CHAPTER VIII.

North American Indians. — Diversity of Languages. — The Iroquois. — Dialects. — Descent of Iroquois chiefs through the female line. — Pagan Indians. — Belief in a Great Spirit. — Ceremonies. — Dakotas. — Superstitions. — Dreams. — Fasts. — Sun worship. — Medicine men. — Customs of mourning by widows. — Supernatural influences. — Lightning. — Transmigration. — Worship of Spirit rocks. — Serpent worship. — Human sacrifices. — Burial customs. — Method of curing sickness by steam. — Note upon analogies between the customs of the Indians, Maoris, and the natives of the Sandwich Islands.

It is expedient with respect to the condition of the North American Indians, to take into consideration some of the circumstances relating to their languages, customs, and superstitions; particularly such of them as may appear to have remote analogies with the observances of other races, or with the more advanced state of civilisation that existed in the fifteenth century, among the tribes who had conquered the aboriginal inhabitants of Mexico, Central America, and Yucatan. It is also especially necessary that a brief investigation should be directed to certain exceptional forms of the Indian faith in the influence and power of the unknown gods by whom the Dakotas believed themselves to be surrounded and who were propitiated by acts of severe personal suffering and penance.

In the Northern continent there are two principal facts which attract the attention of those who are thrown into contact with the Iroquois, Chippewas and Dakotas. The first of these which comes under notice is the extraordinary number and diversity of their languages, and afterwards, upon a more extended acquaintance with the customs of these Indians, the strange and most grave nature of the higher character of their ancient religion. With regard to the differences of the languages my attention was first called to this circumstance by M. Cuoq, who, when I visited the Missionary establishment upon the shores of the “Lac des deux Montagnes” in Canada, was in charge of the converts. M. Cuoq was a learned philologist and had published a volume of studies upon the Indian languages.[43]

The assemblage of Roman Catholic converts brought together at the Mission was composed of two tribes, who spoke different languages which were so absolutely distinct that they were unable to converse with each other. One of these groups were Algonquins, whose ancestors originally dwelt to the north of the St. Lawrence, the other was formed from the Iroquois who came from territories bordering upon the southern banks of that river. M. Cuoq, when conducting the religious services, preached to them in their own languages alternately. It is not surprising that these scattered remnants of the two great tribes whose languages were radically dissimilar should still (although they have lived as neighbours for several generations) be unable to understand each other. It is, however, a different matter when the conditions are considered under which the original Iroquois language has become changed into the six languages spoken by the Senecas, Oneidas, Cayugas, Onondagas, Mohawks and Tuscaroras. The extraordinary manner in which the Iroquois language has thus become separated is especially noticeable at the Canadian reservation of those tribes situated near the banks of the Grand River.

According to the traditions of the Iroquois it appears that the nations were composed originally of one large tribe, all of whom spoke one language, and that they dwelt on the southern shores of Lake Ontario. It is stated that they became too numerous for the land which they occupied, and a great council was held to consider what steps should be taken to establish themselves in such a manner as to have hunting grounds sufficiently extensive to enable them to obtain supplies of food. After long discussion it was decided to disperse and to divide into communities. But, in order to prevent disaster from the possibility of being conquered by their enemies when thus separated, it was arranged that they should dwell near each other and thus be able to unite for the purpose of war. It happened, in consequence of this dispersion, that the language gradually became so greatly changed that the tribes were unable to understand each other, and in a period comparatively brief, six distinct dialects were formed which in the course of time became practically new languages.

When these Iroquois, who had been our allies in war, were gathered together and placed upon lands within the Canadian frontier, it was found expedient by them to make one of the dialects a language, which might be so far understood by the six nations, as to be employed upon all occasions when they had to perform their ceremonies, or carry out any purposes which they had in common.

