Part 21

The Inferior Oolite here alluded to is a thin bed of calcareous freestone, resting on, and sometimes replaced by yellow sand, which constitutes the passage-beds from the Liassic series. The Fullers’ Earth clay lies between the limestones of the Inferior and Great Oolite, at the base of which last lies the Stonesfield slate--a slightly oolitic, shelly limestone, or flaggy and fissile sandstone, some six feet thick, rich in organic remains, and ranging through Oxfordshire towards the north-east, into Northamptonshire and Yorkshire. At Colley Weston, in Northamptonshire, fossils of _Pecopteris polypodioides_ are found. In the Great Oolite formation, near Bath, are many corals, among which the _Eunomia radiata_ is very conspicuous. The fossil is not unlike the existing brain-coral of the tropical seas (Fig. 118). The work of this coral seems to have been suddenly stopped by “an invasion,” says Lyell, “of argillaceous matter, which probably put a sudden stop to the growth of Bradford Encrinites, and led to their preservation in marine strata.”[68] The Cornbrash is, in general, a cream-coloured limestone, about forty feet thick, in the south-west of England, and occupying a considerable area in Dorsetshire and North Wilts, as at Cricklade, Malmesbury, and Chippenham, in the latter county. _Terebratula obovata_ is its characteristic shell, and _Nucleolites clunicularis_, _Lima gibbosa_, and _Avicula echinata_ occur constantly in great numbers. Wherever it occurs the Cornbrash affords a rich and fertile soil, well adapted for the growth of wheat, while the Forest Marble, as a soil, is generally poor. The Cornbrash passes downwards into the Forest Marble, and sometimes, as at Bradford, near Bath, is replaced by clay. This clay, called the Bradford clay, is almost wholly confined to the county of Wilts. _Terebratula decussata_ is one of the most characteristic fossils, but the most common is the Apiocrinites or pear-shaped encrinite, whose remains in this clay are so perfectly preserved that the most minute articulations are often found in their natural positions. PLATE XIX., p. 261 (Fig. 1), represents an adult attached by a solid base to the rocky bottom on which it grew, whilst the smaller individuals show the Encrinite in its young state--one with arms expanded, the other with them closed. Ripple-marked slabs of fissile Forest Marble are used as a roofing-slate, and may be traced over a broad band of country in Wiltshire and Gloucestershire, separated from each other by thin seams of clay, in which the undulating ridges of the sand are preserved, and even the footmarks of small Crustaceans are still visible.

[68] “Elements of Geology,” p. 400.

On the opposite page (PLATE XVII.) is represented an ideal landscape of the period of the Lower Oolite. On the shore are types of the vegetation of the period. The _Zamites_, with large trunk covered with fan-like leaves, resembled in form and bearing the existing Zamias of tropical regions; a _Pterophyllum_, with its stem covered from base to summit with its finely-cut feathery leaves; Conifers closely resembling our Cypress, and an arborescent Fern. What distinguishes this sub-period from that of the Lias is a group of magnificent trees, _Pandanus_, remarkable for their aërial roots, their long leaves, and globular fruit.

Upon one of the trees of this group the artist has placed the _Phascolotherium_, not very unlike to our Opossum. It was amongst the first of the Mammalia which appeared in the ancient world. The artist has here enlarged the dimensions of the animal in order to show its form. Let the reader reduce it in imagination one-sixth, for it was not larger than an ordinary-sized cat.

A Crocodile and the fleshless skeleton of the Ichthyosaurus remind us that Reptiles still occupied an important place in the animal creation. A few Insects, especially Dragon-flies, fly about in the air. Ammonites float on the surface of the waves, and the terrible Plesiosaurus, like a gigantic swan, swims about in the sea. The circular reef of coral, the work of ancient Polyps, foreshadows the atolls of the great ocean, for it was during the Jurassic period that the Polyps of the ancient world were most active in the production of coral-reefs and islets.

MIDDLE OOLITE.

