Part 13
Two other gigantic trees grew in the forests of this period: these were _Lepidodendron carinatum_ and _Lomatophloyos crassicaule_, both belonging to the family of Lycopodiaceæ, which now includes only very small species. The trunk of the Lomatophloyos threw out numerous branches, which terminated in thick tufts of linear and fleshy leaves.
The _Lepidodendrons_, of which there are about forty known species, have cylindrical bifurcated branches; that is, the branches were evolved in pairs, or were _dichotomous_ to the top. The extremities of the branches were terminated by a fructification in the form of a cone, formed of linear scales, to which the name of _Lepidostrobus_ (Fig. 45) has been given. Nevertheless, many of these branches were sterile, and terminated simply in fronds (elongated leaves). In many of the coal-fields fossil cones have been found, to which this name has been given by earlier palæontologists. They sometimes form the nucleus of nodular, concretionary balls of clay-ironstone, and are well preserved, having a conical axis, surrounded by scales compactly imbricated. The opinion of Brongniart is now generally adopted, that they are the fruit of the Lepidodendron. At Coalbrookdale, and elsewhere, these have been found as terminal tips of a branch of a well-characterised Lepidodendron. Both Hooker and Brongniart place them with the Lycopods, having cones with similar spores and sporangia, like that family. Most of them were large trees. One tree of _L. Sternbergii_, nearly fifty feet long, was found in the Jarrow Colliery, near Newcastle, lying in the shale parallel to the plane of stratification. Fragments of others found in the same shale indicated, by the size of the rhomboidal scars which covered them, a still greater size. Lepidodendron Sternbergii (Fig. 43) is represented as it is found beneath the shales in the collieries of Swina, in Bohemia. Fig. 46 represents a portion of a branch of _L. elegans_ furnished with leaves. M. Eugene Deslongchamps has drawn the restoration of the Lepidodendron Sternbergii, represented in Fig. 47, which is shown entire in Fig. 44, with its stem, its branches, fronds, and organs of fructification. The Ferns composed a great part of the vegetation of the Coal-measure period.
The Ferns differ chiefly in some of the details of the leaf. _Pecopteris_, for instance (Fig. 48), have the leaves once, twice, or thrice pinnatifid with the leaflets adhering either by their whole base or by the centre only; the midrib running through to the point. _Neuropteris_ (Fig. 49) has leaves divided like Pecopteris, but the midrib does not reach the apex of the leaflets, but divides right and left into veins. _Odontopteris_ (Fig. 51) has pinnatifid leaves, like the last, but its leaflets adhere by their whole base to the stalk. _Lonchopteris_ (Fig. 50) has the leaves several times pinnatifid, the leaflets more or less united to one another, and the veins reticulated. Among the most numerous species of forms of the Coal-measure period was _Sphenopteris artemisiæfolia_ (Fig. 52), of which a magnified leaf is represented. Sphenopteris has twice or thrice pinnatifid leaves, the leaflets narrow at the base, and the veins generally arranged as if they radiated from the base; the leaflets are frequently wedge-shaped.
CARBONIFEROUS LIMESTONE. (SUB-PERIOD.)
The seas of this epoch included an immense number of Zoophytes, nearly 400 species of Mollusca, and a few Crustaceans and Fishes. Among the Fishes, _Psammodus_ and _Coccosteus_, whose massive teeth inserted in the palate were suitable for grinding; and the _Holoptychius_ and _Megalichthys_, are the most important. The Mollusca are chiefly Brachiopods of great size. The Productæ attained here exceptional development, _Producta Martini_ (Fig. 53), _P. semi-reticulata_ and _P. gigantea_, being the most remarkable. Spirifers, also, were equally abundant, as _Spirifera trigonalis_ and _S. glabra_. In _Terebratula hastata_ the coloured bands, which adorned the shell of the living animal, have been preserved to us. The _Bellerophon_, whose convoluted shell in some respects resembles the Nautilus of our present seas, but without its chambered shell, were then represented by many species, among others by _Bellerophon costatus_ (Fig. 54), and _B. hiulcus_ (Fig. 56). Again, among the Cephalopods, we find the _Orthoceras_ (Fig. 57), which resembled a straight Nautilus; and Goniatites (_Goniatites evolutus_, Fig. 55), a chambered shell allied to the Ammonite, which appeared in great numbers during the Secondary epoch.