Upon the occasion of my visit to their reservation, I was accompanied by two Indians respectively of the Seneca and Cayuga tribes, both of whom spoke English intelligibly. I asked the Seneca what was the dialect they had chosen to be their language when the Iroquois were assembled together. He replied, that it was the Cayuga, because they believed it was the original language which had been spoken by all of them, and the six nations at the Grand River had learnt it sufficiently to enable them to understand what was said when they met at the Council house, but, for all ordinary purposes, and amongst themselves, each nation spoke its own dialect. With reference to this subject of variations in language, it is evident that amongst the North American Indians, who are scattered over such a large extent of country, the differences in the spoken tongues of the tribes must, in many instances, be caused by the fact of there being no written language, and of their being divided into races, kept apart by wars. It is therefore to be expected that great changes would occur within comparatively short intervals of time. With tribes originally belonging to one nation, these would rapidly become formed into dialects according to the manner in which the tribes moved into other hunting grounds, and became settled into distinct tribal groups. But after making all due allowances for these conditions, it still remains difficult to understand how so great a number of languages have become established amongst a comparatively small population. At no time, since the discovery of America, have the total numbers of Indians within the regions now forming the United States, exceeded five hundred thousand men, women and children. In 1829, it was estimated that the Indian population slightly exceeded three hundred and thirteen thousand. In 1850, according to the census, the total numbers were four hundred thousand.[44]

The most remarkable fact with regard to the Iroquois tribes is that, after having had one original language, they should have become unintelligible to each other, although they lived in close proximity. Their territories were within the limits now occupied by the State of New York. With the Dakotas and Chippewas, whose territories are adjacent, the conditions are different, for these languages have no relation with each other, and the most careful researches have failed to trace any connection between them. The Chippewa dialect belongs to the group of languages classified as Algonquin. Dialects belonging to that original stock are spoken by the Chippewas, Ottawas, Illinois, Shawnees, and all the New England tribes. The Dakota language is at present known to be spoken in thirteen principal dialects, and several sub-divisions. The Iroquois is exclusively confined to the six dialects spoken by the six nations assembled in their reservations.

The history of the dispersion of this race seems to establish the fact that Indian languages can, within a comparatively short period, be so greatly altered as to become practically distinct. This has happened with a nation whose separated tribes have always remained at peace with each other and have united for common defence, or for the prosecution of a war against powerful enemies. With savage nations whose original languages are essentially dissimilar, the constant wars which take place between them possibly introduce elements of change which would influence very considerably the spoken dialects of the opposing tribes. It was a frequent custom after the conclusion of hostilities for the conquerors to incorporate in their tribe the women and children of those whom they had vanquished. Thus a new dialect would be introduced amongst them, and the two languages would necessarily become blended. A succession of wars would cause a continuance of variations of language, and thus it would gradually come to pass that dialects would be formed not only greatly differing from each other, but most difficult to trace to any positive origin.

The Iroquois were not only exceptional in having a fixed system of confederation which enabled them to combine their forces in a manner which increased their fighting strength, but they also had special customs with regard to their chiefs. It was established amongst them as an unalterable regulation that their hereditary descent should be in the female line. This unusual system has attracted much attention. When I was at their reservation I asked my Indian companions for an explanation of the manner in which this was carried into effect in ordinary practice, for it seemed to involve difficulties with regard to intermarriage between the respective nations, and I wished to hear some direct evidence upon that subject.

The Seneca said: “Our children always take the rank of their mothers and join their tribe; thus I, a Seneca, not a chief, married a Cayuga woman the daughter of a chief and my son is therefore a Cayuga and will be a chief of the Cayugas.” Another Indian said: “I live with the Cayugas and my father was a Cayuga, but I am an Onondaga because my mother was an Onondaga woman.”

Whilst I was talking with these men, and passing through the villages of the Oneidas, Senecas and Tuscaroras, I observed that there was no church or any building set apart for religious purposes and I asked the Seneca how this happened, as in the other Iroquois reservations that I had seen, the church usually was in a prominent position near the centre of the settlement. He said that I was amongst men who were called Pagan Indians, and that the Grand River Iroquois were divided into two classes, Christians and Pagans. The former were settled upon a part of the lands a few miles distant. He also told me that they always kept themselves distinct from the converts, and were careful to follow their ancient belief and maintain, as far as possible, the ceremonies and religious customs of their ancestors.

