CHAPTER V.

MOUNDS AND EARTHWORKS IN OHIO.

Ancient Fortified Inclosures at Circleville. — Discoveries in a Burial Mound. — Alligator Totem near Newark. — Fort Ancient. — Age of Trees growing upon the Ramparts at Fort Hill. — Traditions. — Geometrical Ground Plans of Indian Inclosures. — Conclusions.

Before quitting the subject of those ancient earthworks, which were planned upon geometrical figures, it is necessary to take into consideration certain inclosures that were situated in the higher parts of the Scioto Valley, in a position which is at the present time, occupied by the town of Circleville.

The embankments or ramparts have been razed to the ground, and no traces remain of what appears to have been one of the most perfect examples of the mathematical accuracy of that type of construction. It is fortunate that during the demolition of the works, there happened to be present an antiquarian of such an acknowledged reputation as Mr. Atwater, for he has written a full account of their form and dimensions,[20] together with a report upon the strange discoveries made when excavating a burial mound, inside the circular inclosure near its centre. Mr. Atwater, who evidently took careful measurements,[21] wrote a statement which includes the following extracts:-

“There are two forts, one being an exact circle, the other an exact square. The former is surrounded by two walls, with a deep ditch between them. The latter is encompassed by one wall, without any ditch. The former was sixty-nine rods in diameter, measuring from outside to outside of the circular outer wall; the latter is exactly fifty-five rods square measuring the same way. The walls of the circular fort were at least twenty feet in height, measuring from the bottom of the ditch, before the town of Circleville was built. The inner wall was of clay, taken up probably in the northern part of the fort, where was a low place, and is still considerably lower than any other part of the work. The outside wall was taken from the ditch which is between these walls, and is alluvial, consisting of pebbles worn smooth in water, and sand, to a very considerable depth, more than fifty feet at least. The outside of the walls is about five or six feet in height now; on the inside, the ditch is, at present, generally not more than fifteen feet. They are disappearing before us daily, and will soon be gone. The walls of the square fort are at this time, where left standing, about ten feet in height. There were eight gateways or openings leading into the square fort, and only one into the circular fort. Before each of these openings was a mound of earth, perhaps four feet high, forty feet perhaps in diameter at the base, and twenty or upwards at the summit. These mounds, for two rods or more, are exactly in front of the gateways, and were intended for the defence of these openings.” ...

“The extreme care of the authors of these works to protect and defend every part of the circle, is nowhere visible about this square fort. The former is defended by two high walls, the latter by one. The former has a deep ditch encircling it, this has none. The former could be entered at one place only; this at eight, and those about twenty feet broad.” ... “The round fort was picketed in, if we are to judge from the appearance of the ground on and about the walls. Half-way up the outside of the inner wall, is a place distinctly to be seen, where a row of _pickets_ once stood, and where it was placed when this work of defence was originally erected.” ...

“What surprised me on measuring these forts, was the exact manner in which they had laid down their circle and square; so that after every effort, by the most careful survey, to detect some error in their measurement, we found that it was impossible, and that the measurement was much more correct than it would have been, in all probability, had the present inhabitants undertaken to construct such a work.”

The mound that had been raised within the circle was ten feet high. Its summit had been levelled in order to obtain a platform which had a diameter of nearly thirty feet, and had probably been used as a site for the dwelling of the chief of the tribe. Mr. Atwater watched the proceedings when this mound was destroyed. He states that it contained:—

(1).—“Two human skeletons lying on what had been the original surface of the earth.

(2).—“A great quantity of arrow heads, some of which were so large as to induce a belief that they were used for spear heads.

(3).—“The handle either of a small sword or a large knife, made of an elk’s horn; around the end where the blade had been inserted, was a ferule of silver which, though black, was not much injured by time. Though the handle showed the hole where the blade had been inserted, yet no iron was found, but an oxyde remained of similar shape and size.

(4).—“Charcoal and wood ashes on which these articles lay, which were surrounded by several bricks very well burnt. The skeleton appeared to have been burned in a large and very hot fire, which had almost consumed the bones of the deceased. This skeleton was deposited a little to the south of the centre of the tumulus, and, about twenty feet to the north of it was another, with which were—

(5).—“A large mirror, about three feet in length, and one foot and a half in breadth, and one inch and a half in thickness. This mirror was of isinglass (mica membranacea) and on it—

(6).—“A plate of iron which had become an oxyde; but before it was disturbed by the spade, resembled a plate of cast iron. The mirror answered the purpose very well for which it was intended. This skeleton had also been burned like the former, and lay on charcoal and a considerable quantity of wood ashes. A part of the mirror is in my possession as well as a piece of brick, taken from the spot at the time.”

