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THE WRITER’S DESK BOOK

* * * * * *

OTHER BOOKS BY MR. ORCUTT

GOOD OLD DORCHESTER. _A Narrative History_

PRINCESS KALLISTO, _and other Tales of the Fairies_

ROBERT CAVELIER. _A Novel_

THE FLOWER OF DESTINY. _A Novel_

THE SPELL. _A Novel_

THE LEVER. _A Novel_

THE MOTH. _A Novel_

* * * * * *

The Writer’s Desk Book

_Being a reference volume upon questions of_ PUNCTUATION · CAPITALIZATION · SPELLING · DIVISION OF WORDS · INDENTION · SPACING ITALICS · ABBREVIATIONS ACCENTS · NUMERALS · FAULTY DICTION · LETTER WRITING POSTAL REGULATIONS · _Etc_ · _Etc_

_By_ WILLIAM DANA ORCUTT _for many years Head of The University Press · Cambridge · Now associated with_ THE PLIMPTON PRESS · _Norwood Mass._

New York · FREDERICK·A·STOKES COMPANY · Publishers · MCMXIII

Copyright, 1912, by Frederick A. Stokes Co.

Second Edition

The · Plimpton · Press [W · D · O] Norwood · Mass · U · S · A

CONTENTS

PAGE

PUNCTUATION 1

Importance of correct punctuation — punctuation marks and accents — the comma — the semicolon — the colon — the period — the dash — the exclamation — the interrogation — quotation-marks — parentheses — brackets — the apostrophe — the hyphen

CAPITALIZATION 20

Of religious terms — of proper names — of titles — of institutional terms — of references — of ordinals — in general — use of small capitals

SPELLING 31

Importance of adopting an authority — basic rules for numbers and diphthongs — simple rules of orthography — accented words — participles — variable endings — list of variable spellings

COMPOUND WORDS 45

General theory — changes in modern uses — rules and examples

DIVISION OF WORDS 52

Rules and examples

INDENTION AND PARAGRAPHING 55

Various forms used in display — en échelon — irregular — hanging — reverse — lozenge — blocked — definition of the paragraph — its value — kinds of paragraphs — length of paragraph

SPACING 59

General principles — kerned letters — examples of varying spaces

ITALIC 62

Its origin — its uses — when required and when not

ABBREVIATIONS 65

Of dates — of proper names — of titles — commercial — of given names — geographical — miscellaneous — scriptural — monetary signs — mathematical signs — medical signs

NUMERALS 93

History of their evolution — lists

CORRECT AND FAULTY DICTION 99

Dr. Campbell’s canons — good usage — list of words and phrases commonly misused

LETTER WRITING 114

Its importance — business, informal, formal — the heading — the address — the salutation — the text — the complimentary close — the signature — the envelope — postal cards — in general — examples

POSTAL INFORMATION 129

Classes of mail — parcel post — wrapping of mail matter — forwarding mail matter — what cannot be mailed — concealed matter — domestic rates — foreign rates — exceptions — foreign parcels post — money order fees — registered mail — special delivery system — postal distances and time from New York City

APPENDIX 142

Standard time — values of foreign coins — comparative thermometers — weights and measures — British weights and measures

INDEX 163

{ 1}

THE WRITER’S DESK BOOK

{2}

PUNCTUATION MARKS, ACCENTS, ETC.

, Comma ; Semicolon : Colon . Period ? Interrogation ! Exclamation () Parentheses [] Brackets ’ Apostrophe - Hyphen ´ Acute accent ` Grave accent ^ Circumflex accent ~ Circumflex or tilde ̄ Long or macron ˘ Short or breve ¨ Dieresis ç Cedilla ‸ Caret “ ” Quotation-marks {} Brace * * * Ellipsis . . . Ellipsis, leaders * Asterisk † Dagger ‡ Double dagger § Section ‖ Parallels ¶ Paragraph ☞ Index * * * Asterisks

The Section-mark is derived from the first letters of the words _signum sectionis_, meaning sign of the section, the old-fashioned _∫_ being used. The paragraph mark ¶ is the roman letter P reversed, with black and white interchanged.