I asked a Cayuga, who had joined us, and who was one of the leading men of his tribe, if he would tell me to what extent, and in what form, their Pagan worship was practised. I also mentioned, that I wished for information with regard to the Iroquois belief in a Supreme Being. It was ascertained by the Jesuit missionaries, that a belief in one over-ruling Power was found to exist among them, and in this respect they differed from all other American Indians, with whom it seemed to be conclusively ascertained, that their worship only consisted of propitiations of the various powers that they believed had influence for good or evil in connection with matters around them. It was found by the priests, that the chief obstacle in enabling the savages to comprehend the meaning of their teaching, was the want of capacity in the minds of the Indians to understand the nature of a Power who controlled all movements of the heavens and earth. It was consequently interesting to meet an Indian who could intelligently explain this unusual peculiarity of the Iroquois belief.

This Cayuga, in reply to my questions, said, “We all believe in the Great Spirit whom we call How-wan-ni-yu, and we have four feasts in every year made to him. Those at the New Year and at the Harvest time are the greatest. We meet at the Long House[45] dressed, as was the custom in former times, with skins and feathers, and have our faces painted. In the middle of the room we place our offerings of wheat, fruit, tobacco, and flesh, according to what we can give, and the season of the year. Round this pile of offerings we have a dance. After this is over, our principal chief makes a speech and tells us about the goodness and nature of How-wan-ni-yu. Then we have another dance, after which another chief makes a speech, and so on, until all the speeches are finished. Then all the offerings are divided amongst us and the meeting ends.”

I asked the Indians if they had any other kind of worship or prayer. They said they had nothing more, and that the dance to How-wan-ni-yu was not considered by them to be a prayer, but was meant as an acknowledgment of the goodness of the harvest. I found a difficulty in obtaining from these Iroquois any definite opinion with regard to their ideas of the nature of How-wan-ni-yu, but at last the Cayuga said abruptly: “We consider him to be the maker of all things upon the earth, and we know nothing more about the matter.” There were, originally, various ceremonies performed by the tribes in connection with the appearance of the first new moon of the year, and there were also tribal dances after any success in hunting or in war, but these are no longer performed. One of the new moon ceremonies was the sacrifice of a dog by fire, and the ashes were scattered over the ground as an offering.

Upon leaving the reservation, it was not possible to feel otherwise than regret that it had become the fate of the descendants of a powerful nation of warriors to be penned within these restricted limits. Men, women and children, were leading aimless and useless lives. They were pensioners upon Governments which would gladly escape from the duties and expenses which the existence of these Indians demand, and who are, in many cases, victims to the temptations offered to them by the habits of modern civilisation.[46]

The Dakotas and the Iroquois have always been considered as the most powerful and warlike of the aboriginal races of North America. Both of these tribes also possessed, certain religious customs relating to the mental and physical training of their youthful warriors, which were intended to strengthen their characters, and to give them the power to endure privations and suffering with fortitude. The Dakotas carried into effect their observances to an extent far beyond that of any other race. Their superstitions and religious ceremonies, with reference to this system of preparing the foundations for the establishment of the qualities required to enable a Dakota to fulfil his duties as a courageous and honourable member of his tribe, are most characteristic, and appear to be invaluable elements in the formation of the qualities required by a race dwelling in wild and desolate lands, surrounded by enemies. It was an invariable rule with all the Dakotas, that the youths upon reaching manhood, should pass through a probationary period of fasting. This was done for the purpose of enabling each young Dakota to obtain a knowledge of the spiritual world by which he was surrounded, and to learn, by the revelations that would be made to him in dreams, the nature of the Manito which would influence his thoughts and actions during his life. The fasts were always performed in solitude, far away from the tribe, and frequently continued for a considerable time. It was supposed that towards the latter part of this probation, his dreams would give him an insight into the mysterious conditions of life and nature that appeared to be supernatural, and that he would discover the god, animal or other object to which he was especially linked and which he was to propitiate by sacrifices.

It was an essential part of this early endurance of trial and abstinence, that it not only should be performed in secret, but that for the remainder of his life the Indian should hold his faith in silence, and never communicate to others what his dreams had revealed to him. Thus far this early initiation into the mysteries of the unknown world had practically the effect of establishing the mental character, and was a form of training which impressed upon each Indian a separate individuality. Upon the conclusion of the probation of fasting and solitude, the youths had each to pass through trials of their physical endurance, and had to suffer various tortures to prove themselves to be capable of becoming warriors, and to show their manhood by their power of bearing pain with unflinching fortitude.