About two hundred yards from this tumulus, and outside the circular inclosure was a large mound, supposed to have been the common Indian cemetery. It contained an immense number of human skeletons of all sizes and ages. The skeletons are laid horizontally, with their heads generally towards the centre, and the feet towards the outside of the tumulus. A considerable part of this work still stands uninjured, except by time. In it have been found, besides these skeletons, stone axes and knives, and several ornaments with holes through them, by means of which, with a cord passing through these perforations, they could be worn by their owners.

The vestiges of occupation that have been left by those ancient tribes who raised the earthworks in this region are not of a character that render it possible to form any absolute conclusions about them.

There are, however, in Ohio two large and important mounds built in the shape of animals which may, possibly, have been made for the purpose of indicating the emblems which were adopted by the Indians as their totems. One of these is placed on the summit of a hill overlooking the valley of one of the tributaries of the Licking river, and about three miles from the octagonal inclosure near Newark.

In consequence of its shape, it is called the Alligator. There have been various theories with regard to this strange earthwork, and it has been supposed that sacrificial ceremonies were performed there. I had expected to find this figure to a certain extent excavated upon the surface of the earth, but I observed, upon examining it, that it was a regularly built up mound of considerable size.

The other large totem, which represents a huge serpent, is upon the brow of a hill about one hundred miles to the South-west of the Alligator, above a small river called the Brush Creek. According to the measurements of the earliest surveyors, its length, if extended, is about one thousand feet. It was five feet high in the centre, and had, at that part, a base of thirty feet, which diminished towards the head and tail.[22]

Upon the slopes of the hills near the Alligator, there are numerous remains of ancient earthworks. One of the most extensive of them was in every respect different from those at Newark, and other geometrically designed works, and seems to have been raised for other purposes, or possibly by a different tribe. Its embankments, which are irregular in their form, are in no part higher than six feet, and are thrown up in such a manner as to inclose the top of a small hill, which is situated a short distance from the Alligator. The area contained within them is about eighteen acres. In the centre there is a small circular earthwork nearly one hundred yards in circumference, and in another part of the inclosure there are two mounds which have been opened. They contained large quantities of ashes and some broken pottery.

There are also other camping grounds near the river. The largest of them inclosed a space exceeding twenty acres, and was surrounded by a low bank evidently thrown up for the purposes of inclosing a temporary encampment. Near the Alligator totem I noticed a singular earthwork made in the shape of a half-moon. The farmers living in the neighbourhood told me that they had opened and destroyed many of the small mounds that had been upon their lands. In all cases they had contained nothing but fragments of rough pottery, together with small heaps of ashes.[23]

Finally, there remains to be taken into consideration those great earthworks on the hills which have been specially classified as having been undoubtedly raised for the purposes of defence, and which entirely differ from such works as those that were placed upon the plains. The largest of these camps has been called Fort Ancient, and it must be acknowledged to be one of the most important fortified entrenchments that has ever been constructed in any part of the world.

It is placed upon the summit of a hill overlooking the Little Miami river about thirty miles above its junction with the Ohio. The site that was chosen by the Indians is remarkable for its natural strength and is, upon three sides of it, almost impregnable. The hill which is about two hundred and thirty feet above the valley, is in the form of a narrow promontory having almost precipitous sides except where it is joined to the plateau. The Little Miami winds round one part of the base, and some small tributary streams join it from the other side.

The shape and length of the embankments are shown in the accompanying plan, which is a reduction that I have drawn from one that was made in 1843 by Professor Locke of Cincinnati.[24] It will be observed that the ramparts follow closely the curves of the ridge of the hill and that the camp is practically divided into two parts, the outer division being near the plain, and the inner one being at the head of the promontory, where the sides of the hill are the most steep and inaccessible. The latter was probably intended as a final stronghold in the event of the outer work being captured.

The magnitude of the inclosing embankments of the outer camp is astonishing. It is here that the position is most open to direct attack, and no efforts or labour have been spared in carrying out what was thought necessary to prevent capture. No Roman or British encampment that I have seen surpasses this great Indian work. I walked round the entire circuit of the ramparts. They are not less than four miles in length. They follow every curve of the hill and the heads of all the numerous ravines.

