CHAPTER VI.
The burning of the Steamer Stonewall. — Indian Mounds and Earthworks at Cahokia. — Confluence of the Mississippi and Missouri. — Sacs and Foxes. — Education of Indians. — Nauvoo. — Winona. — Sioux Encampment. — Ancient Mounds near St. Paul’s. — The Sioux War in Minnesota. — Note upon the Ogallalas.
Upon the conclusion of a navigation of the waters of the Ohio, which had extended over a distance exceeding nine hundred miles, we arrived at the mouth of that river, and proceeded on our course up the Mississippi. Evening was approaching when we saw a large steamer called the Stonewall, passing us on her way to New Orleans, crowded with passengers happily unaware of the terrible nature of their impending fate, and of the event about to happen before nightfall.
At sunset, all those who were on board of our vessel, were assembled upon the upper deck, watching the unusual brilliancy of the reflections upon the water, and the vivid colouring of the clouds gathering round the setting sun. We then supposed these effects to be caused by the haze sometimes observed in the atmosphere during that beautiful season towards the close of the year, which has been given the name of the Indian summer. We were ignorant of the conflagration that was taking place lower down the river, or we might have surmised that the glowing tints were possibly caused by the smoke and flames rising from the burning of the steamer we had seen earlier in the afternoon.
We were afterwards informed that news had been received, that a disastrous fire had occurred on board the Stonewall shortly after we passed her, and the flames spread with such rapidity, that, although she was close to the river banks, only thirty-five out of two hundred and forty passengers were saved. The accident was caused by the carelessness of a man, who, when lighting his pipe, accidentally set fire to a quantity of hay that was carried between the upper decks as cargo. It was usual to protect the hay when embarked in this manner, by covering it with a tarpaulin, but through some inattention this precaution had been neglected. The Stonewall was burnt to the water’s edge.
As we drew near to St. Louis, we passed the wide low plains upon which is situated the great Cahokia Mound. As it was my purpose to make an expedition to that part of Illinois before proceeding to the upper part of the Mississippi Valley, I went there a few days after we had landed from the steamer.
The mound when seen from the plains, stands out from them in a manner so isolated and prominent, that it seems at the first glance, to be unquestionable that it must have been raised by human labour; but upon a closer investigation there are good reasons for believing it to be a natural formation of the land, shaped originally like a rounded hillock, and subsequently terraced and altered in such a manner as to make it appear to be altogether artificial. It is ninety feet high, and the base, if the whole of the irregular and spreading area is included, covers a space of about nine acres. The summit is level, and contains nearly two acres. Upon this was established a substantial farmhouse, which I found to be tenanted by a kind and hospitable family, who were evidently in a prosperous condition, and able to cultivate their land advantageously.
The hillock has been given locally the name of Monks Mound, in consequence of its having been for several years the site of a small monastery, belonging to some of the brethren of La Trappe, who, towards the close of the last century, emigrated to this remote spot when the monastic orders were suppressed during the French Revolution. The monks used the lower slopes as a garden, and there still remain the indications of the terraced ground which was used by them for their solitary walks. The Trappists are supposed to have left Cahokia at the time of the restoration of the Bourbons. Probably they returned to France when the Monastery of La Trappe was re-established, in the reign of Louis XVIII.
Before the mound was used as a farm there was on its summit an Indian tumulus. The farmer taking a practical view of this burial heap, destroyed it and spread the contents over his land.
The accompanying sketch of the mounds was taken from the slope of the Cahokia Mound, at a height of about forty feet above the plain. It represents what now remains of these singular earthworks; they must originally have been much more numerous.
On the plain below, there exists a remarkable group of circular and platform mounds, which, in consequence of their unusual position and ground plan, demand careful attention. They differ from the earthworks in Ohio, and appear to have been raised by a tribe having exceptional customs and habits of life. The mounds are not surrounded by any embankments, and were entirely unprotected. They were probably raised to make high platforms for the dwellings of the chiefs. One of them was used, at the time of my visit to Cahokia, as the site of the village schoolhouse.
I endeavoured to trace the plan of the ancient inclosure, which contained a group of the greatest archæological importance, but so many of the mounds had been levelled, that it was difficult to form definite conclusions with regard to its shape or extent. It seems to have been an irregular parallelogram, about fifteen hundred yards in length, having at each end a large earthwork or mound, with a wide and well levelled platform on the top. In the centre, there were two conical mounds, which must have been raised in that position for some important purpose. They were each about forty feet high, and appeared to have been so placed as to dominate the mounds forming the sides of the inclosure. The men farming the adjacent plains, stated that there had been a large number of small burial mounds on their lands, most of which had been destroyed. They had found in them quantities of bones and skulls, but no ornaments or stone weapons.
