this ore, as they were bent only upon gold and silver; it is therefore almost undoubted that the Indians dug these holes: or may we be allowed to suspect that our old Normans, long before the discoveries of Columbus, came into these parts and met with such veins of copper, when they sailed to what they called the excellent Wineland, [51] of which our ancient traditional records called Sagor speak, and which undoubtedly was North America. But in regard to this, I shall have occasion in the sequel better to explain my sentiments. It was remarkable, that in all those places where such holes have lately been found in the mountains, which manifestly seem to have been dug by men, they were always covered with a great quantity of earth, as if they were intended to remain hidden from strangers.

December the 6th. On long voyages the sailors sometimes catch such fish as are known to none of the ship’s company; but as they are very greedy after fresh provisions, they seldom abstain from eating them, however it proves often venturing too much, experience having shown, that their want of caution has often cost them their lives, for sometimes poisonous fish are caught. But there is a method of finding them out, as I have heard from several captains of ships: it is usual when such unknown fish are boiled, to put a silver button, or any piece of silver into the kettle, which if the fish be poisonous, will turn quite black, but if it be not, it will not change: some of the seamen referred to their own repeated experience. [52]

Mr. Franklin and several other gentlemen frequently told me, that a powerful Indian, who possessed Rhode Island had sold it to the English for a pair of spectacles: it is large enough for a prince’s domain, and makes a peculiar government at present. This Indian knew to set a true value upon a pair of spectacles: for undoubtedly if those glasses were not so plentiful, and only a few of them could be found, they would on account of their great use, bear the same price with diamonds.

The servants which are made use of in the English American colonies are either free persons, or slaves, and the former are again of two different sorts.

1. Those who are quite free serve by the year, they are not only allowed to leave their service at the expiration of their year, but may leave it at any time when they do not agree with their masters. However in that case they are in danger of losing their wages, which are very considerable. A man servant who has some abilities, gets between sixteen and twenty pounds in Pensylvania currency, but those in the country do not get so much. A servant maid gets eight or ten pounds a year: these servants have their food besides their wages, but must buy their own clothes, and what they get of these they must thank their master’s goodness for.

2. The second kind of free servants consist of such persons as annually come from Germany, England and other countries, in order to settle here. These new comers are very numerous every year: there are old and young ones, and of both sexes; some of them have fled from oppression, under which they supposed themselves to have laboured. Others have been driven from their country by persecution on account of religion; but most of them are poor, and have not money enough to pay their passage, which is between six and eight pounds sterling for each person; therefore they agree with the captain that they will suffer themselves to be sold for a few years, on their arrival. In that case the person who buys them, pays the freight for them, but frequently very old people come over, who cannot pay their passage, they therefore sell their children, so that they serve both for themselves and for their parents: there are likewise some who pay part of their passage, and they are sold only for a short time. From these circumstances it appears, that the price of the poor foreigners who come over to North America is not equal, and that some of them serve longer than others: when their time is expired, they get a new suit of clothes from their master, and some other things: he is likewise obliged to feed and clothe them during the years of their servitude. Many of the Germans who come hither, bring money enough with them to pay their passage, but rather suffer themselves to be sold, with a view that during their servitude they may get some knowledge of the language and quality of the country, and the like, that they may the better be able to consider what they shall do when they have got their liberty. Such servants are taken preferable to all others, because they are not so dear; for to buy a Negroe or black slave, requires too much money at once; and men or maids who get yearly wages, are likewise too dear; but this kind of servants may be got for half the money, and even for less; for they commonly pay fourteen pounds, Pensylvania currency, for a person who is to serve four years, and so on in proportion. Their wages therefore are not above three pounds Pensylvania currency per ann. This kind of servants, the English call servings. When a person has bought such a servant for a certain number of years, and has an intention to sell him again, he is at liberty to do so; but he is obliged, at the expiration of the term of the servitude to provide the usual suit of cloaths for the servant, unless he has made that part of the bargain with the purchaser. The English and Irish commonly sell themselves for four years, but the Germans frequently agree with the captain before they set out, to pay him a certain sum of money, for a certain number of persons; as soon as they arrive in America, they go about and try to get a man who will pay the passage for them. In return they give according to the circumstances one, or several of their children to serve a certain number of years, at last they make their bargain with the highest bidder.

