Part 6
_Roman_ _Arabic_ Unus, a, um I 1 Duo, ae, o II 2 Tres, ia III 3 Quatuor IV [IIII] 4 Quinque V 5 Sex VI 6 Septem VII 7 Octo VIII 8 Novem IX 9 Decem X 10 Undecim XI 11 Duodecim XII 12 Tredecim XIII 13 Quatuordecim XIV 14 Quindecim XV 15 Se(sex)decim XVI 16 Septemdecim XVII 17 {97} Octodecim or XVIII 18 Duodeviginti Novemdecim or XIX 19 Undeviginti Viginti XX 20 Triginta XXX 30 Quadraginta XL 40 Quinquaginta L 50 Sexaginta LX 60 Septuaginta LXX 70 Octoginta LXXX 80 Nonaginta XC 90 Centum C 100 Ducenti-ae-a CC 200 Trecenti-ae-a CCC 300 Quadringenti-ae-a CCCC 400 Quingenti-ae-a IↃ or D 500 Sexcenti-ae-a DC 600 Septingenti-ae-a DCC 700 Octingenti-ae-a DCCC 800 Nongenti-ae-a DCCCC or CM 900 Mille M or CIↃ 1000 Duo millia or MM 2000 Bis mille Tria millia or MMM 3000 Ter mille Quatuor millia or MMMM 4000 Quater mille Quinque millia or IↃↃ or ̄V 5000 Quinquies mille Decem millia or CCIↃↃ or ̄X 10,000 Decies mille Quinquaginta millia or IↃↃↃ or ̄L 50,000 Quinquaquies mille Centum millia or CCCIↃↃↃ or ̄C 100,000 Centies mille Quingenta millia or IↃↃↃↃ or ̄D 500,000 Quingenties mille Decies centena millia CCCCIↃↃↃↃ or ̄M 1,000,000
{98}
If the lesser number is placed before the greater, the lesser is to be deducted from the greater; thus IV signifies one less than 5, i.e., 4; IX, 9; XC, 90.
If the lesser number be placed after the greater, the lesser is to be added to the greater; thus VI signifies one more than 5, i.e., 6; XI, 11; CX, 110.
A horizontal stroke over a numeral denotes a thousand; thus ̄V signifies five thousand; ̄L, fifty thousand; ̄M, a thousand times a thousand, or a million.
I, signifies _one_, because it is the smallest letter.
V, _five_, because it is sometimes used for U, the fifth vowel.
X, _ten_, because it represents two V’S.
L, _fifty_, from its resemblance to the lower half of C.
C, _a hundred_, centum.
IↃ or D, _five hundred_, the half of CIↃ.
M or CIↃ, _a thousand_, from _mille_. The latter figures joined at the top, ⅿ, formed the ancient M. {99}
CORRECT AND FAULTY DICTION
Correctness is the primary requisite of spoken or written discourse. Language must not be only understood, but it must convey all the meaning which the writer intends to express. As a guide to those who are bewildered by the many cases of divided usage, the following adaptation of certain canons, framed by Dr. Campbell over a century ago and used as a basis by every later writer on Rhetoric, are here given:
«Canon I.» — When, of two words or phrases in equally good use, one is susceptible of two significations and the other of but one, preference should be given to the latter: e.g., _admittance_ is better than _admission_, as the latter word also means “confession”; _relative_ is to be preferred to _relation_, as the latter also means the telling of a story.
«Canon II.» — In doubtful cases regard should be given to the analogy of the language: _might better_ should be preferred to _had better_, and _would rather_ is better than _had rather_.
«Canon III.» — The simpler and briefer form should be preferred, other things being equal: {100} e.g., omit the bracketed words in expressions such as, _open_ [_up_], _meet_ [_together_], _follow_ [_after_], _examine_ [_into_], _trace_ [_out_], _bridge_ [_over_], _crave_ [_for_], etc.
«Canon IV.» — Between two forms of expression in equally good use, prefer the one which is more euphonious: e.g., _most beautiful_ is better than _beautifullest_, and _more free_ is to be preferred to _freer_.
«Canon V.» — In cases not covered by the four preceding canons, prefer that which conforms to the older usage: e.g., _begin_ is better than _commence_.