When ploughing the ground, they had seen below the surface, fragments of rude pottery and many flint arrow heads. A large and highly polished stone spear head was discovered near the settlement and given by the finder to the young American lady who was then acting as teacher at the school house on the mound. It was a hard kind of flinty chert, and was a singularly fine specimen of Indian workmanship.[31]
When I had completed the measurement of the spaces inclosed by the mounds on the plain, I returned to the great mound in order to examine it, and my previous conjecture that it was a natural formation remained unchanged. It was, however, impossible to form a decided opinion upon the subject, for it required a properly executed scientific investigation to be made, before the problem of the construction could be determined. If it should be proved to be artificial, its position and shape as a high platform earthwork, would support a theory, that it was raised by the same race that built the greater temple platform of Cholula, in Mexico.
After quitting the Cahokia mounds and traversing several miles of the plains, where for centuries many generations of Indians had encamped, I returned to St. Louis and embarked on board the Muscatine, a steamer about to proceed to the highest part of the navigable waters of the Mississippi. Sixteen miles above St. Louis we passed the mouth of the Missouri, and observed how its waters, thickly charged with earth, entirely changed the character of the river into which it flowed. Above the confluence, the Mississippi is a clear, tranquil stream, but after receiving the Missouri it becomes muddy, rushing, and turbulent.[32]
It had been my intention to have gone up the Missouri to Nebraska, and the ancient hunting grounds of the Pawnees, but there were certain difficulties which made that plan impracticable, so I decided to proceed northwards, and then to cross the prairies of Minnesota, and Iowa towards the valley of the river Platte. I was fortunate in having as a companion on board the steamer, an American judge, who, before being appointed to the post he then held, had been for many years acting as Indian agent to the Sacs and Foxes, and was well acquainted with the habits of the tribes, who were at that time dwelling upon the territories bordering on the banks of the river.
Judge Williams had great sympathy for the condition of the tribes with whom he lived, and he endeavoured to ascertain if it were possible to establish a higher state of civilisation amongst them. He thought that the younger members of the Sacs and Foxes might be educated in such a manner, that with due attention to the nature of the Indian temperament, they could be made capable of taking a sensible part in the conduct of affairs, and become fitted to fulfil the duties or occupations of useful and peaceful citizens. The authorities with whom he consulted, agreed with him as to the utility of the scheme suggested. Suitable school buildings were placed upon the reservation, and good teachers were selected. For a time the work progressed favourably; the boys were in the first place well grounded in the English language, and then their attention was directed to mathematics.
After several years of study, the senior class of boys had become so far advanced, as to be able to draw geometrical figures and understand elementary algebra. The teachers were hopeful, and it was thought probable, that some of the pupils might ultimately make such progress as to enable them to be prepared for Yale University. All the zeal and energies of the masters, were however proved to have been useless. One morning the whole of the senior class appeared at school, dressed and painted for war. They had thrown off their ordinary clothes, had put on mocassins and leggings, twisted their hair in accordance with savage customs and had stuck feathers in it. The principal asked them what was meant by this extraordinary conduct. “We have come to say,” they replied, “that we now leave you; we are no longer boys: we are Indians.” They then, without saying another word, abruptly left the school and never returned to it.
The experiences of Judge Williams, with respect to the subject of the higher education of those tribes of North American Indians, whose territories were in the upper part of the valley of the Mississippi, corresponded with what I was told by the French Missionaries placed in charge of the Indian convents in the valley of the St. Lawrence. More than two centuries had elapsed since the work of converting, educating and civilising the Iroquois, Chippewa and Algonquin tribes was undertaken. During that long time there had been no good result. The earnest labours and devotion of their lives to these duties had been unavailing, and the attempts to overcome the wild instincts of Indians were thoroughly unsuccessful. The Judge was of opinion, that, with all Indians, the desire for a free and savage life, became irrepressible upon reaching manhood.
On the plains near the river, there were numerous vestiges of native encampments. At Nauvoo, I was told by a farmer that he opened a great number of low mounds which were on his land, and had found in them nothing but broken pottery and charcoal, but in ploughing his fields he had discovered quantities of arrow heads, and several grooved stone hammers.[33] Higher up the Mississippi we entered the country once occupied by the Dakotas, who in the seventeenth century were considered to be a most brave and powerful tribe, having superstitious customs and tribal regulations of an unusual nature.