Crustaceans are rare in the Carboniferous Limestone strata; the genus Phillipsia is the last of the Trilobites, all of which became extinct at the close of this period. As to the Zoophytes, they consist chiefly of Crinoids and Corals. The Crinoids were represented by the genera _Platycrinus_ and _Cyathocrinus_. We also have in these rocks many Polyzoa.
Among the corals of the period, we may include the genera _Lithostrotion_ and _Lonsdalea_, of which _Lithostrotion basaltiforme_ (Fig. 58), and _Lonsdalea floriformis_ (Fig. 59), are respectively the representatives, with _Amplexus coralloïdes_. Among the Polyzoa are the genera _Fenestrella_ and _Polypora_. Lastly, to these we may add a group of animals which will play a very important part and become abundantly represented in the beds of later geological periods, but which already abounded in the seas of the Carboniferous period. We speak of the _Foraminifera_ (Fig. 60), microscopic animals, which clustered either in one body, or divided into segments, and covered with a calcareous, many-chambered shell, as in Fig. 60, _Fusulina cylindrica_. These little creatures, which, during the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods, formed enormous banks and entire masses of rock, began to make their appearance in the period which now engages our attention.
The plate opposite (PLATE X.) is a representation of an ideal aquarium, in which some of the more prominent species, which inhabited the seas during the period of the Carboniferous Limestone, are represented. On the right is a tribe of corals, with reflections of dazzling white: the species represented are, nearest the edge, the _Lasmocyathus_, the _Chætetes_, and the _Ptylopora_. The Mollusc which occupies the extremity of the elongated and conical tube in the shape of a sabre is an _Aploceras_. It seems to prepare the way for the Ammonite; for if this elongated shell were coiled round itself it would resemble the Ammonite and Nautilus. In the centre of the foreground we have _Bellerophon hiulcus_ (Fig. 56), the _Nautilus Koninckii_, and a _Producta_, with the numerous spines which surround the shell. (See Fig. 62.)
On the left are other corals: the _Cyathophyllum_ with straight cylindrical stems; some Encrinites (_Cyathocrinus_ and _Platycrinus_) wound round the trunk of a tree, or with their flexible stem floating in the water. Some Fishes, _Amblypterus_, move about amongst these creatures, the greater number of which are immovably attached, like plants, to the rock on which they grow.
In addition, this engraving shows us a series of islets, rising out of a tranquil sea. One of these is occupied by a forest, in which a distant view is presented of the general forms of the grand vegetation of the period.
* * * * *
It is of importance to know the rocks formed by marine deposits during the era of the Carboniferous Limestone, inasmuch as they include coal, though in much smaller quantities than in the succeeding sub-period of the true coal-deposit. They consist essentially of a compact limestone, of a greyish-blue, and even black colour. The blow of the hammer causes them to exhale a somewhat fetid odour, which is owing to decomposed organic matter--the modified substance of the molluscs and zoophytes--of which it is to so great an extent composed, and whose remains are still easily recognised.
In the north of England, and many other parts of the British Islands, the Carboniferous Limestone forms, as we have seen, lofty mountain-masses, to which the term _Mountain Limestone_ is sometimes applied.
In Derbyshire the formation constitutes rugged, lofty, and fantastically-shaped mountains, whose summits mingle with the clouds, while its picturesque character appears here, as well as farther north, in the _dales_ or valleys, where rich meadows, through which the mountain streams force their way, seem to be closed abruptly by masses of rock, rising above them like the grey ruins of some ancient tower; while the mountain bases are pierced with caverns, and their sides covered with mosses and ferns, for the growth of which the limestone is particularly favourable.