When I was in that part of the continent which for long periods of time had been occupied by the branch of the Dakota race called Sioux, I endeavoured to ascertain the nature and practice of these customs as far as they were known by the existing Indians. In prosecuting these researches into a subject so interesting and exclusive, I was fortunate in meeting with a man so well informed upon all matters connected with these Indians as the half-breed Faribault. He had lived with the Sioux for many years at the time when they had possession of lands bordering upon the banks of the Mississippi, and had been present, on several occasions, when their most serious superstitious ceremonies were performed. Amongst these were the propitiations made to the sun, a form of worship which was more rigidly and earnestly practised by the Dakotas than by any other nation in North America.

Sun worship existed amongst all the Indian tribes dwelling in the Mississippi valley, particularly with the Natchez in Louisiana, but the manner and the ceremonies differed, and with none of them were the painful personal sufferings and penances, undergone by the worshippers, so great as they were with the Dakotas. An instance of the severity of this penance occurred in the year 1849, when Faribault was living with a Sioux tribe encamped on the western shores of the Mississippi, near Prairie la Crosse. “An Indian,” he said, “dreamt that he had incurred the displeasure of the Great Spirit, and that it was necessary to appease him by sacrificing to him everything that he valued, and also to perform penance by undergoing the utmost pain that he was able to endure. A scaffolding was raised near the camp, consisting of two upright poles—of sufficient length—which were firmly fixed in the ground. These were connected near the top by a cross pole. When this was completed the Indian stood up and, shortly before daybreak, a cut was made within the fleshy parts of each arm near the shoulders through which was passed a rope. Cuts or holes were then made in the breasts and other ropes were pushed through them. The cords were then tied to the stakes in such a manner that the arms were suspended by them. The breast ropes were secured in a position such as to allow that a certain portion of the man’s weight was held by them. His feet were allowed just to touch the ground. His dog was killed and placed in front of him together with his blanket, cut into strips, his feathers, his ornaments, and all that he possessed.

“When these preparations were made the Indian waited for the rising of the sun, and directly it appeared above the eastern horizon he threw his head back and fixing his gaze upon it commenced dancing. His friends at the same time maintained an incessant beating of a small drum. The dancing continued throughout the day, the Indian moving his position as the sun moved and taking care always to keep the sun in his front and to gaze steadfastly upon it without shrinking from its full light. After sunset he remained watching the western sky throughout the night. In the morning he turned round towards the dawn and when the sun appeared, was immediately cut down from the scaffold and fell exhausted upon the ground.”

This act of sun worship is frequently performed, and the Sioux firmly believe that if they do not obey the dream which points out to them this duty, serious misfortunes will happen to them and their families. Instances have been known of men being able to endure long periods of torture, and young Indians, when passing through the early trials of their strength, will frequently remain for hours entirely suspended by ropes rove through their flesh. It is not possible to estimate the actual personal suffering thus inflicted upon themselves by these North American Indians, by the standard of what would be felt by more sensitive and more highly organised races. I have seen Chinamen endure with stolid indifference, tortures that would cause Europeans to feel the utmost agony.[47]

The Dakotas had another form of sun worship, which is still practised by some of the tribes in the West, but which appears to be chiefly intended as a tribal thanksgiving or rejoicing. A pole is raised in the centre of the encampment and upon it are placed figures of birds, beasts and reptiles. The Indians dance round this pole during the day taking care to keep their faces towards the sun. Shortly before sunset the figures are shot at until they have all fallen upon the ground. After this there is another dance which ends when the sun sinks below the horizon. The ceremony is then concluded.

Sickness is, with the Dakotas as with the Pawnees, considered to have been sent as a punishment for some wrong deed that has been committed either by an individual or by the tribe. I was told by Faribault that whenever a Sioux found that he was suffering from illness he sent for the medicine man,[48] who, upon his arrival, would immediately proceed to ascertain what evil act the patient had done, and would then take the requisite measures to drive out the evil spirit representing the nature of the offence. It is assumed that the offence committed by the sick person has some reference to a man, woman or animal. The medicine man, who pretends to have the power of second-sight, looks steadily at the patient, until he declares that he can see the inner demon that torments him. After certain incantations, he makes out of clay an image of the creature which is causing the sickness, and then shoots at it until it is shattered. It is expected that this act will cause the devil to depart. If this method of cure fails, other images are made, as it is then assumed that more than one evil deed has been perpetrated. Finally, if all these remedies are unsuccessful it is pronounced that the patient must perform a penance. This usually consists of a long fast, and is considered to be a personal matter strictly confined to the relations that exist between the Indian and the Manito under whose guidance he believes himself to be, and which has been ascertained during the period of the great fast performed in his youth.