3. The Negroes or Blacks make the third kind. They are in a manner slaves; for when a Negro is once bought, he is the purchaser’s servant as long as he lives, unless he gives him to another, or makes him free. However it is not in the power of the master to kill his Negro for a fault, but he must leave it to the magistrates to proceed according to the laws. Formerly the Negroes were brought over from Africa, and bought by almost every one who could afford it. The quakers alone scrupled to have slaves; but they are no longer so nice, and they have as many Negroes as other people. However many people cannot conquer the idea of its being contrary to the laws of christianity to keep slaves. There are likewise several free Negroes in town, who have been lucky enough to get a very zealous quaker for their master, who gave them their liberty, after they had faithfully served him for some time.

At present they seldom bring over any Negroes to the English colonies, for those which were formerly brought thither have multiplied considerably. In regard to their marriage they proceed as follows: in case you have not only male but likewise female Negroes, they must intermarry, and then the children are all your slaves: but if you possess a male Negro only, and he has an inclination to marry a female belonging to a different master, you do not hinder your Negro in so delicate a point; but it is no advantage to you, for the children belong to the master of the female; it is therefore advantageous to have Negro-women. A man who kills his Negro must suffer death for it: there is not however an example here of a white man’s having been executed on this account. A few years ago it happened that a master killed his slave; his friends and even the magistrates secretly advised him to leave the country, as otherwise they could not avoid taking him prisoner, and then he would be condemned to die according to the laws of the country, without any hopes of saving him. This lenity was employed towards him, that the Negroes might not have the satisfaction of seeing a master executed for killing his slave; for this would lead them to all sorts of dangerous designs against their masters, and to value themselves too much.

The Negroes were formerly brought from Africa, as I mentioned before; but now this seldom happens, for they are bought in the West Indies, or American Islands, whither they were originally brought from their own country: for it has been found that on transporting the Negroes from Africa, immediately into these northern countries, they have not such a good state of health, as when they gradually change places, and are first carried from Africa to the West Indies, and from thence to North America. It has frequently been found, that the Negroes cannot stand the cold here so well as the Europeans or whites; for whilst the latter are not in the least affected by the cold, the toes and fingers of the former are frequently frozen. There is likewise a material difference among them in this point; for those who come immediately from Africa, cannot bear the cold so well as those who are either born in this country, or have been here for a considerable time; for the frost easily hurts the hands or feet of the Negroes which come from Africa, or occasions violent pains in their whole body, or in some parts of it, though it does not at all affect those who have been here for some time. There are frequent examples that the Negroes on their passage from Africa, if it happens in winter, have some of their limbs destroyed by frost on board the ship, when the cold is but very inconsiderable and the sailors are scarce obliged to cover their hands. I was even assured, that some Negroes have been seen here, who have had an excessive pain in their legs, which afterwards broke in the middle, and dropt entirely from the body, together with the flesh on them. Thus it is the same case with men here, as with plants which are brought from the southern countries, and cannot accustom themselves to a colder climate.

The price of Negroes differs according to their age, health and abilities. A full grown Negro costs from forty pounds and upwards to a hundred of Pensylvania currency. There are even examples that a gentleman has paid hundred pounds for a black slave at Philadelphia, and refused to sell him again for the same money. A Negro boy, or girl, of two or three years old, can hardly be got for less than eight or fourteen pounds in Pensylvanian currency. Not only the quakers, but likewise several christians of other denominations sometimes set their Negroes at liberty. This is done in the following manner: when a gentleman has a faithful Negro who has done him great services, he sometimes declares him independent at his death. This is however very expensive; for they are obliged to make a provision for the Negro thus set at liberty, to afford him subsistence when he is grown old, that he may not be driven by necessity to wicked actions, or that he may be at any body’s charge, for these free Negroes become very lazy and indolent afterwards. But the children which the free Negro has begot during his servitude are all slaves, though their father be free. On the other hand those Negro children are free whose parents are at liberty. The Negroes in the North American colonies are treated more mildly, and fed better than those in the West Indies. They have as good food as the rest of the servants, and they possess equal advantages in all things, except their being obliged to serve their whole life time, and get no other wages than what their master’s goodness allows them: they are likewise clad at their master’s expence. On the contrary, in the West Indies, and especially in the Spanish Islands they are treated very cruelly; therefore no threats make more impression upon a Negro here, than that of sending him over to the West Indies, in case he would not reform. It has likewise been frequently found by experience, that when you show too much remissness to these Negroes, they grow so obstinated, that they will no longer do any thing but of their own accord: therefore a strict discipline is very necessary, if their master expects to be satisfied with their services.