{3}

PUNCTUATION

In early manuscripts the words followed one another without punctuation points, thus making it difficult for readers to separate the ideas into the same parts as originally intended by the authors. Later they were separated by dots or other marks, which method obtained in the earliest printed volumes. Aldus Manutius (Venice, 1490–1515) and his family were the pioneers in establishing a basis for systematic punctuation. From this chaotic condition definite rules have gradually been evolved for general guidance, but judgment and taste must always be the final guides to correct punctuation. Assistance may be obtained by observing a few simple rules which are based upon the idea that the purpose of every punctuation mark is to indicate to the eye the construction of the sentence in which it occurs.

No one of the various punctuation marks should ever be used exclusively or to excess, for each one has some specific duty which it can perform better than any other. It is always wise to question why, in a given case, a punctuation mark should be put in rather than why it should be left out, for of the two evils an over-punctuated book is the more objectionable. “Close punctuation,” {4} characterized by the use of many commas, prevailed in the English of the eighteenth century and is today the best French usage, but “open punctuation,” which avoids the use of any point not clearly required by the construction, is now favored by the best English writers.

THE COMMA

Dean Alford once wrote, in disgust, “The great enemies to understanding anything in our language are the commas,” and prided himself that in the course of editing the Greek text of the New Testament, he destroyed more than a thousand of these “enemies.” The chief use of this, the smallest degree of separation, is to define the particles and minor clauses of a sentence. It should always be placed inside the quotation-marks when used in connection with them.

The comma is required:

1. Before a conjunction when the preceding word is qualified by an expression which is not intended to qualify the word following the conjunction: e.g., _He suddenly started, and fell_.

2. Between adjectives and adverbs when not connected by a conjunction: _He possessed a calm, exasperating manner_; but the comma may be omitted between two adjectives when the idea is close: e.g., _A clear cold day_. {5}

3. After adjectives and adverbs where three or more are used in succession: e.g., _The man possessed a calm, cynical, exasperating manner_.

4. In a succession of three or more words where the conjunctive _and_ is used before the last one: e.g., _He was tall, thin, and pale_.

5. When the word after the conjunction is followed by an expression which qualifies that word alone: e.g.,

_’Twas certain he could write, and cipher too._

6. After inverted phrases and clauses: e.g., _Discouraged by constant opposition, he resigned his position_. Short phrases of similar nature do not require the comma: e.g., _Of his intentions there could be no doubt_.

7. To separate the adverbs _however_, _now_, _then_, _too_, _perhaps_, and _indeed_ from the context when they are used as conjunctions: e.g., _This idea, however, had not occurred to him_. When these words are used as adverbs, the comma is not required: e.g., _It must be done, however contrary it may be to our present advantage_.

8. To separate parenthetical or intermediate expressions from the context: e.g., _His intentions, though at first concealed, became obvious_.

9. After the last word of a series composed of several words not connected by conjunctions: e.g., _The men, the women, the children even, were up in arms_. {6}

10. Between words or phrases in apposition with each other: e.g., _I refer to Mr. Taylor, the father of Scientific Management_. But when used as a single phrase or a compound name, no comma is required: e.g., _The poet Tennyson was born in 1809_.

11. Between the name of a person and his title or degree: e.g., _Charles W. Eliot, President Emeritus_; _Woodrow Wilson, LL.D._

12. Between two independent clauses connected by a conjunction: e.g., _The door was barricaded, but we managed to open it_.

13. Between relative clauses which are explanatory of an antecedent, or which present an additional thought: e.g., _Her voice, which was charming in her own drawing-room, was not powerful enough for a public auditorium_. But relative clauses which limit the meaning of the antecedent (called _restrictive_) do not require the comma: e.g., _He did that which he was obliged to do_.

