Part 11

Measurements on twenty-seven men gave the following results:

Height:--Maximum 169.0 cm.; minimum 146.0 cm.; average 158.3 cm.

Cephalic Index:--Maximum 86.4; minimum 71.7; average 78.1.

Length-Height. Index:--Maximum 76.5; minimum 61.9; average 68.4.

If these figures are compared with those of the Bagobo it will be seen that there is little difference in the averages; however, this similarity is less real than the figures indicate, for with the Kulaman there are more individuals at both extremes. For example: the cephalic indices of eight out of the twenty-seven were 80 or above, while six were less than 75; again, in the length-height indices six were above 70 and an equal number less than 65. In other respects there is such variation that it is hard to generalize. It is noticeable that there is a greater tendency toward prognathism than we have heretofore met with; the forehead, while high, is moderately retreating and the supra-orbital ridges prominent in most individuals; the hair is brown-black and is inclined to curl in locks. The wide variation of type within the tribe is to be expected when we know that its members have been constantly recruited from the neighboring tribes. It is even possible that a considerable number of slave women from distant islands may have been added to the group by purchase from the Moro.[77]

[77] According to early writers, the Moro of the Gulf carried on a lucrative slave trade with this and other tribes. As the Moro raids were made by water and often reached as far as the Northeastern coast of this island and south to the Celebes it is quite possible that these remote districts have helped in the upbuilding of the tribe under discussion.

The religious beliefs have many points in common with those of the neighboring tribes, but there are some which require special notice.

Two powerful beings, TimanEm and his wife Diwata[78] are above all other spirits.

[78] The Padada people say the term _diwata_ is a name which may be applied to the _timanEm_, of whom there are two, a male and a female.

Mandalangan, also called Siling or Manobo Siring, is much like the Bagobo divinity of similar name. He is fond of war and bloodshed and when there has been a great slaughter he feasts on the flesh and drinks of the blood of the slain. Only warriors can address him and make the offerings of red food which he demands. Once a year, usually after the rice harvest and when the moon is full, a raid must be made and victims slain so that this spirit can feast.[79] If the Warriors fail to render him this service Mandalangan will cause their bodies to swell up and many will die, while sickness will visit all other members of the tribe.[80]

[79] Data Bongkalasan says it was formerly the custom to make a foray at each full moon.

[80] This was the reason given for the raid on the coast plantations in 1911.

The many spirits who inhabit rocks and large trees are generally favorable to man and are collectively known as _magintalonan_.

Tama owns the deer and wild pigs, and no one hunts or traps in the forest until he has made an offering of betel nut to this spirit. When game is secured its tail and ears are strung on rattan and are hung in a tree, in exchange for the live animal.

The _maniokan_, generally evil spirits, resemble snakes, and like them live in the ground. People are frequently made lame by simply stepping over their homes.

Each man and woman has a spirit, _kalaloa_,[81] dwelling in his body during lifetime. At death this spirit goes into the sky, unless it deserves punishment, in which case it is hurried to Kilot, a region below. In either place these spirits keep close watch over the living and bring success or disaster according to their will. They have come to be looked upon as the guardians of the fields, and suitable offerings are made to them at planting and harvest time.

[81] The Kulaman of Santa Cruz insist that each person has two _kalaloa_, one on the right side and one on the left. At death the one on the right side goes to a good place in the sky, where there is no work and "thoughts come easy." The _kalaloa_ of the left side goes into the ground to a poor place called Kilot. It is probable that the neighboring Bagobo have influenced the beliefs of this group.

A few old men, _makating_, are thought to be able to address the spirits with greater probability of success than the others; but they do not stand in the same relation to the spirit world as do the _mabalian_ of the Bagobo. The nearest approach to that class is a group of women known as _lokEs_[82], who act as midwives and make use of roots and herbs in curing sickness.

[82] In Santa Cruz known as _bagbabolan_ or _mananagámen_.

The people are warned of disaster or impending danger by various signs. A snake crossing the trail is an imperative order for the traveler to turn back; the call of the _limokon_[83] is likewise a warning, while should one of the principals to any agreement sneeze during the negotiations the project would be delayed or abandoned.

[83] See p. 63 note.

There is only slight development of beliefs and ceremonies in connection with the cultivation of field crops, due probably to the recent adoption of agriculture by the members of this tribe. A field is seldom planted to rice for more than one season, after which the land is used for corn, camotes, and the like, until the invasion of _cogon_ grass makes further cultivation impossible.

As a result new land must be broken for each planting. When the constellation _layag_ "a sail" and _balangay_ "a boat" appear in the month of December, the people go to the desired plot, cut down the trees, and when these are dry, fire them.

