CHAPTER IX.

THE CASE AND FRAMING OF THE PIANOFORTE.

The grand pianoforte is distinguished conspicuously from the upright, as far as concerns the principles of its construction, by the different function which its exterior casing exercises. As was stated in Chapter III, the exterior walls of the upright have no part in the bearing or resisting work that the iron and wooden framing performs. They exist chiefly for the purpose of giving support to the key-board and action, and of affording a foundation whereon may be constructed the elaborate architectural and decorative structure that, in its entirety, is denominated the pianoforte case.

The synonymous portions of the grand pianoforte, on the contrary, have a far more important duty to fulfill. While they are equally charged with the support of the key-frame and action, they are also an essential part of the wooden framing, are one and homogeneous with it, and, in fact, occupy much the same position as what is known as the “back” of the upright, as well as being the external and decorative coverings of the instrument.

The case of the grand is constructed of a series of continuous veneers, glued one upon another, and each extending completely around the periphery of the case. These veneers are glued at cross grain to prevent splitting and are applied to the pianoforte and bent into shape when in a heated state. The complete outline thus obtained is denominated the “continuous bent rim” and is a distinguishing feature of the modern grand pianoforte as made in America. Several eminent German makers, as Bechstein, also employ similar means of constructing the external walls. In England, on the contrary, the case is usually made out of one thickness of wood bent into the required shape by steam and joined in several places. This system provides for separate moldings for the bent and straight sides and for the rear portion.

The advantage claimed for the continuous bent rim is that the whole case, by this means, becomes so closely bound up with the rest of the structure as to become part of one homogeneous resonant whole, thus improving the general resonance and imparting a _sostenuto_ and _cantabile_ that can in no other manner be attained.

While data are lacking for the precise investigation of this claim, it is significant that the bent rim method has not only become universal among American makers--by one of them it was first devised--but has even made its way into European favor.

The case, after it has been bent in this manner into the proper shape, has to be decoratively veneered according to the style of ornamentation that is intended for it. The work of veneering these cases, whether for uprights or grands, need not be gone into here in detail. There are so many specialists in this department who confine themselves to the turning out of such veneered cases, and the whole matter is so far away from the principles of pianoforte construction, that it is not considered necessary to go into it here.

It is, of course, required to provide the case of the grand pianoforte with a system of wooden struts which bind it together and give it strength and resisting power. These struts are set into the case in the general form of the letter A, having the apex at the forward end of the case. At this apex they are crossed by another wooden strut running parallel to the key-board, which serves to bind them together and to mark the limit of the space to be occupied by the sound-board. These struts are not, as we may thus see, carried into the very front of the case, but are confined to that portion which is directly underneath the sound-board. In front of this space is left the gap through which the action is later to strike, and underneath is provided a key-bed to carry the action and keys. The key-bed joins the front portions of the bent rim and closes the casing in the front, thus providing a definite and uniform structure. Above the key-bed and in front of the gap is one of the most important parts of the entire instrument. It is called the “wrest-plank,” and is situated at the foremost portion of the case. This wrest-plank is built of a series of hard wooden layers, glued together at cross grain and adapted to be bored with holes in which are placed the “wrest-pins,” or tuning-pins, that control the tension of the strings. This block or plank must necessarily be of great solidity and be capable of holding the pins frictionally, so that they will not pull round under the immense strains that are imposed upon them.

The gap which is necessary in the grand pianoforte between the sound-board and the tuning-pins makes it impossible to join the former to the wrest-plank. This state of affairs undoubtedly constitutes a weakness inherent in the grand and, besides, exceedingly unfortunate. For an interruption of the continuity of communication between the various sound-conducting materials of which the instrument is constructed entails a corresponding loss of resonance. The tone of the pianoforte is inevitably fleeting and evanescent; lack of continuity in the construction only increases this fault. It has somewhere been stated that the construction of the grand pianoforte implies greater resisting strength of the wrest-plank on account of its being entirely supported by the iron frame and not dependent upon a wooden back as in the upright. This view seems to be incorrect. A properly supported back on an upright affords a very strong support to the wrest-plank and in combination with the iron frame supplies all necessary rigidity, and in a manner more direct and efficient. But the wrest-plank of the grand pianoforte may and should possess a sufficient strength. Various makers have adopted several different methods to secure this strength. One very good device supplies a rear truss to the lower surface of the wrest-plank by means of a downward projecting shoulder cast in the iron frame. There are other methods more or less similar. The arrangement of the tuning-pins within the body of the wrest-plank also requires considerable care. Of course, their disposition depends ultimately upon the string arrangement, but there are problems to be considered in connection with the manner in which they are arranged with relation to their mutual positions as considered apart from the strings. For example, it is most important that they should be so placed that the strings do no rub against each other in their passage between the pins and the agraffes. The frequent neglect of this matter is a cause for regret. Much loss of tonal purity would be avoided and the tuner’s work greatly simplified if all designers took the proper amount of care in this important matter. Further, it may be remarked that the best practice accords with this suggestion in every respect. It will also be found that a slight tilting back of the pins in a direction that is remote from the strings tends to lighten the pull of the latter and to assist the resisting power of the wrest-plank.