The ground of the inclosure is level. At the time of my visit it was covered with forest trees, amongst which were many poplars. Upon the slopes of the embankments there was a luxuriant growth of large beeches and oaks. The quantity of earth that must have been conveyed and thrown up when forming these banks must have been enormous. The ramparts vary in height between ten and twenty feet according to the character of the natural defence afforded by the slopes of the hill. At the approach from the plain they are fifteen feet high and have a base of sixty-three feet. The platform at the top averages five feet wide.

There is no ditch. Nothing could more clearly mark the difference between this fortification and one that would have been made by a white race. An outer ditch is usually considered as not only of essential importance in works of defence, but its excavation supplies the earth required for the ramparts. It seems evident that either these Indians in their method of defensive warfare did not always consider a ditch to be useful, or it is possible that, in consequence of not having shovels or pickaxes, they preferred obtaining earth in some other manner which they found more convenient.

Upon inquiring among the farmers who were occupying the adjacent land, I found that there was a prevalent opinion amongst them that the earth composing these embankments had been brought from a distance and that it had been carried by hand. It was also believed by them that the fort could not have been made by Indians and that it was built at a very remote period by some other race.

When walking upon the top of the broad ramparts I observed that there were no evidences of the excavations that supplied the earth for the formation of the enormous banks. In some parts of the interior there were some shallow depressions, and also several holes which had been made for some unknown purpose, but they could not have provided the quantities required. It is possible, and, I think probable, that the earth was taken from the surface of the land within the inclosure. A shallow excavation made to a depth not exceeding six inches over the whole area of one hundred and forty acres would have given a sufficient supply. The methods of digging the ground, and of conveying the earth must necessarily have been very primitive, and it is surprising that, with all the difficulties that had to be overcome, works of such magnitude should have been raised.

At a gap in an angle over-looking the river the remains of a road, which led down to the water, can still be traced. At the part where this road entered the fort it is evident that it had been paved with flat water-worn stones. The ramparts here reach their greatest dimensions, being fully twenty feet high. The appearance of Fort Ancient from this position was very remarkable, and the effect was heightened by the beautiful foliage of the forest trees that crowned the summits of these lofty earthworks.

The inner part of the camp was strongly fortified. High banks were raised across the narrow part of the enclosure at the centre, and two mounds guarded the approach. The road to the outer camp from the plain was also protected by two mounds, and from these there ran low parallels for a distance of nearly fourteen hundred yards. They then terminated by closing round another mound which was probably used for the purpose of a look-out. Some labourers at a farm near this position told me that there once existed other parallel banks connected with the fort, which could be traced for several miles, but that these had been destroyed.

There are certain features in the construction of this fortification which have attracted attention, but their purpose has not been, and probably cannot be, explained. There are not less than seventy gaps or openings leading out of the embankments. It has been supposed that these were intended to allow the escape of water from the interior. There is another theory which has been suggested, according to which it is thought possible that they were openings made with the object of enabling the Indians to rush out at several points to repel their enemies, and that they were fenced by stockades.

It, however, happens that these gaps are sometimes in positions where the slopes of the hill are so steep as to be practically inaccessible, and at other places they are on the level ground from which no surplus waters could drain away. They seem to have formed part of the system of fortification, for they occur in the same inexplicable manner at another hill work of defence, built under similar conditions, on the summit of a promontory with precipitous slopes, about forty miles to the south-east of this position, which was evidently built by the same race.

This large earthwork is called Fort Hill, and it is singular in the respect of having afforded to its surveyor the means of forming a judgment upon the question of its antiquity. Consequently it has become possible to establish well-founded conclusions with respect to the dates of the construction of earthworks of a similar character.

Professor Locke, in his report on the geology of that part of Ohio, stated that on the top of the wall of Fort Hill stood a chestnut tree six feet in diameter. “Counting and measuring,” he observes, “the annual layers of wood where an axeman had cut into the trunk, I found them at nearly 200 to the foot, which would give to this tree the age of 600 years. A poplar tree, seven feet in diameter, standing in the ditch, allowing the thickness to the layers which I have found in like poplars, 170 to the foot, would give nearly the same result, 607 years.”[25]

Accepting the deductions of Professor Locke as being correct, it follows that the period when this hill fort was constructed was not later than the thirteenth century. Admitting that the thirteenth century, is therefore the latest age that can be ascribed to works of this type, they may be much older, for the forest trees within the inclosures may have succeeded earlier growths.