Familiarity with the writings of those authors whose style is accepted as conforming to the standards of good usage is an essential to all those who seek accuracy in correct expression, and the following authors may be studied with this in mind: Addison, Matthew Arnold, Burke, DeQuincey, George Eliot, Emerson, Hawthorne, Holmes, Irving, Macaulay, John Stuart Mill, Newman, Poe, Ruskin, Stevenson, and Thackeray.
The various standard dictionaries may be consulted regarding words which are questionable when measured by good usage. The function of the dictionary is to record all words in general use, but a careful record is made as to the classes to which the various words belong. Good usage, for instance, does not recognize the word _vim_, yet it will be found in the Century Dictionary; but at {101} the end of the definition an entry [_Colloq._] is placed, showing that it is authorized only by colloquial use.
The following list of words and phrases which are most commonly misused will be found useful. The correct words are added in brackets:
«Accept», see «Except»
«Admire», should not be used to express delight: e.g., _I should admire_ [be delighted] _to go to California_
«Admit», see «Confess»
ADVERBS: should usually be placed next to the words they modify. (See also «Infinitive»)
«Affable», means “easy to speak to,” and should not be used for _agreeable_
«Affect», should not be confused with _effect_: e.g., _She was deeply affected by the news_; or _The news had a serious effect upon her_; or _The effect of the news was serious_
«Aggravate», should not be used for _annoy_ or _vex_. It means “to make worse”: e.g., _His cold was aggravated by the exposure_
«Ain’t», is a contraction of _am not_. It is inelegant though grammatically correct to say, _I ain’t_, but it is absolutely wrong to say, _He ain’t_, etc.
«All right», should never be written _alright_
«Alternative», should not be used in speaking of one of more than two things
«And», should not be placed before a relative pronoun in such a position as to interfere with the construction: e.g., _I acknowledge the receipt of your letter, (and) for which I send you my cordial thanks_. Omit the conjunction
«Any place», should be written _anywhere_
«Apparently», is used of what seems to be real, but may not be so; _evidently_ of that which both seems and is real {102}
«Apt», means skilful and should not be used for _likely_. _He is apt to be here soon_ should be _He is likely to be here soon_; _He is an apt pupil_ is correct
ARTICLES: when superfluous, are misleading and should be omitted; but it is more frequently the case that necessary articles are omitted: e.g., _The army and navy_ signifies a single organization. Insert _a_ before _navy_
«As», should not be used as a causal conjunction: e.g., _Do not expect me (as) I am too uncertain of my time_. The word _as_ stands here as a contraction of _inasmuch as_. Substitute a semicolon: e.g., _Do not expect me; I am too uncertain of my time_.
«As . . . as», see «So . . . as»
«At», is often incorrectly used for _in_: e.g., _They are living at_ [in] _Florence_
«At length», does not mean the same as _at last_. Say _At length he showed signs of relenting_, and _At last he relented_
«Aught», is frequently confused with _naught_. It means “anything,” whereas the symbol 0 means “nothing”
«Avail», should be used with _of_ only with some form of _be_; otherwise _to_ is the proper word: e.g., _He called lustily, but of_ [to] _no avail_; or _He called lustily, but_ [_it was_] _of no avail_
«Aware», is used in relation to things outside of ourselves; _conscious_ in relation to sensations or things within ourselves
«Awful», should not be used loosely. It means “inspiring with awe.” To say _I had an awfully good time_ is as ridiculous as it is meaningless
«Badly», should not be used for _very much_ or _a great deal_. The expression, _If you don’t care to do a thing very badly, do it very badly_, shows the absurdity. Do not confuse the adjective with the adverb. _He looks badly_ means “He makes a bad use of his eyes.” _He looks bad_ is correct
«Bank on», a slang expression not recognized by good usage. Say _rely on_ or _trust in_ {103}
«Beg», should never be used without the word _leave_, when asking permission. In correspondence one often sees the expressions, _I beg to state_, _I beg to differ_. One should say, _I beg leave to state_, _I beg leave to differ_
«Bring», see «Take»
«But», is sometimes used as a preposition, and when so used takes the objective case: e.g., _The invitation included all but him_ is correct
«Can», denotes power, and should not be used for _may_, which denotes permission. The following sentence shows the correct use of both words: _He may do it if he can_