When the iron plate is fastened over the entire structure, it is fixed on to the wrest-plank by means of heavy iron bolts that should be sufficiently long to go entirely through it and be closed with a nut on the other side. By this means the wrest-plank is secured against lack of rigidity, and its durability immensely increased.

The hardest kind of maple should be used in the construction of the wrest-plank. No other wood appears to have so many of the required qualities, and its use for this purpose has become, in America at least, universal.

The general details of the external case of the grand pianoforte are not unfamiliar. The standard full size of nine feet and the miniature of six feet or less, as well as intermediate parlor sizes, are familiar to all. The shape of the fall-board that covers the keys is well known, and the design of the lid and supporting legs sufficiently common to make further description superfluous. It is proper, however, to note briefly the general change that has come about in the conception of the decorative function of the grand pianoforte case.

Formerly, the aim of pianoforte manufacturers was entirely different from that of the early harpsichord and spinet makers. Instead of doing their utmost to improve the external æsthetic value of their instruments, they seemed too much occupied in providing means for internal improvement to pay proper attention to appearance. Thus we see that the sombre and hideous decorative ideas which prevailed in the furniture of the last generation were long faithfully imitated in the external design of the grand pianoforte. The ugly and cumbersome carved legs, the inartistic curving of the lid and arms, and the general look of ponderosity and hugeness all combined to give to the instrument of that era the general appearance of a hypertrophied coffin on legs.

Modern makers, however, animated by a truer appreciation of decorative values, and recognizing the refining influence of beautiful things, in themselves, and apart from their other properties, have gone far towards consigning the more crude and hideous designs to the limbo of obscurity. It has become generally recognized that the coffin-like look of the concert grand may be largely modified, if not wholly removed. By altering the design of the legs and by regarding them rather as a part of the case than as mere supports, it has been possible to combine the proportions of legs and case so as to make them appear one harmonious entity. Of course, the actual method of attaining to this end has varied largely among different makers, and, likewise, the greater number of successful efforts in the direction suggested have been made upon grand pianofortes designed to order to fit the furnishings and decorative schemes of music rooms in the homes of the wealthy. Nevertheless it is a healthy sign of the general æsthetic development of the American people that the number of these specially ordered and designed cases increases yearly. In this way we are going back to the ideals that possessed the ancient makers of the virginals, clavichords and other instruments, who were wont to call in the services of the most famous artists in color and the most cunning carvers in wood to compass their beautiful and costly designs.

It is true that the stock styles of grand pianoforte cases are usually plain as to contour and decoration, but no one now can deny to them grace and purity of outline or beauty and richness of material. On the other hand, the practice increases yearly of keeping in stock cases made in such styles as the Chippendale, the Sheraton and the Empire, to say nothing of the perennial and truly American Colonial designs. The fact that these numerous varieties all find purchasers is a striking commentary on the growing taste and refinement of the general public.

In considering the case construction of the upright pianoforte, we are led to observe that this type exhibits, in these matters, certain important advantages over the grand. It is true that the case is not so homogeneously fitted into the resonant structure, and it is equally true that the grand has hitherto had much the better of it in the fight for tonal quality and volume. Nevertheless, considering the upright in the light of its own peculiar fitness for popular use, we are bound to observe, in considering the construction of its case and back-framing, the special advantages over the grand that we mentioned as existing.

The chief and most obvious of the inherent advantages of the upright pianoforte lies in the position which the instrument takes up. The hammers strike in front of the strings and tend to force them down upon the bridges, so that the full energy of the blow is impressed upon them. Further, there is none of that tendency of the strings to fly off from the belly bridge which is always present in the square and to a certain extent in the grand. Again the vertical position of the sound-board would seem to be more favorable to the free vibration of the wooden fibres of which it is composed; while the simplicity of the general outline of the upright permits the employment of a larger sound-board area than is possible with either the square or the small grand. Lastly, the wrest-plank is greatly strengthened by the omission of the gap between it and the sound-board, which permits the use of lighter framing and a consequent gain in portability.