Before the planting can be begun the seed rice must be carried to the center of the field where a bamboo pole, _talabinian_, and a stalk of sugar-cane have previously been placed, as an offering to the _kalaloa_ who guard the land. Again at harvest time an offering of food is taken to this spot and the spirits of the dead are besought as follows: "Do not take our rice, but let it last for a long time, for now we give a part to you." A meal and dance follow the offering and then all who desire may aid in cutting the new rice.

No offerings are associated with the planting or harvesting of other field crops, but the gathering of sago flour is attended by gifts to the spirits of the dead and prayers for the health of the workers. The method of obtaining and preparing the flour is the same as that already described. Offerings are made before and after a hunt, and a man never goes to fish without first placing a leg ring and some betel nut on the sand close to the water, meanwhile saying, "You TimanEm must give us some food; and you shall have your part." Upon his return he places a small fish beside the first offering and is then free to take his catch to the village.

In addition to the pursuits already outlined, we find that some of the men are expert workers in iron (Fig. 45), copper, and brass, while the women are weavers. Their weaving does not differ from that previously described, but a peculiar type of decoration has been developed by this tribe, and from them has spread somewhat to their neighbors. Waxed threads are used to work designs into cloth so that when the fabric is placed in dye the liquid will not reach the portions thus covered. Later, when the threads are removed, white patterns appear on the red background (See Plate LXIII).

FIG. 45. MAN'S KNIFE AND SHEATH.

Slaves are kept, but their duties are so similar to those of the freeborn that it is impossible for the casual observer to pick out the members of this class.

Until recent years a large part of the man's time was taken up in preparation for or active participation in the inter-tribal fights. There are several incentives for these raids. First is the desire for loot and slaves; then comes the ambition of the young men to be recognized as successful warriors; and finally, and most compelling is the demand of the spirit Mandalangan for victims.

A man who has killed five or more persons is entitled to wear a red suit covered with peculiar white designs (See Plate LXIII), and is henceforth known as _mabolot_. When his score has reached twenty-five he receives the still more honorable title of _maisEg_ and is then allowed to dress entirely in black and to deck his hair with red flowers.[84]

[84] The flowers used are _Celosia cristata L., Graptophyllum hortense nees_; _Coleus atropurpeus Benth_.

A raid is made only when the moon is full. A dish of red rice is decorated with red flowers and is placed in the center of the room. Around it the warriors stick their spears and then one of the oldest of the company takes up a handful of the food and offers it to the spirit, saying: "Mandalangan come and eat, for we are ready to fight; go with us and help us." As he finishes his prayer each warrior takes a portion of the rice and throws it out of doors, for "they are not yet worthy to eat what Mandalangan has left." Returning to the room they all eat of white rice and are ready for the raid. In addition to their spears they should carry shields and fighting knives, and in recent years quite a number have come into possession of firearms.

Although the warriors are bold in their attack and do not hesitate to assault strong villages, they have no scruples against seizing or killing members of small parties or the inhabitants of isolated dwellings.[85] It is necessary that the raiders secure at least one victim, otherwise another foray must be made at once. The body of the slain is opened, the liver is extracted and is eaten by the warriors who thus "become like Mandalangan."[86] The head, forearms, and lower part of the legs are carried back to the village where they are cut to pieces by the women and children. The men take no part in this mutilation of the body, but as soon as the fragments are buried they begin to dance, meanwhile holding their unsheathed knives high above their heads. After a time the head-man blows loudly on a decorated bamboo trumpet (Fig. 46), while all the men unite in shouting "to announce their victory." At last they have fulfilled all the commands of Mandalangan and without fear they enter the house and partake of the red food which has been offered to him.

[85] Should water fall by accident on a warrior who is on a raid, it is considered a bad omen and the plans may be changed or delayed. In one instance the owner of a place marked for attack fastened dishes of water so that the marauders unwittingly knocked them over on themselves, and, as a result, the place was left unharmed.

[86] At times the skull is opened and the brain eaten.

FIG. 46. TAMBOLANG OR BAMBOO TRUMPET.

The events just preceding and following the birth of a child are very similar to those of the Bagobo, except that there are no restrictions of any kind placed on the father and mother, neither are there any ceremonies connected with the birth or naming of a child unless unusual events have convinced the people that the spirits are in some way displeased.[87]

[87] Triplets are killed, as with the Bagobo.

The afterbirth is placed in the care of an old woman who carries it directly to a sturdy molave[88] tree and there attaches it to the branches "so that the child may become strong like the tree." While on this mission the bearer looks neither to the right nor to the left, nor does she hesitate, for such actions on her part might influence the disposition of the child or cause it to have physical deformities.[89] No special attention is given to youths when they reach the age of puberty, although it is customary to file and blacken their teeth at about that period.

[88] Vitex littoralis Decne.

[89] Similar beliefs are held by the Tinguian of Northern Luzon.