It was the custom with the Sioux, whenever the head of the household died, for the women to mourn for a year. One of their chiefs had died a few years before I was at Mendota, and Faribault, who had known him intimately, went to the settlement to see the widow. He found her engaged in the occupation of cutting deep gashes in her arms and legs. She had, in her hand a rounded scalping knife and with this weapon she was striking herself and inflicting wounds from which blood was flowing. All the furniture and mats had been removed from the tepee or tent, and she was sitting upon the earth. At the conclusion of the time of mourning it is usual for the women to go to their friends or join some other household, and the old tepee is then thrown down and left in a heap upon the ground.

At the time that Faribault was speaking about these customs, there were present several Sioux, who had come from their encampment, and were listening to him. When he had finished his narrative, I took the opportunity of asking these men some questions about the belief of the Sioux, with respect to lightning and thunder, as I had heard that the Dakotas held some especial opinions upon these manifestations of supernatural power. One of the beliefs attributed to them was that lightning was a stone, and it was difficult to understand what could be their reason for holding such a strange belief. They said, in answer to my question, that lightning was certainly a stone, and that they knew it was so because they had seen it, and it was very hard and like a rock. Possibly the Indians had seen the fall of some aerolites, or they may have observed the effects of lightning after it had struck the earth. They state, that sometimes a small hot stone is found near the roots of a tree that has been injured by a flash of lightning.

I asked Faribault, whether any of the tribes with whom he had lived, appeared to have any belief in one supreme Great Spirit. He replied, that, as far as he had been able to judge of this matter, the Sioux held this belief vaguely, but, that it did not influence their actions. The Dakotas have a Pagan custom of investing animals, hills, mountains, and all remarkable natural manifestations of unknown powers with especial spirits of good or evil influence, each demanding different forms of worship and propitiation. They have also—under certain conditions—a belief in the transmigration of souls into animals. They consider that this takes place when an Indian has been guilty of some act of cowardice or treachery. In such a case, his spirit is supposed, after death, to go into some animal or to take its form, and then it is sometimes believed that it haunts the neighbourhood of the camp. The superstitious nature of the Sioux is often strangely affected by traditions respecting these wandering spirits, and when under this influence, it is said by the half-breeds living amongst them, that they seem to possess the power of seeing supernatural things.

There was an instance of this mentioned as having occurred a few years previously. A Sioux died: it was known that he had dreamed that, after his death, he would enter the body of a bear, and would then wander round the tents of the tribe. After his death, an Indian looked out at daybreak, and declared that he saw upon an opposite hill a large grey bear. Upon hearing this rumour the tribe assembled, and many of the men imagined that they saw it. After this appearance there was a universal dread of the bear. It was frequently seen, and the Indians were careful to avoid meeting it. During the time that the tribe were encamped in this part of the country, south of the Minnesota, the bear was occasionally seen prowling over the hills. One of the chiefs was asked by a white man, who was trading with this tribe, why it was not killed, and he was told, that it was because it contained the spirit of a dead brother. There was no doubt in the minds of the Indians about the reality of the vision. They were positive in declaring that they saw the bear, and would point it out to the half-breeds staying in the camp, who could never see it. This power of seeing what is to other men unseen, is stated to be possessed by many of the Dakotas, and is probably, in a great measure, due to a highly sensitive condition of mind, caused by their long periods of self-imposed abstinence. Faribault said, that Sioux, when travelling the country, will suddenly start and tremble, and point to something not visible to the half-breeds, and declare that they see the form of the spirit that they dread.