«Cannot but», should not be used interchangeably with _can but_, as the two expressions differ in meaning: e.g., _I can but try_ means “All I can do is to try”; _I cannot but try_ means “I cannot help trying”
«Can’t seem», should not be used for _seem unable_: e.g., _I can’t seem_ [seem unable] _to find it_
CASE: the nominative is sometimes wrongly used for the objective case: e.g., _Let He_ [Him] _who made thee answer that_
«Childlike», means that belonging to the child; _childish_, means the weakness of the child
«Come», see «Go»
«Common», see «Mutual»
«Confess», should not be used in the sense of _admit_, in cases in which no idea of confession enters
«Conscious», see «Aware»
«Continual», meaning “frequently repeated acts,” should not be confused with _continuous_ meaning “uninterrupted action”: e.g., _Continual nagging spoils the disposition_, and _The continuous flowing of a stream_
«Deadly», which means “that which inflicts death,” should not be confused with _deathly_, which means “that which resembles death”: e.g., _A deadly poison_, and _A deathly pallor_ {104}
«Decided», means “strong,” _decisive_ means “final.” _A decided opinion_ does not mean the same as _a decisive opinion_
«Definite», means “well-defined”; _definitive_ means “final”
«Demean», which signifies “to behave” oneself, should not be used for _degrade_ or _debase_
«Different», should never be followed by the word _than_. Say, _Different from_
«Directly», should not be used for _as soon as_: e.g., _Directly_ [as soon as] _he arrived_
«Discover», is to find something which previously existed; _invent_ is to produce something for the first time
«Don’t», is a contraction of _do not_. One may say, _I don’t_, but not _He don’t_. Say, _He doesn’t_
«Each other», should not be misused for _one another_. One may say, _The two cousins were devoted to each other_; or _Many suggestions were made, following one another in rapid succession_
«Effect», see «Affect»
«Egoists», are those who made the _ego_ the basis of their philosophy; _egotists_ are those who worship themselves
«Either», should not be used to designate more than two persons or things. To designate one of three or more, say _Any one_
«Enormity», describes deeds of unusual horror; _enormousness_ describes things of unusual size
«Enthuse» (verb), is not recognized by good usage. _I became enthused_ should be written _I became enthusiastic_
«Every place», should be written _everywhere_
«Excellent», should never be qualified as it is a superlative: e.g., _most excellent_, _very excellent_, and the like are impossible. (See also «Superlatives»)
«Except» (verb), signifies “to exclude”: e.g., _Present company excepted_. As a preposition it means “with the exception.” It should not be confused with _accept_, which signifies “to receive” {105}
«Exceptional», describes a case outside the operation of a rule; _exceptionable_ is that which is open to criticism: e.g., _Exceptionable_ conduct is that to which _exception_ can be taken
«Expect», should not be used as a synonym for _think_ or _suppose_
«Falseness» (of a person) is the opposite of _truthfulness_; _falsity_ (of a thing) is the opposite of _truth_
«Fix», should not be used in the sense of _repair_. It means “to attach”
«Former», should not be used to designate one of more than two persons or things. If reference is made to one of three or more, say _The first_
«Gentleman», should be used to designate only a person of refinement, and never as a mere designation of sex. The use of the word _man_ is never out of place
«Gentleman friend», is an expression which should be avoided, owing to the use which has been made of it. Say _man friend_ or _man friends_, or _gentleman of my acquaintance_
«Go», should not be confused with _come_: e.g., _I will come_ [go] _to you when you need me_
«Got», is said to be the most misused word in the language. _I have got to go_ should be _I am obliged to go_. _Have you got time?_ should be _Have you time?_ etc. The verb means “to secure,” so it must be used only with this meaning: e.g., _I have got the contract_
«Gotten», is an obsolete form. Say _got_
«Guess», is loosely used for _suppose_, _expect_, or _intend_, but is avoided by the best writers
«Hanged», see «Hung»
«Hardly», should never be preceded by the negative: e.g., _That is not hardly enough_. Omit _not_
«He», see «Him»
«Healthful», means “health-giving,” as applied to articles of food; _healthy_ is the condition of the person {106}
«Her», is often misused for _she_: e.g., _It is her_ [she]; _Such a woman as her_ [she]
«Him», is often misused for _he_: e.g., _It is him_ [he]; _Let He_ [Him] _who made thee answer that_; _A style that belongs to no other than he_ [him]
«Hoi polloi», should not be written _the hoi polloi_. _Hoi_ is Greek for “the”
«Honorable», should always be preceded by _the_: e.g., _The Honorable James Brown Smith_
«How», should not be used for _what_: e.g., _How_ [what] _did you say_?