14. Between two clauses, one of which depends on the other, and usually introduced by _if_, _when_, _unless_, _though_, _where_, _wherever_, etc.: e.g., _If we stand together, success is assured_. If the clauses are closely connected both in sense and construction, the comma is not required: e.g., _William was ten years old when his father moved to Boston_.

15. In compound sentences, to separate the co-ordinate clause when closely related and simple in construction: e.g., _He was_ {7} _courteous, not cringing, to superiors; affable, not familiar, to equals; and kind, but not condescending, to inferiors_.

16. To indicate an ellipsis: e.g., _Price, seventy-five cents_.

17. To separate vocative words or expressions from the context: e.g., _I leave it, gentlemen, to your sense of right and wrong_.

18. Before _not_, when introducing an antithetical clause: e.g., _He devoted his attention to the matter before him, not because he was interested, but because he could not avoid the issue_.

19. To separate similar or identical words, even though not required by the sense or grammatical construction: e.g., _I tell you, you are wrong_.

20. To separate two numbers: e.g., _March 1, 1912_; _In 1911, 869 cases were reported_.

21. To separate a quotation or similar brief expression from the preceding part of the sentence: e.g., _To quote the proverb, “Look before you leap.”_

22. Before the word _of_, connecting a proper name with residence or position: e.g., _Senator Lodge, of Massachusetts_.

23. After the salutatory phrase at the beginning of a letter, when informal: e.g., _My dear Mother_, but, when formal, _Gentlemen_:

The comma is not required:

1. Before or after conjunctions such as _and_, _or_, _nor_, _but_, and _yet_ when employed to {8} connect two words belonging to the same part of speech and in the same construction: e.g., _Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish, I give my hand and my heart to this vote_. When words are not in pairs, the comma must be used: e.g., _Sink, die, or perish, I give my hand and my heart to this vote_.

2. Before or after conjunctions when they are employed to connect two expressions in the same construction used as if belonging to the same part of speech: e.g., _The new system of management guarantees accuracy in getting orders under way and promptness in completing them_.

3. Before the conjunction _too_ when placed at the end of a sentence: e.g., _I hope that you will come too_.

4. Where there are two or more words or phrases having a conjunction between each two: e.g., _Lest he should be tempted and yield and thus be false_.

5. After an adjective that describes or limits another adjective together with the noun following: e.g., _He had on a pair of torn gray corduroy breeches_.

6. When a pronoun is used with a noun for emphasis: e.g., _Lafcadio Hearn himself could not have described the scene more vividly_.

THE SEMICOLON

The semicolon is used to indicate a pause or a degree of separation next greater than {9} the comma. Caxton was the first to introduce into English printing the Roman points of punctuation as used in Italy. The comma replaced the unwieldly |, and the colon was an added refinement, but for some unexplained reason he steadfastly opposed the introduction of the semicolon. This mark should always be placed outside the quotation-marks unless forming a part of the quotation itself.

Use the semicolon:

1. When the members of a compound sentence are complex in construction or contain commas: e.g., _He was courteous, not cringing, to superiors; affable, but not familiar, to equals; and kind, but not condescending, to inferiors_.

2. To connect successive sentences: e.g., _His face never showed an emotion other than that which he wished to have seen there; the mouth was protected by his heavy mustache; his eyes penetrated the object on which they fixed themselves_. Shorter sentences should be divided by commas.

3. Between expressions in a series which have a common dependence upon words at the beginning or end of a sentence: e.g., _The half-sick man is a nuisance to his entire household: he is not ill enough to accept restraint; he is too ill to be reasonable_.

4. To separate passages containing chapters in scriptural references: e.g., _Matt. 1 : 4–8, 12, 16; chap. 3; 8 : 16_. {10}

THE COLON

The colon is used between clauses of compound sentences, additional clauses without a conjunction, formal quotations, and particulars in apposition with a general term, to mark the necessity of a pause greater than that indicated by the semicolon and less than that indicated by the period. The colon is much less used today than formerly, as modern writers employ shorter and less formal sentences than those of a century ago. It should always be placed outside the quotation-marks unless included as a part of the quotation itself.