The terrestrial flora of this age was composed of Ferns, Cycads, and Conifers. The first represented by the _Pachypteris microphylla_, the second by _Zamites Moreana_. _Brachyphyllum Moreanum_ and _B. majus_ appear to have been the Conifers most characteristic of the period; fruits have also been found in the rocks of the period, which appear to belong to Palms, but this point is still obscure and doubtful.

Numerous vestiges of the fauna which animated the period are also revealed in the rocks of this age. Certain hemipterous insects appear on the earth for the first time, and the Bees among the Hymenoptera, Butterflies among the Lepidoptera, and Dragon-flies among the Neuroptera. In the bosom of the ocean, or upon its banks, roamed the _Ichthyosaurus_, _Ceteosaurus_, _Pterodactylus crassirostris_, and the _Geosaurus_; the latter being very imperfectly known.

The Ceteosaurus whose bones have been discovered in the upper beds of the Great Oolite at Enslow Rocks, at the Kirtlington Railway Station, north of Oxford, and some other places, was a species of Crocodile nearly resembling the modern Gavial or Crocodile of the Ganges. This huge whale-like reptile has been described by Professor John Phillips as unmatched in size and strength by any of the largest inhabitants of the Mesozoic land or sea--perhaps the largest animal that ever walked upon the earth. A full-grown Ceteosaurus must have been _at least_ fifty feet long, ten feet high, and of a proportionate bulk. In its habits it was, probably, a marsh-loving or river-side animal, dwelling amidst filicene, cycadaceous, and coniferous shrubs and trees full of insects and small mammalia. The one small and imperfect tooth which has been found resembles that of Iguanodon more than of any other reptile; and it seems probable that the Ceteosaurus was nourished by vegetable food, which abounded in the vicinity of its haunts, and was not obliged to contend with the Megalosaurus for a scanty supply of more stimulating diet.[69]

[69] For a full account of the Ceteosaurus, see “The Geology of the Thames Valley,” by Prof. John Phillips, F.R.S. 1871.

Another reptile allied to the Pterodactyle lived in this epoch--the _Ramphorynchus_, distinguished from the Pterodactyle by a long tail. The imprints which this curious animal has left upon the sandstone of the period are impressions of its feet and the linear furrow made by its tail. Like the Pterodactyle, the Ramphorynchus, which was about the size of a crow, could not precisely fly, but, aided by the wing (a sort of natural parachute formed by the membrane connecting the fingers with the body), it could throw itself from a height upon its prey. Fig. 119 represents a restoration of this animal. The footprints in the soil are in imitation of those which accompany the remains of the Ramphorynchus in the Oolitic rocks, and they show the imprints of the anterior and posterior feet and also the marks made by the tail.

This tail was very long, far surpassing in length the rest of the vertebral column, and consisting of more than thirty vertebræ--which were at first short, but rapidly elongate, retain their length for a considerable distance, and then gradually diminish in size.

Another genus of Reptiles appears in the Middle Oolite, of which we have had a glimpse in the Lias and Great Oolite of the preceding section. This is the _Teleosaurus_, which the recent investigations of M. E. Deslongchamps allow of re-construction. The Teleosaurus enables us to form a pretty exact idea of these Crocodiles of the ancient seas--these cuirassed Reptiles, which the German geologist Cotta describes as “the great barons of the kingdom of Neptune, armed to the teeth, and clothed in an impenetrable panoply; the true filibusters of the primitive seas.”

The Teleosaurus resembled the Gavials of India. The former inhabited the banks of rivers, perhaps the sea itself; they were longer, more slender, and more active than the living species; they were about thirty feet in length, of which the head may be from three to four feet, with their enormous jaws sometimes with an opening of six feet, through which they could engulf, in the depths of their enormous throat, animals of considerable size.