While recognizing these facts, however, we are bound to recognize many other features that go far to destroy the great initial advantage here described. It cannot be doubted that today the upright is pre-eminently the popular type. Whether this fact is entirely a matter for congratulation is doubtful, for the upright form lends itself readily to cheap and trashy production. The conditions of modern domestic life are such, on the other hand, that the portability and convenience of the popular type, no less than the possibility of producing it cheaply, have given it a hold upon the public fancy which its own inherent and undoubted advantages might never have secured for it.

The upright form is capable of the highest artistic and mechanical development, and there is no good reason why it should not be so improved as to produce tones equal in volume, purity and richness to those of the grand.

In considering the details of back and case construction in the upright, we are compelled to observe instances of faulty method. For example, it is usual to fasten the sides of the case to the back by gluing after the latter has been fitted with the sound-board, iron frame and strings. This method is obviously faulty. It is not difficult to understand that, although the back partially sustains the tensions imposed by the strings, the sides when glued to the former are constantly subjected to a modification of these tensions. Now, gluing, while convenient, is not the best possible process to give to the sides the necessary strength to bear such strains, for it is a familiar fact that pianofortes that are not of the highest class invariably develop in the course of a few years, more or less serious cracks and breaks in the continuity of the joins between the glued surfaces. When this happens, the equilibrium of the instrument is disturbed and its strength diminished. In addition, the breaks in continuity have, of course, a serious effect upon the power of resonance. Furthermore, the glue method is subject to various mechanical defects. It is absolutely necessary that the surfaces that are to be united should be maintained, during the process of gluing, at an absolutely uniform temperature. And this temperature must be high. Consequently it is not hard to see that in the haste and confusion of construction in the factory, the large sides and backs may not be so carefully handled as to insure the continual maintenance of the ideal temperature conditions. If, in short, the surfaces to be glued together are permitted to become cold, it is obvious that the adhesion will be imperfect, that the wear and tear of constant usage will complete what carelessness in the factory began, and that the value of the instrument will be permanently impaired.

Before suggesting a remedy for these regrettable conditions, or a substitute for the faulty methods described, it will be well to examine carefully the principles that underlie the construction of the upright pianoforte back. It will thus become less difficult to find some better method of uniting the sides and back, so as better to conserve the strength and durability of the instrument.

The back of the upright pianoforte might almost be considered as the foundation of the instrument. Indeed, before the general introduction of iron framing, this part of the construction deserved such a description. Its position, however, is now somewhat subordinate, since the wooden framing of which it is composed is quite inadequate to the task of supporting the tension of the strings. As generally built, this back consists of a number (usually six) of wooden posts arranged in an upright position and joined at the top and bottom by braces, also of wood and of similar dimensions. Thus is provided a compact frame that may be made to possess great strength and resisting power. But, in order to accomplish properly the duties for which it is designed, the construction of this frame must be very carefully planned and carried out. At its upper end it must give proper support to the wrest-plank and the sound-board must rest easily and securely within its embrace. The iron frame must then be fastened upon and over the structure.

It would be absurd to suppose that the back is not subjected to modifications of the strains imposed upon the sound-board, wrest-plank, and iron frame, and it is equally certain that carelessness in working out the details of construction will tend materially to reduce the coefficient of resistance.

An important detail is the joining of the upright posts to the top and bottom rails. If these rails are made continuous and the posts are tenoned into them, the frame will possess the maximum of strength that is possible to such a structure, and if, in addition, the joints are at all places made more secure by the use of screws and other devices as supplements to the gluing, then we may consider that we have a properly made back.

Unfortunately, however, examination of any considerable number of pianofortes of various makes will soon convince the reader that these details of construction are seldom given enough attention. Many instruments will be found to have the back posts joined at top and bottom by short pieces of wood which do not extend further than the two posts which each unites. Such a method of construction, especially when combined with careless gluing and an absence of other fastenings, provides a frame that possesses none of the desiderata of homogeneity, compactness and strength.

The upright wrest-plank differs somewhat from the synonymous structure used in the grand. It does not suffer under the disadvantage of an involuntary and inevitable separation from the sound-board and the lower portion of the back, but, when constructed with a due regard for correct principles, forms one homogeneous and uniform structure. The upright wrest-plank should, therefore, possess rigidity and resisting power of the highest order, and should form an unyielding support for the tuning-pins. The general construction of such a wrest-plank will not differ materially from that which has already been discussed in reference to the grand pianoforte. That is to say, the building up of the body of the structure from crossed layers of hard maple and the bolting of it into the iron frame (when the latter is made so as to extend over the whole surface of the back frame) will be done in the same way. But the upright wrest-plank derives from the peculiar form of construction that is proper to the upright pianoforte a further element of strength that is lacking in the grand. For it is in direct and solid connection with the sound-board and the other parts of the back-framing, and thus obtains a considerable addition of strength. Indeed, the wrest-plank should be so constructed as to form an integral part of the top rail of the back, and should be, in fact, the front portion of this rail. Further, its connection with the rest of the back-frame should be as close and binding as possible, and it is most essential that a sufficient number of lag screws should be driven into the wrest-plank and through the latter into the further and remote parts of the back-frame top-rail.