Use the colon:

1. Before _as_, _viz._, _that is_, _namely_, etc., when these words introduce a series of simple particular terms in apposition with a general term: e.g., _There are three genders in Latin: namely, masculine, feminine, and neuter_.

2. Between two members of a sentence when one or both are made up of two or more clauses divided by semicolons: e.g., _Vallie was nervous in his temperment; the Captain was calm and self-contained: Vallie was the product of the city; the Captain was the product of the world_.

3. Between a complete sentence and an additional clause enlarging upon the same idea without a conjunction: e.g., _Imagination_ {11} _is essential to business success: without imagination, plans for future development cannot intelligently be made_.

4. Before particulars definitely stated: e.g., _These new duties of the management are grouped under four heads: first, they develop a science for each element of a man’s work_, etc.

5. Before formal quotations: e.g., _In a recent speech attributed to you by the daily press, you are reported to have used these words: “Good principles follow good habits.”_

6. After the formal salutatory phrase at the beginning of a letter: e.g., _Gentlemen_:[1] When less formality is desired, the comma may be used: e.g., _My dear Mother_,

[1] See page 117, §§ 2, 3, 4.

7. Between the hours and minutes in indicating time: e.g., _11 : 30_ A.M.

8. Between the chapter and verse in scriptural references: e.g., _Matt. 1 : 4–8, 12, 16; chap. 3; 8 : 16_.

9. Between the city of publication and the name of publisher in literary references: e.g., _“The Adventures of Tom Sawyer” (New York: Harpers)_.

THE PERIOD

Always place the period inside the quotation-marks and inside the parentheses when parenthetical matter forms an independent sentence and is not a part of the preceding sentence. {12}

Use the period:

1. After every abbreviation.

2. To set off decimal numbers from whole numbers.

3. After every complete sentence unless the sentence is interrogative or exclamatory.

4. To indicate an ellipsis, repeating the mark three or more times separated by spaces: e.g., . . .

Do not use the period:

1. After running-heads.

2. After cut-in side-notes.

3. After centered head-lines.

4. After box-heads in tables.

5. After legends beneath illustrations.

6. After subheads set in separate lines.

7. After date-lines at the top of letters.

8. After signatures at the end of letters.

9. At end of lines in display composition, such as titles,[2] blocked headings, etc.

10. After roman numerals, even though they possess the value of ordinals: e.g., _Vol. VIII_; _George V is king of England_.

[2] First adopted by William Pickering, the London publisher, about 1850.

THE DASH

The dash is more misused and overused than any of the other punctuation marks. The following rules define its proper use: {13}

Use the dash:

1. Whenever the construction or the sense is suddenly changed or suspended: e.g., _You cannot believe — but I will not humiliate myself by asking the question_.

2. To connect extreme dates in specifying periods of time: e.g., _1912–1918_.

3. When the sentence is abruptly terminated: e.g., “_If he is alive, I can make him one from this time; and if — if —_”

4. To secure rhetorical emphasis: e.g., _We are ready — we are more than ready to meet the issue_.

5. To define verse references in the Bible: e.g., _Matt. 1:4–8_; or to indicate page references in a book: e.g., _See pp. 21–42_.

6. Between short, snappy sentences to increase the speed of the discourse: e.g., _Hullo! ho! the whole world’s asleep! — bring out the horses, — grease the wheels, — tie on the mail!_

7. Between the subject-matter and its authority.

8. To indicate the omission of letters: e.g., _Mrs. B——_.

9. At the end of a series of phrases which depend upon a concluding clause: e.g., _Courtesy and attention, patience and judgment, accuracy and carefulness — these are but a few of the elements which constitute successful business relations_. {14}

10. To precede expressions which are added to an apparently completed sentence, but which refer to some previous part of the sentence: e.g., _The question of hearing was seriously troubling the minister — they probably had heard too much_.