The formation is _metalliferous_, and yields rich veins of lead-ore in Derbyshire, Cumberland, and other counties of Great Britain. The rock is found in Russia, in the north of France, and in Belgium, where it furnishes the common marbles, known as Flanders marble (_Marbre de Flandres_ and _M. de petit granit_). These marbles are also quarried in other localities, such as Regneville (La Manche), either for the manufacture of lime or for ornamental stonework; one of the varieties quarried at Regneville, being black, with large yellow veins, is very pretty.
In France, the _Carboniferous Limestone_, with its sandstones and conglomerates, schists and limestones, is largely developed in the Vosges, in the Lyonnais, and in Languedoc, often in contact with syenites and porphyries, and other igneous rocks, by which it has been penetrated and disturbed, and even _metamorphosed_ in many ways, by reason of the various kinds of rocks of which it is composed. In the United States the Carboniferous Limestone formation occupies a somewhat grand position in the rear of the Alleghanies. It is also found forming considerable ranges in our Australian colonies.
In consequence of their age, as compared with the Secondary and Tertiary limestones, the Carboniferous rocks are generally more marked and varied in character. The valley of the Meuse, from Namur to Chockier, above Liège, is cut out of this formation; and many of our readers will remember with delight the picturesque character of the scenery, especially that of the left bank of the celebrated river in question.
COAL MEASURES. (SUB-PERIOD.)
This terrestrial period is characterised, in a remarkable manner, by the abundance and strangeness of the vegetation which then covered the islands and continents of the whole globe. Upon all points of the earth, as we have said, this flora presented a striking uniformity. In comparing it with the vegetation of the present day, the learned French botanist, M. Brongniart, who has given particular attention to the flora of the Coal-measures, has arrived at the conclusion that it presented considerable analogy with that of the islands of the equatorial and torrid zone, in which a maritime climate and elevated temperature exist in the highest degree. It is believed that islands were very numerous at this period; that, in short, the dry land formed a sort of vast archipelago upon the general ocean, of no great depth, the islands being connected together and formed into continents as they gradually emerged from the ocean.
This flora, then, consists of great trees, and also of many smaller plants, which would form a close, thick turf, or sod, when partially buried in marshes of almost unlimited extent. M. Brongniart indicates, as characterising the period, 500 species of plants belonging to families which we have already seen making their first appearance in the Devonian period, but which now attain a prodigious development. The ordinary dicotyledons and monocotyledons--that is, plants having seeds with two lobes in germinating, and plants having one seed-lobe--are almost entirely absent; the cryptogamic, or flowerless plants, predominate; especially Ferns, Lycopodiaceæ and Equisetaceæ--but of forms insulated and actually extinct in these same families. A few dicotyledonous gymnosperms, or naked-seed plants forming genera of Conifers, have completely disappeared, not only from the present flora, but since the close of the period under consideration, there being no trace of them in the succeeding Permian flora. Such is a general view of the features most characteristic of the Coal period, and of the Primary epoch in general. It differs, altogether and absolutely, from that of the present day; the climatic condition of these remote ages of the globe, however, enables us to comprehend the characteristics which distinguish its vegetation. A damp atmosphere, of an equable rather than an intense heat like that of the tropics, a soft light veiled by permanent fogs, were favourable to the growth of this peculiar vegetation, of which we search in vain for anything strictly analogous in our own days. The nearest approach to the climate and vegetation proper to the geological period which now occupies our attention, would probably be found in certain islands, or on the littoral of the Pacific Ocean--the island of Chloë, for example, where it rains during 300 days in the year, and where the light of the sun is shut out by perpetual fogs; where arborescent Ferns form forests, beneath whose shade grow herbaceous Ferns, which rise three feet and upwards above a marshy soil; which gives shelter also to a mass of cryptogamic plants, greatly resembling, in its main features, the flora of the Coal-measures. This flora was, as we have said, uniform and poor in its botanic genera, compared to the abundance and variety of the flora of the present time; but the few families of plants, which existed then, included many more species than are now produced in the same countries. The fossil Ferns of the coal-series in Europe, for instance, comprehend about 300 species, while all Europe now only produces fifty. The gymnosperms, which now muster only twenty-five species in Europe, then numbered more than 120.