It is not possible to form an estimate of the age of earthworks from their appearance,[26] and it is only by counting the annual rings of trees that happen to have been growing upon them, that any safe theories respecting their antiquity can be adopted.

Looking at the geographical position of Fort Ancient, with reference to the other hill works of defence that are supposed to have been made by the Mound Builders, there are good reasons for assuming that this was their last stronghold, built with the intention of creating a permanent barrier against the attacks of their enemies. In time of war it was a secure encampment, large enough to contain the men, women and children of a numerous tribe. In time of peace it was well situated for the usual requirements of Indians. It was in the midst of a country abounding with game, and was immediately connected with a good navigable river which enabled their canoes to maintain direct communications with the Ohio and Mississippi.

Although, as far as I was able to judge, there was nothing in the principles of construction of the hill defensive works which appeared to be beyond the capacities of a purely Indian race, I invariably found that the men who were settled as farmers near the principal entrenchments held the opinion that they must have been raised by a people possessing a superior condition of civilisation to the tribes who occupied the land at the close of the eighteenth century, and who were personally known by many of the early settlers.

It is, perhaps, desirable that these local opinions should not be altogether disregarded, especially when it is remembered that they are supported to some extent by Indian traditions and by the fact that no embankments of a similar formation exist in any other part of North America. It is therefore necessary that the statements of the Indians, respecting the previous occupation of parts of Ohio and Kentucky by men of a white race, should be given a passing consideration.

The Shawnees, who were found to be in possession of this region, informed the European colonists that the ancient forts had been made by white people, who after long wars against the Indians had been exterminated. Their traditions upon this subject were said to have been clear and decided.

On the other hand the statements of the Delawares, who were settled in the Northern parts of the State point to other conclusions. They said that the men who had raised the forts and entrenchments were called the Tallegewi, and that great wars took place between them and the Iroquois. After many years the Tallegewi were defeated and left the country. The Delawares made no allusion with respect to any differences of race or colour between the Tallegewi and the other Indian tribes.

It is much to be regretted that the evidence upon this interesting subject is so vague and obscure. If men of foreign origin had been settled in Ohio before the fourteenth century it would be reasonable to expect that traces of them would have been left there or some remaining indications of their religion. In the reports and letters of the French missionaries, many of whom spoke and understood the language of the tribes amongst whom they lived, there is no mention made of any rumours or traditions of white people having dwelt in this part of America. There were however at a later period, about the middle of the eighteenth century, certain statements made by officers and men who had been made prisoners by the Indians, which, at that time, received much attention. A cavalry officer, named Stuart, said that in the country west of Mississippi he had seen a tribe of Indians who were remarkably white in colour and had reddish hair. He was informed by them that their forefathers came from a foreign land and had settled in Florida, but that when the Spaniards invaded that country they moved to their present dwelling places. A fellow-captive, who was a Welshman, declared that he understood the language of the tribe, as it differed very little from what was spoken in Wales.

Other reports of a similar character were made by men who had lived with tribes occupying lands near the southern parts of the Mississippi valley. It has also been noticed that Indians having fair hair and blue eyes, were living with the Mandans in their settlements near the Missouri. With respect to the statements about Welsh speaking Indians, it is possible that the captives may have been influenced by the belief in the truth of the tradition that ships, under the direction of Prince Madoc, left the Welsh coasts in the twelfth century and landed their crews and emigrants on the eastern shores of the Florida peninsula.[27]

It is not, however, necessary to account for the existence of large but irregular embankments, such as those at Fort Ancient, by the supposition that the actions of a numerous tribe of Indians were under the influence or direction of men belonging to another race. But it is otherwise with reference to the geometrical inclosures on the plains, for these must have been unquestionally planned by men who possessed a competent knowledge of the methods of tracing mathematical designs.

Take for example the plans of the works at Newark and Circleville. It may be thought that simple figures, such as the squares, would be within the comprehension of uneducated Indians. It would nevertheless be found difficult to lay down upon open fields a square, with all the sides equal and its angles true right angles, containing so large an area as twenty acres.[28]

The execution of the outlines of correct circles inclosing spaces of nearly thirty acres, presents still greater difficulties. It would have required a specially trained mind to form the conception of a circumference having an imaginary point within, from which all lines drawn to it would be equal.