Marriage is attended by gifts and ceremonies, such as we have previously described. We find the groom paying a price for his bride, but receiving a return gift from her parents; the couple feed one another with rice and are thereby legally married; and finally we learn that a child is kept with them until they have had intercourse. It is customary for the youth to serve his father-in-law-to-be for two or three years preceding the wedding, after which he is released from such service.

As is the case with the neighboring tribes, polygamy is practiced, the only bar to marriage being blood relationship. Upon the death of the head of the family one-half of his property goes to his wife and half to the children. If there are two or more wives, the first wife still retains half, while all the children share equally in the balance of the estate, thus leaving the second and succeeding wives without a portion.

Sickness may be caused by evil spirits, or it may be due to a desire on the part of the _kalaloa_ to leave its present abode. In either case the man becomes ill and it behooves him to take immediate steps to placate the evil spirits or to convince his _kalaloa_ to remain with him. This last can best be accomplished by bathing the sick person with water which has been heated in a good _agong_. A fine dish would do equally well, but should the hot water cause it to break the spirit would depart at once. In extreme cases the _lokEs_ will gather certain roots and brew them into a drink which she gives to the sick person. At each tree or shrub visited in her search for medicines she leaves an offering of betel nuts and leg rings, and when the drink has been prepared she makes a further gift, meanwhile begging TimanEm to aid her in effecting a cure. If all efforts fail and the spirit leaves, the corpse is placed in the center of the house, where it is kept from two to nine days according to the wealth and prominence of the deceased. During this time no one should sleep in the dwelling, for the spirit might be resentful and turn the face of the sleeper black.

Usually, the body is buried in the ground at a distance from the house. The coffin is made out of a split log, in which weapons, jars, and the like are placed for the use of the spirit. If the dead man has been a warrior he is dressed in the clothing distinctive of his rank, and his grave is covered with red flowers. At times the coffins are shaped to resemble small boats and are then placed on high poles near to the beach.

For a month following a funeral the relatives refrain from all merrymaking. At the expiration of this period all go to a near-by river and with their knives, cut to pieces a braided cord, which has been made since the burial, and as they destroy it they shout "This is a man we are killing. This is a man we are killing." Finally, the pieces are thrown into the river and the period of taboo is past.

IV. TAGAKAOLO.

SYNONYMS.

(a) TAGAKAOLA.

(b) SAKA--"head of the river."

(c) KAGAN, KALAGAN, CALAGANES, CALAGARS.

(d) LAOC. According to the account of PASTELL,[90] this name is given to a small, degraded division of the Tagakaolo who live in the mountains of Haguimitan on San Augustin peninsula.

[90] BLAIR and ROBERTSON, Vol. XLIII, p. 259.

The present habitat and general condition of this tribe is nearly the same as that of the Kulaman.

Prior to Spanish times they held the hill region back of the coast, between Malalag and Lais. On the Gulf side they were barred from the sea by the Kulaman and Moro, while in the mountains they encountered the powerful Bila-an tribe.

About fifty years ago that part of the tribe living furthest to the north united under the leadership of a brave warrior named Paugok, and made war on the Bagobo. They were successful in this conflict and drove their enemies from the rich valleys of the Padada and Bulatakay rivers, where they established themselves. This brought them in close contact with the Kulaman and Moro of the coast, with whom they lived on friendly terms. The influence of the latter group was so great that the newcomers not only adopted their style of dress, but also substituted cotton for hemp in the manufacture of their garments. Today the members of this tribe can still be recognized by their close fitting suits of red and yellow striped cloth, from which they have received the name of Kagan.[91] They have also been constant borrowers, from all their neighbors, of ideas for house-building and utensils. They have intermarried to some extent with the Kulaman, and in times past Bila-an and Bagobo slave women have been added to the tribe.

[91] The general name applied to red cotton trade cloth.

Today practically all the members of the Kagan division are found living on the American plantations along the Padada and Bulatakay rivers. They are on friendly terms with their Tagakaolo kinsmen, and are still so like them in language, social customs, and religious beliefs, that one description will suffice for both.

At some unrecorded date a considerable, portion of the tribe migrated to the east side of Davao Gulf, and settled near Cape San Agustin, where, it is said, they now number more than two thousand.

The name Tagakaolo signifies "those who dwell at the head of the river," and is applied to all the hill people living between the coast and the country of the Bila-an. They have always been broken up into small groups, often at war with one another, yet they appear to be quite uniform in type, language, and religious beliefs. In recent years many of them have been induced to come down to the coast plantations, but the great majority still remain in the mountains. They are of a turbulent, warlike disposition, and have been a constant source of trouble to the Spanish and American authorities.[92] At the time of the writer's visit they had joined with the Kulaman in raiding the coast settlements, and, as a result, were being vigorously pursued by the American troops; for this reason it was only possible to gain information from those remaining on the plantations.