It will simplify the classification of the flora of the Carboniferous epoch if we give a tabular arrangement adopted by the best authorities:--
Dr. Lindley. Brongniart.
I. Thallogens { Cryptogamous Amphigens, } Lichens, Sea-weeds, Fungi. { or Cellular Cryptogams }
II. Acrogens Cryptogamous Acrogens { Club-mosses, Equiseta, Ferns, { Lycopods, Lepidodendra.
III. Gymnogens Dicotyledonous Gymnosperms Conifers and Cycads.
{ Compositæ, Leguminosæ, Umbel- IV. Exogens Dicotyledonous Angiosperms { liferæ, Cruciferæ, Heaths. { All European except Conifers.
V. Endogens Monocotyledons { Palms, Lilies, Aloes, Rushes, { Grasses.
Calamites are among the most abundant fossil plants of the Carboniferous period, and occur also in the Devonian. They are preserved as striated, jointed, cylindrical, or compressed stems, with fluted channels or furrows at their sides, and sometimes surrounded by a bituminous coating, the remains of a cortical integument. They were originally hollow, but the cavity is usually filled up with a substance into which they themselves have been converted. They were divided into joints or segments, and when broken across at their articulations they show a number of striæ, originating in the furrows of the sides, and turning inwards towards the centre of the stem. It is not known whether this structure was connected with an imperfect diaphragm stretched across the hollow of the stem at each joint, or merely represented the ends of woody plates of which the solid part of the stem is composed. Their extremities have been discovered to taper gradually to a point, as represented in _C. cannæformis_ (Fig. 64), or to end abruptly, the intervals becoming shorter and smaller. The obtuse point is now found to be the root. Calamites are regarded as Equisetaceous plants; later botanists consider that they belong to an extinct family of plants. _Sigillariæ_ are the most abundant of all plants in the coal formation, and were those principally concerned in the accumulation of the mineral fuel of the Coal-measures. Not a mine is opened, nor a heap of shale thrown out, but there occur fragments of its stem, marked externally with small rounded impressions, and in the centre slight tubercles, with a quincuncial arrangement. From the tubercles arise long ribbon-shaped bodies, which have been traced in some instances to the length of twenty feet.
In the family of the Sigillarias we have already presented the bark of _S. lævigata_, at page 138; on page 157 we give a drawing of the bark of _S. reniformis_, one-third the natural size (Fig. 65).
In the family of the Asterophyllites, the leaf of _A. foliosa_ (Fig. 66); and the foliage of _Annularia orifolia_ (Fig. 67) are remarkable. In addition to these, we present, in Fig. 63, a restoration of one of these Asterophyllites, the _Sphenophyllum_, after M. Eugene Deslongchamps. This herbaceous tree, like the Calamites, would present the appearance of an immense asparagus, twenty-five to thirty feet high. It is represented here with its branches and _fronds_, which bear some resemblance to the leaves of the ginkgo. The bud, as represented in the figure, is terminal, and not axillary, as in some of the Calamites.