The _Teleosaurus cadomensis_ is represented on the opposite page (PLATE XVIII.), after the sketch of M. E. Deslongchamps, carrying from the sea in its mouth a _Geoteuthis_, a species of Calamary of the Oolitic epoch. This creature was coated with a cuirass both on the back and belly. In order to show this peculiarity, a living individual is represented on the shore, and a dead one is floating on its back in shallow water, leaving the ventral cuirass exposed.

Behind the _Teleosaurus cadomensis_ in the engraving, another Saurian, the _Hylæosaurus_, is represented, which makes its appearance in the Cretaceous epoch. We have here adopted the restoration which has been so ably executed by Mr. Waterhouse Hawkins, at the Crystal Palace, Sydenham.

Besides the numerous Fishes with which the Oolitic seas swarmed, they contained some Crustaceans, Cirripedes, and various genera of Mollusca and Zoophytes. _Eryon arctiformis_, represented in Fig. 119, belongs to the class of Crustaceans, of which the spiny lobster is the type. Among the Mollusca were some Ammonites, Belemnites, and Oysters, of which many hundred species have been described. Of these we may mention _Ammonites refractus, A. Jason and A. cordatus, Ostrea dilatata, Terebratula diphya, Diceras arietena, Belemnites hastatus_, and _B. Puzosianus_. In some of the finely-laminated clays the Ammonites are very perfect, but somewhat compressed, with the outer lip or margin of the aperture entire (Fig. 120). Similar prolongations have been noticed in Belemnites found by Dr. Mantell in the Oxford Clay, near Chippenham.

Among the Echinoderms, _Cidaris glandiferus_, _Apiocrinus Roissyanus_, and _A. rotundus_, the graceful _Saccocoma pectinata_, _Millericrinus nodotianus_, _Comatula costata_, and _Hemicidaris crenularis_ may be mentioned; _Apiocrinites rotundus_, figured in PLATE XIX., is a reduced restoration: 1, being expanded; _a_, closed; 3, a cross section of the upper extremity of the pear-shaped head; 4, a vertical section showing the enlargement of the alimentary canal, with the hollow lenticular spaces which descend through the axis of the column, forming the joints, and giving elasticity and flexure to the whole stem, without risk of dislocation. _A. rotundus_ is found at Bradford in Wiltshire, Abbotsbury in Dorset, at Soissons, and Rochelle. This species--known as the Bradford Pear-Encrinite--is only found in the strata mentioned.

The Corals of this epoch occur in great abundance. We have already remarked that these aggregations of Polyps are often met with at a great depth in the strata. These small calcareous structures have been formed in the ancient seas, and the same phenomenon is extending the terrestrial surface in our days in the seas of Oceania, where reefs and atolls of coral are rising by slow and imperceptible steps, but with no less certainty. Although their mode of production must always remain to some extent a mystery, the investigations of M. Lamaroux, Mr. Charles Darwin, and M. D’Orbigny have gone a long way towards explaining their operations; for the Zoophyte in action is an aggregation of these minute Polyps. Describing what he believes to be a sea-pen, a Zoophyte allied to _Virgularia Patagonia_, Mr. Darwin says: “It consists of a thin, straight, fleshy stem, with alternate rows of polypi on each side, and surrounding an elastic stony axis. The stem at one extremity is truncate, but at the other is terminated by a vermiform fleshy appendage. The stony axis which gives strength to the stem, may be traced at this extremity into a mere vessel filled with granular matter. At low water hundreds of these zoophytes might be seen, projecting like stubble, with the truncate end upwards, a few inches above the surface of the muddy sand. When touched or pulled, they drew themselves in suddenly, with force, so as nearly or quite to disappear. By this action, the highly-elastic axis must be bent at the lower extremity, where it is naturally slightly curved; and I imagine it is by this elasticity alone that the zoophyte is enabled to rise again through the mud. Each polypus, though closely united to its brethren, has a distinct mouth, body, and tentacula. Of these polypi, in a large specimen there must be many thousands. Yet we see that they act by one movement; that they have one central axis, connected with a system of obscure circulation.” Such is the brief account given by a very acute observer of these singular beings. They secrete the calcareous matter held in solution in the oceanic waters, and produce the wonderful structures we have now under consideration; and these calcareous banks have been in course of formation during many geological ages. They just reach the level of the waters, for the polyps perish as soon as they are so far above the surface that neither the waves nor the flow of the tides can reach them. In the Oolitic rocks these banks are frequently found from twelve to fifteen feet thick, and many leagues in length, and preserving, for the most part, the relative positions which they occupied in the sea while in course of formation.