[92] Members of this tribe were responsible for the murder of Governor Bolton.

The total number of persons making up the tribe is estimated at six thousand, but this is at best a mere guess.

There is scarcely any variation in physical type between the Kagan branch and the Tagakaolo proper, while for the whole tribe there is less variation between its members than in any group so far discussed.

The following results were obtained by measurements on twenty-seven men:

Maximum height 166.6 cm.; minimum 151.3 cm.; average 157.4 cm.

Cephalic indices--Maximum 89.7; minimum 76.3; average 81.5.

Length-height indices--Maximum 79.0; minimum 63.1, average 70.0.

These tables show that aside from being more short-headed, this tribe differs little from the Bagobo, Bila-an, and Kulaman. Like the Kulaman, they have high foreheads, often full and vaulted but quite as frequently retreating from well-marked supra-orbital ridges. They are slightly more prognathous than the Kulaman, and in the majority of cases the hair is curled in locks. The teeth are usually mutilated and blackened, while shaving of the eyebrows and tattooing of the left forearm and breast are quite common.

The historians of the tribe tell us that all the Tagakaolo are descended from Lakbang, MEngEdan, and his wife Bodek. In the beginning these three persons lived on a small island in the sea. Two children, Linkanan and Lampagan, were born to them and they in turn were parents of two birds--the _kalau_ and _sabitan_. These birds flew away to other places and returned with bits of soil which their parents patted and moulded with their hands until they had formed the earth. Other children were born and from them have come all the people who now inhabit the land.

Two powerful spirits, _Diwata_ and _TimanEm_, watched the formation of the world, and when it was completed the latter spirit planted trees upon it. He still takes considerable interest in the affairs of men and each year sends the spirits Layag and Bangay,[93] as stars, to tell the people when to prepare their land for the planting of crops.

[93] See page 154.

Other spirits, less friendly, have existed from the first time. Of these one named Siling causes much trouble by confusing travelers through the forest. Spirits of unborn children--_mantianak_[94]--wander through the forest crying "ina-a-a" (mother), and often attack human beings. The only way persons thus assailed can hope to escape is by running to a stream and throwing water on the abdomens of their pursuers.

[94] Frequently called _busau_.

The powerful spirit Tama owns the deer and wild pig, and is usually kind to hunters who offer him proper gifts. Should they fail in this duty he may cause them to become lost or injured. Mandalangan (Mandangan) is known as a powerful spirit who loves war and bloodshed, but he is so closely interwoven in the minds of the people with TimanEm that it is doubtful if he should be classed as a separate spirit.

In addition to these beings are the _kawE_, or shades of the dead, the chiefs of whom are the people who created the earth. During life the _kawE_ live in the body, but after death they go to the sky where they remain the greater part of the time. They do return to earth at certain seasons, to aid or injure the living, and it is usually one of their number who keeps guard over the rice-fields. Certain persons known as _balian_ can talk to these spirits and from them have learned the ceremonies which the people should perform at certain seasons, and at the critical periods of life. In the main these ceremonies are so similar to those just described that it is useless to repeat. The proceedings at a birth, marriage, or death are practically identical with the Kulaman, as are also those at planting and harvest time. A slight variation was noticed after the rice planting at Padada, when all the workers placed their planting sticks on an offering of rice and then poured water over them "so as to cause an abundance of rain." Another difference is noticed following the death of a warrior. His knife lies in its sheath beside the body for seven days and during that time can only be drawn if it is to be used in sacrificing a slave. If such an offering is made it is carried out in much the same way as the Bagobo sacrifice, except that the bereaved father, son, or brother cuts the body in halves.

If it is impossible to offer a slave, a palm leaf cup is filled with water and is carried to the forest. Here the relatives dance and then dip the knife and some sticks in the water for "this is the same as dipping them in blood." Later they are carried back and hung up in the house of mourning.

According to the long established custom, warriors must go to fight once each year, when the moon is bright. Spears, fighting knives, bows and arrows, sharpened bamboo sticks, and shields have long been used, and to these several guns have been added in recent years.

The attack is from ambush and the victims are generally cut to pieces, although women and children are sometimes taken captive. Tufts of hair taken from the slain are attached to the shields of the warriors, and an arm is carried back to the home town "so that the women and children can cut it to pieces and become brave."

The foregoing account shows that the Kagan and Tagakaolo living on the hemp plantations differ very little from their neighbors, whom we have previously described. It may be that an investigation, carried on in peaceful times, far back in the mountains, will show that more radical differences exist in the great body of the tribe.

V. ATA.

The people classed under this name are the least known of any of the wild inhabitants of Mindanao. They probably receive their name from the word _atas_ which signifies "those up above" or "the dwellers in the uplands." It does not appear that they form a single tribe, or that they are even of uniform type.