In the year 1620, some Negroes were brought to North America in a Dutch ship, and in Virginia they bought twenty of them. These are said to have been the first that came hither. When the Indians who were then more numerous in the country than at present, saw these black people for the first time, they thought they were a true breed of Devils, and therefore they called them Manitto for a great while: this word in their language signifies not only God, but likewise the Devil. Some time before that, when they saw the first European ship on their coasts, they were perfectly persuaded that God himself was in the ship. This account I got from some Indians, who preserved it among them as a tradition which they had received from their ancestors: therefore the arrival of the Negroes seemed to them to have confused every thing; but since that time, they have entertained less disagreeable notions of the Negroes, for at present many live among them, and they even sometimes intermarry, as I myself have seen.

The Negroes have therefore been upwards of a hundred and thirty years in this country: but the winters here especially in New England and New York, are as severe as our Swedish winters. I therefore very carefully enquired whether the cold had not been observed, to affect the colour of the Negroes, and to change it, so that the third or fourth generation from the first that came hither, were not so black as their ancestors. But I was generally answered, that there was not the least difference of colour to be perceived; and that a Negro born here of parents which were likewise born in this country, and whose ancestors both men and women had all been blacks born in this country, up to the third or fourth generation, was not at all different in colour, from those Negroes who are brought directly over from Africa. From hence many people conclude, that a Negro or his posterity do not change colour, though they continue ever so long in a cold climate; but the mixing of a white man with a Negro woman, or of a Negro with a white woman has a different effect, therefore to prevent any disagreeable mixtures of the white people and Negroes, and that the Negroes may not form too great an opinion of themselves, to the disadvantage of their masters, I am told there is a law made prohibiting the whites of both sexes to marry Negroes, under pain of death, and deprivation of the clergyman who marries them: but that the whites and blacks sometimes mix, appears from children of a mixed complexion, which are sometimes born.

It is likewise greatly to be pitied, that the masters of these Negroes in most of the English colonies take little care of their spiritual welfare, and let them live on in their pagan darkness. There are even some, who would be very ill pleased at, and would by all means hinder their Negroes from being instructed in the doctrines of christianity, to this they are partly led by the conceit of its being shameful, to have a spiritual brother or sister among so despicable a people, partly by thinking that they should not be able to keep their Negroes so meanly afterwards; and partly through fear of the Negroes growing too proud, on seeing themselves upon a level with their masters in religious matters.

Several writings are well known, which mention, that the Negroes in South America have a kind of poison with which they kill each other, though the effect is not sudden, but happens a long time after the person has taken it: the same dangerous art of poisoning is known by the Negroes in North America, as has frequently been experienced. However only a few of them know the secret, and they likewise know the remedy against it, therefore when a Negro feels himself poisoned and can recollect the enemy, who might possible have given him the poison, he goes to him, and endeavours by money and entreaties to move him to deliver him from the poison; but if the Negro is malicious, he does not only deny that he ever poisoned him, but likewise that he knows a remedy against it: this poison does not kill immediately, for sometimes the sick person dies some years after. But from the moment he has the poison he falls into a consumption and enjoys few days of good health: such a poor wretch often knows that he is poisoned, the moment he gets the poison. The Negroes commonly employ it on such of their brethren as behave well, are beloved by their masters, and separate as it were from their countrymen, or do not like to converse with them. They have likewise often other reasons for their enmity; but there are few examples of their having poisoned their masters. Perhaps the mild treatment they receive, keeps them from doing it, or perhaps they fear that they may be discovered, and that in such a case, the severest punishments would be inflicted on them.