«Hung», should be distinguished from _hanged_: e.g., _The man was hanged_, but _The flag was hung across the street_
«I», see «Me»
«If», should never be used in the sense of _whether_ or _that_: e.g., _He is not sure if he remembers_ should be _He is not sure whether_ [or _that_] _he remembers_
«In», should not be used for _into_, when motion is implied: e.g., _He stepped in_ [into] _the boat_. See also «At»
INFINITIVE: the verb should never be separated from _to_, the sign of the infinitive word, by an adverb: e.g., _It is not possible for me to absolutely promise_ should be _to promise absolutely_
-ING: when using verbal nouns ending in _-ing_ be careful to distinguish them from participles having the same ending. A verbal noun must never be preceded by an adverb: e.g., _That proved of as little use as his afterward trying to explain his presence there_ should be _as his trying afterward to explain_
«Inside of», is a vulgarism when used in the sense of _within_: e.g., _The snow will be gone inside of_ [within] _a week_
«Invent», see «Discover»
«Kind», is singular. The common expression _those kind_ is absolutely wrong. Say _this kind_ or _these kinds_, _that kind_ or _those kinds_
«Kind of», should not be followed by the article _a_ or _an_. Say _What kind of man is he?_ not _What kind of a man is he?_ {107}
«Lady», see «Gentleman»
«Lady friend», see «Gentleman friend»
«Last», should not be used for _latest_. “Have you read my last book?” asked the author. “I hope so,” was the frank reply
«Latter», signifies one of two persons or things. In making reference to one of three or more, say _The last_
«Lay», should not be confused with _lie_. Hens _lay_, men _lie_
«Less», is a vulgarism when used for _fewer_: e.g., _There were less_ [fewer] _accidents in football this season_
«Liable», should not be used for _likely_: e.g., _It is liable_ [likely] _to rain today_. Its proper sense is shown in the sentence, _He is liable to arrest_
«Like», is a vulgarism when used for _as_ or _as if_: e.g., _I wish I could sing like_ [as] _you do_. See also «Love»
«Likely», means “any probability”; _liable_ means an “unpleasant probability”
«Loan», is not in accord with good usage when used as a verb: Say, _He lent me a dollar_, and _The loan was of real assistance_
«Locate», is a vulgarism when used for _settle_. Say, _He settled in Boston_, and _He located his business in Cambridge_
«Love», describes that which appeals to our affections; _like_, that which appeals to our taste, appetite or fancy
«Luxuriant», means “superabundant”; _luxurious_ means “consequent upon luxury”
«Mad», means “insane,” and is not a synonym for _angry_
«Man», see «Gentleman»
«May», see «Can»
«Me», is often wrongly used for _I_: e.g., _Between you and I_ [me]; _It is me_ [I]; _You know as well as me_ [I]
«Means», may be either singular or plural. Say, _No other means was at hand_, or _Various means were suggested_
«Most», should not be used for _almost_
«Must», should not be used for _had to_ or _was obliged_: e.g., _The hour arrived when he must_ [had to] _decide_. In its proper use it refers to the present or future: e.g., _The hour will arrive when he must decide_ {108}
«Mutual», should not be used in the sense of “shared in common,” as it means “reciprocal.” It can refer to but two persons or things. _Mutual_ friendship is that which exists between two friends; _common_ friendship that which is shared by two friends for a third
«Negligence», implies failure to conform to an established custom; _neglect_ means “a failure to act”
«Neither», signifies one of two. In designating one of three or more, say _No one_
«News», is singular in construction
«Nice», should not be used loosely; as, _She was nice to us_. It means keenness in discrimination; as, _It was a fine point, nicely considered_. The incorrect use of this word is an Americanism especially offensive to the English. Oscar Wilde, when in America, remarked, “I think _nice_ is a nasty word,” to which his hearer retorted, “I don’t think _nasty_ is a nice word”
«No place», should be written _nowhere_
«Nor», see «Or»
«Not . . . but», forms a double negative: e.g., _I have not asked you but once_ should be _I have asked you but once_
«Notorious», is not a synonym for _celebrated_ or _famous_. It means “of bad repute”
«Nowhere near», is a vulgarism for _not nearly_