The rocks which now represent the Middle Oolitic Period are usually divided into the _Oxford Clay_, the lower member of which is an arenaceous limestone, known as the _Kellaways Rock_, which in Wiltshire and other parts of the south-west of England attains a thickness of eight or ten feet, with the impressions of numerous Ammonites, and other shells. In Yorkshire, around Scarborough, it reaches the thickness of thirty feet; and forms well-developed beds of bluish-black marl in the department of Calvados, in France. It is the base of this clay which forms the soil (_Argile de Dives_) of the valley of the Auge, renowned for its rich pasturages and magnificent cattle. The same beds form the base of the oddly-shaped but fine rocks of La Manche, which are popularly known as the _Vaches Noires_ (or black cows)--a locality celebrated, also, for its fine Ammonites transformed into pyrites.

The _Oxford Clay_ constitutes the base of the hills in the neighbourhood of Oxford, forming a bed of clay sometimes more than 600 feet thick. It is found well-developed in France, at Trouville, in the department of the Calvados; and at Neuvisy, in the department of the Ardennes, where it attains a thickness of about 300 feet. It is a bluish, sometimes whitish limestone (often argillaceous), and bluish marl. The _Gryphæa dilatata_ is the most common fossil in the Oxford Clay. The _Coral Rag_ is so called from the fact that the limestone of which it is chiefly composed consists, in part, of an aggregation of considerable masses of petrified Corals; not unlike those now existing in the Pacific Ocean, supposing them to be covered up for ages and fossilised. This coral stratum extends through the hills of Berkshire and North Wilts, and it occurs again near Scarborough. In the counties of Dorset, Bedford, Buckingham, and Cambridge, and some other parts of England, the limestone of the Coral Rag disappears and is replaced by clay--in which case the Oxford Clay is overlaid directly by the Kimeridge Clay. In France it is found in the departments of the Meuse, of the Yonne, of the Ain, of the Charente Inférieure. In the Alps the _Diceras limestone_ is regarded, by most geologists, as coeval with the English Coral Rag.

UPPER OOLITE.

Some marsupial Mammals have left their remains in the Upper Oolite as in the Lower. They belong to the genus _Sphalacotherium_. Besides the Plesiosauri and Teleosauri, there still lived in the maritime regions a Crocodile, the _Macrorhynchus_; and the monstrous _Pœcilopleuron_, with sharp cutting teeth, one of the most formidable animals of this epoch; the _Hylæosaurus_, _Cetiosaurus_, _Stenosaurus_, and _Streptospondylus_, and among the Turtles, the _Emys_ and _Platemys_. As in the Lower Oolite, so also in the Upper, Insects similar to those by which we are surrounded, pursued their flight in the meadows and hovered over the surface of the water. Of these, however, too little is known for us to give any very precise indication on the subject of their special organisation.

The most remarkable fact relating to this period is the appearance of the first bird. Hitherto the Mammals, and of these only imperfectly-organised species, namely, the Marsupials, have alone appeared. It is interesting to witness birds appearing immediately after. In the quarries of lithographic stone at Solenhofen, the remains of a bird, with feet and feathers, have been found, but without the head. These curious remains are represented in Fig. 122, in the position in which they were discovered. The bird is usually designated the Bird of Solenhofen.