The dreams and fasts of the Dakotas, and the time passed by them in solitude, explain much that is strange and exceptional in their nature. It is thus intelligible how it happens, that the young Indians have such an earnest and vivid belief in the spiritual nature of the unknown and mysterious world, and that they invest with supernatural attributes the mysterious powers which surround them. It must seem natural to them, that thunder and lightning, sun, moon, mountains, and rivers, should be considered as manifestations of powerful spirits, that require to receive worship and sacrifice. What, however, is not so obvious, is the cause which impels them to worship large rocks and stones, which cannot, by any stretch of the imagination, be supposed to possess active powers of good or evil. Upon this subject I asked the Indians for their explanation, saying, that I supposed they did not directly worship a stone, such as that near Mendota, but the spirit who had placed it there. Faribault said, that this worship also followed upon dreams, and the Indians, who were present, concurred in his statement. It sometimes happens that a Sioux, in his dream, instead of seeing the image of the sun or some animal, will see nothing but one of these large Spirit rocks. It is thus conveyed to his mind, that this is his god, by which his actions and fate are to be governed during his life, and to whom he must offer sacrifices.

The whole tribe will occasionally take part in the worship of a boulder.[49] A dreamer, usually in this case, a man who is supposed to be gifted with prophetic power, dreams that it has become necessary to propitiate some unknown spirit. Then if he afterwards dreams of one of these boulders he acquaints the tribe with the nature of his dream, and the camp is immediately moved to the neighbourhood of the particular stone that is to receive sacrifices. This worship of Spirit rocks continues to take place. There is a large rounded mass of granite on the west bank of the Mississippi, lying upon the prairie a few miles below Lake Pepin, which is still visited by wandering bands of Sioux. It had been painted a bright red colour. When passing near the spot where it was situated, I saw the fires of the encampment of Indians who had come there to perform their ceremonies.

Amongst the various superstitious customs of the Dakotas, none are more singular than those which are related to serpent worship, and I listened with attention to the opinions of the Sioux upon this subject. They said that with serpents, as with other animals, the sacrifices made to them were entirely a personal matter, depending upon the nature of the dreams and upon the special kind of affinity that an Indian might believe himself to possess with them. With regard to rattlesnakes the methods of propitiation varied, for it happens that some of the men of a tribe find that they have a power of fascination over these reptiles. Others are aware of a feeling of dread of them, and consequently act differently. Usually a snake worshipper, upon meeting a rattlesnake, carefully clears and smooths the ground and places upon it his offering. He then fills his pipe with tobacco, lights it and turns the mouth-piece towards the snake, holding the bowl in his hands. He then makes his request.[50] But, said the Sioux, these things are done in secret and very little is known about them. Each Indian, especially concerned, knows how and in what manner to offer his sacrifice.

There is necessarily a difficulty in comprehending the depth or extent of the belief in the supernatural powers of the gods ruling over them, as understood and acted upon by ignorant and savage natures, such as the Dakotas, whose opinions have been formed after they have undergone long periods of fasting and suffering. An event occurred in a tribe then dwelling near the banks of the Minnesota, which proved that these Indians believed that their gods took a direct part in the government of the world beneath them, and manifested their anger by punishing those men who had offended them, unless a sufficient sacrifice was made as a propitiation. This event was reported in the year 1852, by Mr. Prescott, who was residing amongst the Sioux.

His letter ran as follows:—

“St. Peters, _January_ 26, 1852.

“SIR,

“I mentioned an instance of human sacrifice amongst the Sioux, but I did not know for what cause at the time, but since I have found out the cause of the sacrifice.

“There came up a terrible thunder-storm. The lightning was flashing and falling in every direction about the Indian’s lodge, and the Indian thought the lightning or thunder was angry with him, and was about to kill him; so the Indian took his gun and shot his own son, and offered him as a sacrifice to the thunder, to save his own life.”[51]

Amongst the Indian races occupying the Northern American continent, the Dakotas and the Pawnees are the only tribes who are known to have had the custom of sacrificing human beings to their gods. It is of importance to remark that these two races dwelt in neighbouring lands, and had customs which point to analogies with the Toltecs and Aztecs, in Southern Mexico, and the Mound Builders in Ohio. With the Dakotas human sacrifices were the greatest of the propitiations to their angry gods. It was known that Faribault had dwelt with a tribe of the Sioux upon an occasion when one of these sacrifices occurred, and I asked him to give me a detailed account of the proceedings that then took place, for cases of that serious nature rarely happen, although some centuries earlier, when tribal wars were frequent and perilous, it may be conjectured that they were numerous.