Having thus analyzed the construction of the back in all its parts and divisions, we may return to the discussion of the sides of the case and the best methods of uniting them with the back. The reader has now a good working knowledge of the construction, prior to the putting on of the sides, and he cannot have failed to come to the conclusion that gluing is a poor method for joining heavy sides to the elaborate structure known as the back. Nor does there seem to be any good practical reason why some other method should not be substituted for the antiquated gluing. There is no good mechanical reason why a system of screws should not be devised that would not only not mar the outer appearance of the case, but also afford a more certain and secure manner of uniting the sides to the rest of the instrument. Moreover, such a method would largely increase portability by making possible the removal of the sides when conditions of transport required this. Manufacturers might profitably spend a little time in estimating the saving that a detachable side would enable them and the dealers to effect in their annual shipping and trucking bills.

The various sizes of upright pianofortes that are customarily found range from nearly five feet in height down to about ten inches less. Some very small models are made no more than four feet high. But the public appears to prefer the larger styles, and in this they are entirely right. For the very small pianofortes, no matter how cunningly they be scaled, cannot be equipped with strings of the proper lengths, nor with sound-boards of sufficient area. Hence their tonal possibilities are very limited. The full sized upright, on the other hand, approaches closely to the tonal excellence of the grand.

The styles of case decoration that are and have been applied to the upright are even more striking and varied than those of the grand. For the upright lends itself more readily to that kind of decorative treatment that considers the whole case as one single entity, and thus harmoniousness of design and unity of treatment are more easily obtained. At the same time, we are bound to confess that the outline of the upright is essentially box-like, and that this defect operates continually to nullify the efforts of the designer to conceal it. It is a fact that over-elaboration of decorative treatment is usually accompanied by most unfortunate effects; while the larger styles at least are little adapted to sustain the burden of meretricious exterior adornment. In fact, we may well say that the upright is decoratively at its best in the small sizes. Since, however, there is a public demand for large models, which are indeed mechanically and acoustically superior, we must be content to observe the progress of decorative ideas as applied to the beautifying of these.

One of the most striking features of the modern decorative movement, as applied to furniture, is seen in the great popularity of rare and beautiful woods. These are much prized, and it has come to be popular to finish them in such a manner as plainly to exhibit the natural figurings and markings. We have even seen a craze for plain rubbing with wax, which leaves the wood in absolutely its natural appearance. Red and White Mahogany, Burled and Circassian Walnut, Satin Wood, Bird’s-Eye Maple, Golden and Flemish Oak, and many other beautiful and costly varieties are constantly made up into rich and elaborate pieces of furniture. In this development the upright has had a large part. While the large size and great first cost of the grand has made the purchasing of specially decorated cases a matter to be avoided by all except the wealthy, the same obstacle has not so largely existed to frighten away the artistic would-be-purchaser of an upright. In fact, the decorative movement has shown its best manifestations through the medium of the upright pianoforte, and this in spite of the unfortunate outline of the instrument that resists all efforts to conceal its excessive crudity.

Models of the English schools have been produced with great success, and the inlaying of rich woods, after the manner of Chippendale, has resulted in some very beautiful specimens of this particular art. Again, we find the so-called Renaissance, the Colonial, the Empire (more elaborate than the other two), the Doric (severely simple), and last but not least, the Mission. The latter, extraordinary perversion of the handicraft of the Spanish fathers as it usually is found to be, has nevertheless been the cause of one great good. It has begun to popularize the dull finish, and to teach the public that the high, glassy, fragile, and unreliable varnish finish is not the only possible way of putting a surface upon wood. The Mission craze has taught many people to admire the natural figure and markings of a fine veneer or piece of lumber, without regard to the fact that it is or is not covered with a mirror-like finish that cracks as soon as the room becomes cold.

In fact we may discern the encouraging signs of a growing sanity and refinement in the demand for, and production of, suitable designs for the decorative treatment of pianoforte cases. It has come to be recognized that a truly chaste and beautiful exterior is the fitting complement to richness and nobility of tone. The growth of this feeling deserves the highest encouragement from all. American makers may well congratulate themselves upon being the foremost exponents of this movement.