But the figure which would have been absolutely impracticable to construct without proper surveying appliances for making accurate measurements, and fixing the true angles, is that of the octagon. Even under the most favourable circumstances, with the help of suitable instruments, it would have required much skill and calculation to trace a true octagon whose embankments contained within them an area exceeding forty acres. It is difficult to suppose that an accurately designed work of this shape and magnitude could have been planned by Indians, or that the construction of a figure so essentially scientific and unusual, could have been originated by them. It is therefore possible to conclude, that, the geometrical earthworks in Ohio may have been raised by native tribes, acting under the direction of European surveyors, or of men who had received a mathematical education.

Considerations upon the subject of the race and capacity of the builders, have been to some extent complicated by the reports that were made concerning the ages of the trees that grew upon and within the ancient ramparts at Marietta. In the letter of Dr. Hildreth, quoted in the previous chapter, it is clearly stated that trees were growing there which were from four to five hundred years old.

As this evidence is very important it is desirable to examine it with attention. This statement was made when he was attempting to fix an approximate date for the age of a burial mound which was placed near the fortifications. It was at the bottom of this mound that were discovered the ornaments of a sword belt and scabbard. These ornaments were made of copper and plated with silver, and must therefore have been of European manufacture.

The calculation of the age of the trees is probably based upon the results of an examination that took place shortly after the settlement of Marietta during the latter part of the eighteenth century. It was at that time decided by several of the inhabitants to fell some of the largest and oldest trees then growing within the earthworks, and ascertain their ages by counting the number of annual rings contained in them. The operations were executed in the presence of Governor St. Clair and the Rev. Dr. Cutler. Several of the trees were found to have between three hundred and four hundred circles. One tree was carefully examined and Dr. Cutler stated that it contained at least four hundred and sixty-three circles.[29]

As nothing can be more conclusive as a proof of age than the number of rings found in any tree growing beyond the tropics, this evidence establishes an antiquity for these embankments earlier than the middle of the fourteenth century.

The ages of the trees growing upon the Marietta inclosures do not however enable a date to be estimated for the construction of such works as those at Newark, for the shapes at Marietta are irregular and, according to the survey, do not appear to have been laid down with geometrical accuracy. It is therefore probable that the Newark inclosures were made at some later period.

The fact of a ferule of silver and a plate of iron having been placed with the skeletons in the burial mound at Circleville leads to the conclusion that the tumulus like the one at Marietta was raised since the time of the arrival of the Europeans. On account of its having been placed within the inclosure it was originally conjectured that it belonged to the same people that formed the surrounding embankment, but the evidence is not sufficient to establish the correctness of a theory of such importance.

It is difficult to understand what could have been the object of the Indians in constructing large earthworks in the shapes of squares and circles. Various theories have been advanced upon the subject, but nothing that can be considered satisfactory has yet been ascertained. Upon an examination of the plans it naturally occurs to the mind to endeavour to form an opinion as to the reasons which led to the adoption of these particular forms.

It is probable that these types of inclosures would be convenient for the habits and purposes of an Indian tribe during peace, and that they afforded protection in war. The square inclosures may have been intended to contain the village, the dwellings of the chiefs, and the council house. The circles, with their single opening for approach, which could be strongly guarded, would in that case be the strongholds in which, during hostilities, would be placed the women and children. A circular fort, such as that at Newark, would, under the usual conditions of Indian warfare, be practically impregnable. In the event of the outer square being captured it would have a sufficient area to give the space that would be wanted for the defending tribe.

The antiquity of these works is a problem that does not possess all the elements that are required for its solution. But in consequence of the exceptional system of construction certain inferences can be determined. It may be assumed that the geometrically shaped inclosures could not have been planned by Indians, and that therefore the square, circular and octagonal works, were constructed at some period subsequent to the landing of the Spaniards in Florida, in the beginning of the sixteenth century.[30]

If these embankments were raised before that period, it would be almost necessary to admit, that white men possessing a knowledge of mathematics were living amongst the Indians before the discovery of America by Columbus in 1492.

The difficult and interesting questions relating to the origin, civilisation and fate of the Mound Builders, have been the subjects of frequent investigations and of numerous theories. They appear to have inhabited Ohio for many centuries.