Faribault said that, at the time when this human sacrifice occurred, he was living with a band of Sioux belonging to the Sissiton tribe, and they were encamped near the west shores of Lake Pepin. “They had come to the conclusion that, for some reason which they did not comprehend, a curse was upon them. Everything seemed to go wrong. Game was scarce and hard to kill, and there was much distress and sickness. Fastings and the usual sacrifices seemed to be of no avail, and nothing removed the evil influences which surrounded them. Finally an Indian, not a chief, but a man who was an orator and a prophet, had it made known to him by a dream what propitiation was required. This man had three daughters. The youngest of them was twelve years old; she was a beautiful child and her father’s favourite. He dreamt that, to appease the Great Spirit, it was necessary to sacrifice this child. In the morning before sunrise, he awoke the girl and told her to go out of the tent, wash herself and then put on her best dress and all her ornaments. He then called the tribe together and told them his dream. When they had heard what he declared they removed the tents to an adjacent camping ground and remained there until he joined them. He was then left alone with his daughter. He told her that in his dream he had seen the Great Spirit who had commanded that she should be sacrificed. His daughter accordingly stood up, and facing the sun, began to sing her death song, which was a kind of hymn. At noon, when the sun had risen to its highest point in the sky, he killed her.”

The Sioux stated that after this sacrifice everything prospered, sickness ceased, game became abundant and all went well with the tribe.[52]

The burial customs of the Dakotas were, in several respects, distinctive. The dead were placed upon an open framework or scaffolding, which, when the tribes were encamped upon the prairies, was raised a sufficient height above the ground to be out of the reach of wolves. Ultimately the bones were taken to the tribal burial places. It is not improbable that the Mound Builders had similar usages.[53]

The Sacs and Foxes who dwelt on the lands near the southern borders of a part of the Dakota territories had different customs. Judge Williams told me that, when he was residing amongst them, it was their practice, when burying a man, to fix two upright posts. The body was placed in a sitting position on the surface of the ground with the back resting against one of the posts, and the feet touching the other. It was then covered over with earth.

The methods followed by the Dakotas and Chippewas in curing illness by the use of steam appear to be of very ancient origin, and evidently are the same as those that were described by Clavigero as being practised by the Aztecs in the towns of Mexico. They are also adopted by the Shoshones in the deserts of Utah. Amongst the Dakotas a low circular wigwam is made about four feet high. The frame is usually covered with buffalo skins in such a manner that no steam can escape. A small opening is left through which the patient can crawl in. In the interior of the wigwam some sand is put upon the ground. Stones which have been heated by fire are then pushed in under the wigwam and placed upon this sand, together with a jar of water. The patient then pours the water upon the stones until the interior is filled with vapour or steam.

When the Jesuit missionaries surveyed the shores of Lake Superior in 1669, they reported that the savages in preparing their meals, used a pail made of birch bark, which contained water. Hot stones were thrown into this until the water was raised to a temperature which was sufficiently high to cook their food. This custom was similar to that which was followed by the Maoris in New Zealand.

It is hazardous to attempt to form any conclusions, based upon analogies, respecting the habits and superstitions of savage races, but with regard to the Maoris and the Dakotas, there are circumstances which require that a passing notice should be given to them.

The New Zealanders, like the Dakotas, placed the bodies of the dead upon platforms or high scaffoldings. After a certain time the bones were scraped and gathered together, and taken to the burying place.

The Maoris also had much faith in dreams, and believed that it was chiefly through them that they received communications from their gods. It was also usual for widows to show their grief, upon the death of their husbands, by cutting themselves with sharp instruments.

The Sandwich Islanders, who are believed to be of the same race as the Maoris, used, in cases of sickness, a steam bath in the same manner as the Dakotas.

In 1878, I met a number of Maoris in the valley of the Waikato, in the northern island of New Zealand. The men and women differed from the Malay type, and resembled, in many respects, the North American Indians. I am of opinion, that at a remote period, there must have been a communication between the aboriginal natives of the Sandwich Islands, and the Indians dwelling upon the western coasts of North America.