One of their minor methods of warfare was noticed by the early explorers on the prairies through which we were passing. It was the custom with wandering bands of this race, if surprised by a larger body of enemies and thus unable to make an open resistance, to dig wide, shallow pits, in which they placed the women and children, and obtained a certain amount of protection for themselves. These excavations were scooped out with great rapidity, the men and their families using for this purpose knives, tomahawks and wooden ladles. This method of digging the ground, may probably have been similar to that adopted by the Mound Builders in raising their ramparts. War pits were also made by the Hurons when retreating from the Iroquois. When coasting the north shore of Lake Superior, I was shown on the map the positions where several of these places of refuge and defence had been observed.
We saw at night upon the bluffs, the fires of Indian camps; it was thought probable that these Indians, whose villages were situated far towards the West, had come to this part of their ancient territory, for the purpose of performing certain forms of worship before one of the large detached granite boulders, situated on the plateau near to their tents. On the following evening, as we steamed slowly through Lake Pepin, we looked with much interest at the high steep promontory, upon whose summit the love-distracted maiden Winona[34] sang her death song, and then leapt from the edge of the cliff and was dashed to pieces on the rocks below, within sight of her tribe who were assembled near their tents on the shore.
The Muscatine terminated her long upward voyage against the swift stream, at the city of St. Paul’s, nineteen hundred and forty-four miles above the mouth of the river, a few miles below the great falls of St. Anthony, and near the confluence of the Minnesota. All this region was at one time, the principal gathering place of the branch of the Dakotas, called Sioux, and near at hand was the cave where their annual council meetings took place. To this place were also brought for burial, the bones and skulls of their dead, whose bodies had previously been placed upon scaffolds, and exposed to the influences of the winds and weather.
Upon a bluff overlooking the Mississippi, there are still to be seen a strange group of large mounds, whose purpose has not been ascertained. The examination of them has failed to afford the slightest clue by which any theory or conjecture can be safely established. Soon after my arrival I went there to examine them with particular attention, for I had observed certain peculiarities in their shape and position, which resembled portions of the defensive hill works of the Mound Builders. Mr. Hill, a member of the Historical Society of St. Paul’s, accompanied me, and pointed out those mounds which had been opened, and carefully inspected by competent observers. It has been supposed that they were the burial places of the Sioux during long periods of time, and it was hoped that some discoveries would be made of antiquarian importance.
The largest of the mounds was first examined, but nothing was found in it. There were no signs of burials near the slopes, and at the base, contrary to expectation, there was not found any indication of a fire having been made, and there was no charcoal. In another conical mound, although no bones were seen, there was in the centre a hollow space which contained several pieces of charred wood. A comparatively low platform mound was then opened. Two skeletons were found buried near the surface, but from their position and state of preservation, they were considered to be late interments; nothing else was found within. Finally a large mound, situated upon the extreme edge of the bluff, was thoroughly excavated, and in this there was found, as in the previously opened conical earthwork, a small hollow space in the centre. In consequence of these negative results, it was not possible to form any conclusions as to the object of Indians in raising these exceptional works. I thought it not improbable that it might have been their intention to use them, either for raised dwelling places, or for defensive inclosures which had not been completed.
Their position is almost impregnable; the mounds are not placed separately but are closely joined together, so that they form a kind of embankment. The outer slopes are so close to the edge of the cliff, that they are practically a prolongation of the steep slopes, and thus present a singular parallel with portions of those embankments of Fort Ancient which overlook the valley of the Little Miami. The similarity in the methods of placing the mounds, is made additionally obvious from the fact, that there are numerous springs issuing from the upper parts of the bluff, which flow down as rivulets into the river below. There are altogether fifteen mounds on the top of the promontory; the largest of them is about twenty feet high.
Upon our return to St. Paul’s, we heard that a band of Sioux had come into the neighbourhood, and were encamped amongst the woods on the opposite side of the river. As I wished to see these Indians, I crossed over to the settlement of Mendota, and after a walk of a few miles, saw their tents pitched close to the borders of a small lake. I was greeted with a loud noise of barking from their dogs, who were as numerous outside the camp of the Sioux as they usually are around the dwellings of the Kurds in Asia Minor. After overcoming some preliminary hostile difficulties with these yelping curs, I received a silent and not pressing welcome from the Indians, who were mostly squaws and children, the men having gone away temporarily upon some expedition.