They never discover what the poison consists of, and keep it secret beyond conception. It is probable that it is a very common thing which may be got all the world over, for wherever they are they can always easily procure it. Therefore it cannot be a plant, as several learned men have thought; for that is not to be met with every where. I have heard many accounts here of Negroes who have been killed by this poison. I shall only mention one incident which happened during my stay in this country. A man here had a Negro who was exceedingly faithful to him, and behaved so well, that he would not have given him for twenty other Negroes. His master likewise shewed him a peculiar kindness, and the slave’s conduct equalled that of the best christian servant; he likewise conversed as little as possible with the other Negroes; on that account they hated him to excess, but as he was scarce ever in company with them, they had no opportunity of conveying the poison to him, which they had often tried. However on coming to town during the fair (for he lived in the country) some other Negroes invited him to drink with them. At first he would not, but they pressed him till he was obliged to comply. As soon as he came into the room, the others took a pot from the wall and pledged him, desiring him to drink likewise: he drank, but when he took the pot from his mouth, he said what beer is this? It is full of ******. I purposely omit what he mentioned, for it seems undoubtedly to have been the name of the poison with which malicious Negroes do so much harm, and which is to be met with almost every where. It might be too much employed to wicked purposes, and it is therefore better that it remains unknown. The other Negroes and Negro-women fell a laughing at the complaints of their hated countryman, and danced and sung as if they had done an excellent action, and had at last obtained the point so much wished for. The innocent Negro went away immediately, and when he got home, said that the other Negroes had certainly poisoned him: he then fell into a consumption, and no remedy could prevent his death.

End of Vol. I.

ADVERTISEMENT.

The whole Sheet Map of a great Part of North America, intended for the Illustration of these Travels, could not be got ready in Time for the first Volume, on Account of its Size and the great many Names of Places brought into it, which must give it a Superiority above any Map hitherto published of this Part of the World: but the Translator hopes, the Public will the more readily excuse this Omission, as it will greatly tend to make the Map more perfect, and as the second Volume will soon appear, where it shall undoubtedly be inserted.

At the same Time he intreats the Encouragers of this Work to compleat the Subscriptions for the second Volume, and to favour him with the Lists of Subscribers as soon as possible; and if any more Gentlemen will favour him with their Subscriptions, he will look upon it as an incentive the more vigorously to go on with the rest of the Publication.

NOTES

[1] The same opinion has been confirmed by Mr. Buffon in his Hist. Naturelle. tom. 1. art. xix. Vol. 2. p. 419 of the edit. in twelves. F.

[2] The name of Porpesse is certainly derived from the name Porcopesce, given to this genus by the Italians; and it is remarkable that almost all the European nations conspired in calling them Sea-hogs, their name being in German Meer Schwein; the Danish, Swedish, and Norvegian, Marsuin, from whence the French borrowed their Marsouin. The natives of Iceland call them Suinhual, i.e. a Swine-whale, and so likewise the Slavonian nations have their Swinia Morskaya. Whether this consent arises from their rooting the sand at the bottom of the sea in quest of Sand-eels and Sea-worms like swine, or from the vast quantity of lard surrounding their bodies is uncertain. F.

[3] Mr. Kalm is certainly mistaken in reckoning the Bottle-nose amongst the Dolphin kind; it has no teeth in its mouth as all the fish of that class have, and therefore belongs to the first order of the Whales, or those that are without teeth. See Mr. Pennant’s British Zoology, Vol. 3. p. 43. where it is called the beaked Whale, and very well described; a drawing is seen in the explanatory table, n. I. Perhaps it would not be improper to call it Balæna ampullata. F.

[4] In Mr. Pennant’s British Zoology vol. 3. p. 282. is the best account of this fish to be met with; and in his British Zoology, illustrated by Plates and brief explanations is plate xliv. a good and exact drawing of the fish, the upper figure representing it in front, the lower sideways. F.

[5] Head of the Moravian Brethren. F.

[6] Dr. Linnæus mentions only one species of Nyssa, namely Nyssa aquatica; Mr. Kalm does not mention the name of the species; but if his is not a different species, it must at least be a variety, since he says it grows on hills, whereas the aquatica grows in the water. F.

[7] Quere. Is this the Juglans baccata of Linnæus? F.

[8] This species is not to be met with in Linn. spec. plant. F.

[9] In Miller’s Garden Dictionary, it is called Ketmia Indica folio ficus, fructu pentagono, recurvo esculento, graciliori, et longiori.