NUMBER: pronouns are often used which differ in number from their antecedents: e.g., _Nobody should feel that their_ [his] _interests have been neglected_; _Each of the ladies, like two excellent actresses, were_ [was] _perfect in their_ [her] _parts_ [part]. Singular nouns are sometimes used with plural verbs, or the reverse: e.g., _None but the brave deserve_ [deserves] _the fair_; _There’s_ [there are] _the boys_
«Of», is sometimes wrongly used for _have_: e.g., _I shouldn’t of_ [have] _come if I had known_
«Or», should not be used with _neither_. Use _nor_ {109}
«Ought», should never be combined with _had_: e.g., _You hadn’t ought to do that_ should be _You ought not to do that_
«Out loud», should never be used for _aloud_
«Partake of», should not be used in the sense of _eat_. It means “to share with others”
«Party», should not be used for _person_
«Per», should not be used with English words. Say _One dollar a year_, or _One dollar per annum_
«Perception», means the inlet of all the materials of knowledge; _apperception_ means the knowledge that one possesses these materials. A man with _perception_ knows; a man with _apperception_ knows that he knows
PLURALS: of foreign words should be carefully ascertained: e.g., _cherubim_ is the plural of _cherub_; _memoranda_, of _memorandum_; _data_, of _datum_; _donne_, of _donna_; _strata_, of _stratum_; _addenda_, of _addendum_; _rubaiyat_, of _rubai_. Do not say, _A memoranda_
«Pretty», should not be used in a modifying sense, nor as a synonym for _very_: e.g., _It is not as good as yours, but it is pretty_ [fairly] _good_; _I didn’t hit it, but I came pretty_ [very] _close_
«Propose», meaning “to offer,” should not be confused with _purpose_, meaning “to intend.” Say, _He proposed an amendment_, and _I have told you what I purpose_
«Quite», should not be used in a modifying sense as if meaning “rather.” _It is not what I expected, but it is quite good_ is wrong. The word means “wholly”: e.g., _Not quite_ = not wholly; _quite satisfactory_ = wholly satisfactory
«Raise», should not be used as a noun
«Rarely ever», is a vulgarism for _rarely_ or _hardly ever_
«Reference», should be used with _with_ rather than _in_. Say, _With reference to_ rather than _In reference to_ {110}
«Regard», see «Reference»
«Respect», see «Reference»
«Reverend», should always be preceded by _the_: e.g., _The Reverend James Brown Smith_
«Same», should not be used as a pronoun: e.g., _Your letter received, and in reply [to same] would say_. Omit bracketed words
«Same as», should not be used for _just as_ or _in the same way_: e.g., _Treat him the same_ [just] _as you would wish to be treated_
«Scarcely», see «Hardly»
«Seldom ever», see «Rarely ever»
«Sensible of», means “having perception”; _sensitive to_ means “affected by”
«Set», should not be confused with _sit_. _To set_ means “to cause to sit”: e.g., _The bird sits upon the tree_, and _The waiter set two chairs for us_
«Sewage», means the contents of sewers; _sewerage_ means the system
«Shall», signifies simple expectancy in the first person, and _will_ represents determination. This reverses with the second and third persons: e.g., EXPECTANCY, I shall (should), thou wilt (wouldst), he will (would), we shall (should), you will (would), they will (would). DETERMINATION, I will (would), thou shalt (shouldst), he shall (should), we will (would), you shall (should), they shall (should). This time-honored illustration of the misuse of these words is easily remembered: _I will drown, nobody shall save me_. In interrogative sentences, the forms of the future are the same as in a declarative sentence, and their proper use may be easily remembered by noting that the same auxiliary is used as is expected in the reply: e.g., _Shall you go?_ suggests merely future action, anticipating the reply, _I shall_ or _I shall not_; _Will you go?_ shows that the speaker expects a reply of determination, _I will_ or _I will not_
«She», see «Her» {111}
«Should», ought not to be used for _to_: e.g., _I want you should_ [to] _do this_. (See also «Want».) As between _should_ and _would_, see «Shall». The same usage obtains, except that sometimes _should_ is used in the sense of _ought_: e.g., _He should be here now_; and _would_ sometimes signifies habitual action: e.g., _Whenever the name was mentioned he would speak slightingly of him_