It was getting dark, and the women were making preparations for supper. Good fires were burning brightly in the centre of the wigwams, the kettles were hung over them, the water was boiling, and the interiors were cheerful scenes of enjoyment. The life within and without, was similar to what may be seen in an English gipsy encampment in the New Forest in Hampshire. There was something singularly attractive in the habits of life amongst these wandering nomads, and the warmth and comfort inside the tents, was in pleasing contrast to the cold and wintry aspect without. This simple and natural state of existence, has unquestionably a great charm for those whose natures are essentially Bohemian. It is not surprising that Indian lads, accustomed to this kind of life, should feel wearied and cramped by the trammels of civilization. It is natural that they should long to get away from the confinement and irksome training of school, and return to the freedom and independence of their savage hunting and wandering instincts.
There lived at the adjacent town of Mendota, a half-bred Indian, of French and Sioux parentage named Faribault, with whom I became acquainted. In his youth, he had dwelt with his mother in the villages of the Sioux, and spoke their language. In manhood, he had acted as an agent and trader for the tribes, and passed much of his life in constant communication with them, and possessed an intimate acquaintance with their superstitions and religious ceremonies. This kind of direct personal knowledge, can only be obtained by a man whom the Indians consider as being one of themselves, in consequence of his having had an Indian mother belonging to their tribe. It was the custom of the Sioux, when they encamped in this part of the country, to meet at his house, and several of them happened to be there when I was present.
Faribault, like all Indians, was usually very reticent, but when he noticed that I took much interest in matters relating to the habits of his tribe, especially such as were connected with their religious beliefs and customs, he became frank and outspoken. He told me of his own various strange personal experiences, and was particularly earnest when he mentioned some of the most remarkable of the rules relating to their fasts and sacrifices. The Indians, who were usually standing near us listening to what he said, would occasionally, from time to time, signify their assent to his statements by harsh grunts of approval.
Amongst the superstitions mentioned by him, none caused more attention than those connected with the worship of their Spirit rocks. One of these, which has always been considered to be an important Manito, happened to be on the plateau above Mendota, and the Indians directed me to the spot where it was placed. I found it to be a huge granite boulder, which had probably been deposited there by the moving waters or icebergs, during that remote period when they were travelling southwards from the sub-arctic latitudes. As it had no geological relation whatever with the sandstone ground upon which it rested, the Sioux might have conjectured, that it had been dropped from the clouds. To ignorant savages, unversed in the mysteries and conclusions of scientific geology, no other explanation could have been satisfactory. It lies upon a level space of land, upon the top of a bluff, commanding magnificent views over the valleys of the Mississippi and Minnesota. The confluence of these great rivers can be seen, and the steep water-worn cliffs below the falls of St. Anthony.
Whilst standing upon the promontory, and looking at this wide prospect, I was joined by a priest, who had been fulfilling his duties at a neighbouring settlement. We remained near the Spirit rock,[35] looking at the solitary mass of granite, glittering in the sunshine, and thought that it was not surprising that the Indians believed this strange rock to be the manifestation of a great unknown power, and should have invested with supernatural attributes what must have seemed to them to be marvellous.
The boulder is polygonal in form, and stands about seven feet high above the ground. In the other dimensions, it averages a thickness from nine to twelve feet. It is composed chiefly of grey granite, and its weight must exceed seventy tons. Faribault said that, when he was a young man, wandering bands of Sioux occasionally came to this Spirit rock and encamped near it. They usually stopped about a week, but sometimes during a whole moon. It was their custom during this period to continually offer sacrifices, dance round the stone, and paint it with various colours, red, blue or white. Finally, before taking down their tents, they covered it with their best furs or skins, and left them there as propitiatory offerings.
The falls of the Mississippi were also worshipped by the Indians, through whose territories that great river flowed in its upper course, and the manner in which adoration was made to the Power, which was manifested in the movements of these cataracts, is well described by Captain Carver, who visited them with one of the chiefs of the Winnebagoes in 1767. The chief in the first place, addressed a brief invocation to the Manito, and then he made his offerings. In this instance he gave everything he possessed, that was valuable, including all his ornaments, together with his pipe and roll of tobacco. He concluded his acts of devotion[36] by asking the Great Spirit to give them his protection, a bright sun, a blue sky, and untroubled waters. I visited the spot near which the chief must have stood upon that occasion. Much had been changed in the succeeding century, but the wild and tumultuous character of the falls, and the noise and foam caused by the rushing waters, are still very impressive.