If, during the Coal-period, the vegetable kingdom had reached its maximum, the animal kingdom, on the contrary, was poorly represented. Some remains have been found, both in America and Germany, consisting of portions of the skeleton and the impressions of the footsteps of a Reptile, which has received the name of Archegosaurus. In Fig. 68 is represented the head and neck of _Archegosaurus minor_, found in 1847 in the coal-basin of Saarbruck between Strasbourg and Trèves. Among the animals of this period we find a few Fishes, analogous to those of the Devonian formation. These are the _Holoptychius_ and _Megalichthys_, having jaw-bones armed with enormous teeth. Scales of _Pygopterus_ have been found in the Northumberland Coal-shale at Newsham Colliery, and also in the Staffordshire Coal-shale. Some winged insects would probably join this slender group of living beings. It may then be said with truth that the immense forests and marshy plains, crowded with trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants, which formed on the innumerable isles of the period a thick and tufted sward, were almost destitute of animals.
On the opposite page (PL. XI.) M. Riou has attempted, under the directions of M. Deslongchamps, to reproduce the aspect of Nature during the period. A marsh and forest of the Coal-period are here represented, with a short and thick vegetation, a sort of grass composed of herbaceous Fern and mare’s-tail. Several trees of forest-height raise their heads above this lacustrine vegetation.
On the left are seen the naked trunk of a _Lepidodendron_ and a _Sigillaria_, an arborescent Fern rising between the two trunks. At the foot of these great trees an herbaceous Fern and a _Stigmaria_ appear, whose long ramification of roots, provided with reproductive spores, extend to the water. On the right is the naked trunk of another _Sigillaria_, a tree whose foliage is altogether unknown, a _Sphenophyllum_, and a _Conifer_. It is difficult to describe with precision the species of this last family, the impressions of which are, nevertheless, very abundant in the Coal-measures.
In front of this group we see two trunks broken and overthrown. These are a _Lepidodendron_ and _Sigillaria_, mingling with a heap of vegetable débris in course of decomposition, from which a rich humus will be formed, upon which new generations of plants will soon develop themselves. Some herbaceous Ferns and buds of _Calamites_ rise out of the waters of the marsh.
A few Fishes belonging to the period swim on the surface of the water, and the aquatic reptile _Archegosaurus_ shows its long and pointed head--the only part of the animal which has hitherto been discovered (Fig. 68). A _Stigmaria_ extends its roots into the water, and the pretty _Asterophyllites_, with its finely-cut stems, rises above it in the foreground.
A forest, composed of _Lepidodendra_ and _Calamites_, forms the background to the picture.
FORMATION OF BEDS OF COAL.
Coal, as we have said, is only the result of a partial decomposition of the plants which covered the earth during a geological period of immense duration. No one, now, has any doubt that this is its origin. In coal-mines it is not unusual to find fragments of the very plants whose trunks and leaves characterise the Coal-measures, or Carboniferous era. Immense trunks of trees have also been met with in the middle of a seam of coal. In the coal-mines of Treuil,[44] at St. Etienne, for instance, vertical trunks of fossil trees, resembling bamboos or large Equiseta, are not only mixed with the coal, but stand erect, traversing the overlying beds of micaceous sandstone in the manner represented in the engraving, which has been reproduced from a drawing by M. Ad. Brongniart (Fig. 69).
[44] “Elements of Geology,” p. 480.
In England it is the same; entire trees are found lying across the coal-beds. Sir Charles Lyell tells us[45] that in Parkfield Colliery, South Staffordshire, there was discovered in 1854, upon a surface of about a quarter of an acre, a bed of coal which has furnished as many as seventy-three stumps of trees with their roots attached, some of the former measuring more than eight feet in circumference; their roots formed part of a seam of coal ten inches thick, resting on a layer of clay two inches thick, under which was a second forest resting on a band of coal from two to five feet thick. Underneath this, again, was a third forest, with large stumps of _Lepidodendra_, _Calamites_, and other trees.[46]
[45] Ibid, p. 479.
[46] Ibid, p. 479.
In the lofty cliffs of the South Joggins, in the Bay of Fundy, in Nova Scotia, Sir Charles Lyell found in one portion of the coal-field 1,500 feet thick, as many as sixty-eight different surfaces, presenting evident traces of as many old soils of forests, where the trunks of the trees were still furnished with roots.[47]
[47] Ibid, p. 483.