* * * * *

¶ Dashes may be substituted for commas or marks of parenthesis before and after expressions having closer connection with the main sentence than could be indicated by marks of parenthesis: e.g., _They might have been talking for a quarter of an hour or more, when Monks — by which name the Jew had designated the strange man — said_, etc.

¶ Use the dash preceded by the colon before a long quotation forming a new paragraph. The dash is not otherwise used with other punctuation marks unless demanded by clearness.

¶ In France, printers use the dash as a frequent substitute for quotation-marks in dialogue, placing quotation-marks only at the beginning and the end, even though extended over several pages.

THE EXCLAMATION

The proper use of the exclamation-point lends force and vigor to language in expressing surprise or emotion, but when overused it cheapens intended pathos and thus defeats the writer’s purpose. It should always be placed {15} outside the quotation-marks unless it is a part of the quotation itself. The mark is formed from the word Io, signifying joy, written vertically ̥I.

The exclamation-point is required:

1. At the end of a word or sentence to express strong emotion: e.g., _God forbid! “Mind that, Fagin!”_

2. To indicate sarcasm or doubt on the part of the writer regarding the authenticity of a statement: e.g., “_For Brutus is an honorable man!_”

3. After exclamatory words. If the same interjection is repeated use the comma to separate the words, placing the exclamation-point only at the end, unless the intention is to make each of the repeated words emphatic: e.g., _“Oh! dear, dear, dear!” he exclaimed; “what an unfortunate memory you have!”_

¶ Use great care in distinguishing between _Oh!_, an interjection expressing pain or surprise, and the vocative _O_, expressing a wish or an imprecation, which does not call for the exclamation-point: e.g., “_Oh! what damned minutes tells he o’er!_” and “_O that I had wings like a dove!_”

THE INTERROGATION

The interrogation-point is formed from the first and last letters of the Latin word _quaestio_ (_a question_) placed one over the other; as {16} ̥Q. It should always be placed outside the quotation-marks unless it is a part of the quotation itself.

1. Every sentence containing a direct question should close with an interrogation-point: e.g., _When can this order be shipped? We have received a letter which asks, “What date can you give us for shipping these goods?”_

2. The interrogation-point is used to express doubt: e.g., _This volume is said to be bound in real (?) morocco_.

3. Indirect questions do not take the interrogation-point: e.g., _He inquired when it would be ready_.

QUOTATION-MARKS

1. Enclose every direct quotation in double quotation-marks: e.g., _“I insist upon it,” he said; “there is no alternative.”_

2. When a quotation of a passage from an author in his own words is run into the text it should be placed between quotation-marks.

3. Selections from different works by the same author, or from different authors, following each other without intervening original matter, or by reference to their sources, should be quoted.

4. When setting poetry the quotation-marks should overhang the beginning of the line. This should also be done when prose display matter is “blocked.”

5. Single quotes are used for quotations {17} within quotations; double quotes for quotations within single quotations.

6. Quotations should always include the phrase _etc._, and other ellipses whenever necessary to secure perfect clearness.

7. When a long quotation is made, including several paragraphs or verses, the quotation-mark should appear at the beginning of each paragraph, but at the end of the last one only.

Quote:

1. A phrase or a word which is accompanied by its definition: e.g., _“Roman quote” means to place the matter indicated between quotations in roman type_.

2. Words or phrases in the text which are intended by the writer to possess an unusual, technical, or ironical meaning: e.g., _Her literary “salon” will long be remembered_; _This so-called “captain of industry.”_

3. Titles of poems, books, etc.: e.g., _Longfellow’s “Belfry of Bruges.”_

4. Serial titles: e.g., _the “Oriental Series,”_ _“Stories of Nations.”_

5. Words to which the writer desires to attract attention: e.g., _The name of “Florence” immediately causes one to think of humanism._