From Mendota I proceeded towards the north-west, in the direction of the Minnesota as far as Mankato, with the intention of crossing the prairies southwards towards Nebraska. It was also my purpose to visit the Winnebagoes at their reservation. This tribe had been removed from their lands near Lake Michigan, and settled a few miles from Mankato; but upon my arrival at that town, I was informed that they had been again removed to a reservation further west, to give room for the occupation of the land by the numerous emigrants from Europe, especially those thrifty, hard-working agriculturists, who came from Sweden and Norway. The new settlements in this part of Minnesota were still in an alarmed condition, in consequence of the memory of the massacres that had taken place a few years previously, when the Sioux rose in rebellion, and committed a grave series of atrocities upon the white inhabitants.
At the conclusion of the war, thirty-eight of the chief perpetrators of cruelties upon the unoffending white people, were condemned to death and were hanged. The events that took place upon that occasion were described to me by an eye-witness, as having been exceedingly repulsive, in consequence of the defiant shouts and gestures of the prisoners. Hanging is a form of execution particularly disliked by Indians, because they consider that it is ignominious. The war was caused by a belief, spread among the tribes, that they had been treated with great injustice. They declared that they were not allowed to remain in possession of their lands, and that the treaties which had been made with them, had not been fairly carried out. The savage desire for revenge was aroused, and barbarous acts were committed by the Sioux, whilst they were in a state of passionate excitement.
On a terrace overlooking the waters of the Minnesota, close to the spot where the Sioux had been executed, I met a half-breed Indian, who was known to have seen some of the unmerciful deeds that had taken place. I asked him to give me an explanation of the reasons that had caused the Sioux, most of whom had led peaceful lives, to suddenly avenge themselves in this brutal manner. He said, that whatever may have seemed to be their character, all these Dakotas had an inveterate hatred for the pale faces, who had deprived them of their lands, their hunting grounds, their freedom, and all that made their lives tolerable. After a pause, he observed in a harsh angry tone, that the women and children were killed, because, in cases such as these, it was a rule with Indians, to not only kill all the men, but also all who could become men or give birth to men, and that it was their object to secure the total extermination of their enemies.
I afterwards met, near the lands which had been occupied by the Winnebagoes, one of those waifs of civilization, who prefer the adventurous freedom of the Indians to the ordinary forms of existence among the whites. He was a Virginian by birth, and had left his home at an early age to join the Apaches, whose hunting grounds were near the borders of New Mexico. He lived with them for several years, and then, desiring a change, he had joined a band of Chippewas. He was given by them the name of Ara-po-gai-sik or Day-Catcher, because he was first observed when approaching their camp at daybreak. I found him to be a man of considerable intelligence, and conversant with the habits of the tribes with whom he had dwelt.
It is unusual to find men of English descent electing, by their own wish, to entirely live with Indians. It seems to be different as regards the French or French Canadians, who appear to have certain instincts in their nature, which enable them to conform readily with the domestic customs of Indian life.
The subject of the claims of the Indians to the possession of their ancient hunting grounds, was brought to the notice of the United States Government during the time I was at Washington, after my return from Yucatan in the summer of 1870.
A large deputation from the Ogallalas, a warlike tribe of Sioux, who dwelt on the prairies to the west of the Missouri, came to the city for the purpose of making a statement of their grievances, with regard to their lands. They declared that the treaties concerning them had not been faithfully carried out.
The deputation consisted of the principal chief, an Indian named Red Cloud, who held a great reputation as a brave and daring warrior, and with him were Brave Bear, Rocky Bear, Red Dog, and other chiefs, who were also well known for their courage and fearlessness, which they had shown upon several occasions in fights upon the plains. Several men of the tribe accompanied them.
I happened to see those Ogallalas frequently, under various circumstances; they had that power, which is characteristic with thoroughbred Indians, of assuming when thought necessary, a reserved and dignified manner. Red Cloud, especially, maintained the deportment consistent with his position as the hereditary chief of his nation.
The speeches delivered by them in the presence of the Commissioner of Indian affairs were remarkable as proving that they possessed great natural oratorical abilities. The description of the events occurring in their territories, and the unfair treatment which they considered they had received, were expressed with much force and poetical imagination.
Their appeals were, however, unavailing. It was made clear to them, that it was not possible, that small numbers of Indians could be permitted to retain possession of extensive grounds, to the exclusion of the necessities of an advancing civilization, and that they must accept the fate which was inevitable, and accustom themselves to be confined within reservations of a limited and definite area.
The Secretary of the Interior, told the Sioux that the existing things were changing, and that they might as well try and keep back the winds with their hands, as to prevent these changes.