The Oolitic seas of this series contained Fishes belonging to the genera _Asteracanthus_, _Strephodes_, _Lepidotus_, and _Microdon_. The Cephalopodous Mollusca were not numerous, the predominating genera belonging to the Lamellibranchs and to the Gasteropods, which lived on the shore. The reef-making Madrepores or Corals were more numerous. A few Zoophytes in the fossil state testify to the existence of these extraordinary animals. The fossils characteristic of the fauna of the period include _Ammonites decipiens_ and _A. giganteus_, _Natica elegans_ and _hemispherica_, _Ostrea deltoidea_ and _O. virgula_, _Trigonia gibbosa_, _Pholadomya multicostata_ and _P. acuticostata_, _Terebratula subsella_, and _Hemicidaris Purbeckensis_. Some _Fishes_, _Turtles_, _Paludina_, _Physa_ (Fig. 123), _Unio_, _Planorbis_ (Fig. 201), and the little crustacean bivalves, the Cypris, constituted the fresh-water fauna of the period.

The terrestrial flora of the period consisted of Ferns, Cycadeaceæ, and Conifers; in the ponds and swamps some Zosteræ. The _Zosteræ_ are monocotyledonous plants of the family of the Naïdaceæ, which grow in the sandy mud of maritime regions, forming there, with their long, narrow, and ribbon-like leaves, vast prairies of the most beautiful green. At low tides these masses of verdure appear somewhat exposed. They would form a retreat for a great number of marine animals, and afford nourishment to others.

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On the opposite page an ideal landscape of the period (PLATE XX.) represents some of the features of the Upper Oolite, especially the vegetation of the Jurassic period. The _Sphenophyllum_, among the Tree-ferns, is predominant in this vegetation; some _Pandanas_, a few _Zamites_, and many _Conifers_, but we perceive no Palms. A coral islet rises out of the sea, having somewhat of the form of the _atolls_ of Oceania, indicating the importance these formations assumed in the Jurassic period. The animals represented are the _Crocodileimus_ of Jourdan, the _Ramphorynchus_, with the imprints which characterise its footsteps, and some of the invertebrated animals of the period, as the _Asteria_, _Comatula_, _Hemicidaris_, _Pteroceras_. Aloft in the air floats the bird of Solenhofen, the _Archæopteryx_, which has been re-constructed from the skeleton, with the exception of the head, which remains undiscovered.

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The rocks which represent the Upper Oolite are usually divided into two series: 1. The _Purbeck Beds_; 2. The _Portland Stone and Sand_; and 3. The _Kimeridge Clay_.

The _Kimeridge Clay_, which in many respects bears a remarkable resemblance to the Oxford Clay, is composed of blue or yellowish argillaceous beds, which occur in the state of clay and shale (containing locally beds of bituminous schist, sometimes forming a sort of earthy impure coal), and several hundred feet in thickness. These beds are well developed at Kimeridge, in Dorsetshire, whence the clay takes its name. In some parts of Wiltshire the beds of bituminous matter have a shaly appearance, but there is an absence of the impressions of plants which usually accompany the bitumen, derived from the decomposition of plants. These rocks, with their characteristic fossils, _Cardium striatulum_ and _Ostrea deltoidea_, are found throughout England: in France, at Tonnerre, Dept. Yonne; at Havre; at Honfleur; at Mauvage; in the department of the Meuse it is so rich in shells of _Ostrea deltoidea_ and _O. virgula_, that, “near Clermont in Argonne, a few leagues from St. Menehould,” says Lyell,[70] “where these indurated marls crop out from beneath the Gault, I have seen them (_Gryphæa virgula_) on decomposing leave the surface of every ploughed field literally strewed over with this fossil oyster.”

[70] “Elements of Geology,” p. 393.

The second section of this series consists of the oolitic limestone of Portland, which is quarried in the Isle of Portland and in the cliffs of the Isle of Purbeck in Dorsetshire, and also at Chilmark in the Vale of Wardour, in Wiltshire. In France, the Portland beds are found near Boulogne, at Cirey-le-Château, Auxerre, and Gray (Haute Saône).