Part 6
With some distinguished exceptions, it is now almost universally the practice to require the pupil, as the very first thing, to fill the lungs as full as possible, whereby the chest must be raised. Then the tones must be sung in as strong and long-sustained a manner as possible, in order “to bring out the voice,” as the phrase is. He is next told to begin the tones with a full chest _piano_, and slowly swell them to the highest _forte_, and then descend as slowly, in order to learn “to govern the voice.” Thus the pupil is always required to sing as strongly as possible, without any special regard to the timbre of the tones, because the timbre is regarded as a peculiarity of different voices, admitting of no change. According to what has been shown in the preceding pages, the present way of using the breath, by which it is supposed that voices are rendered strong and full, only needlessly fatigues the organs, injures the beauty and weakens even the strength of the tones. In the same way we find, especially in the case of tenor voices, that the aim is by greater forcing of the breath to extend the registers beyond their limits. Another fault is often taught: the pupil is required to force with the breath to the due pitch those tones whose pitch is usually struck too low. No voices can ever endure such treatment, and, although the organs may be strong enough to remain sound while under instruction, yet the voice will not continue good, and cannot be of long duration.
We often hear, even in fresh and unsophisticated voices, a hoarse breathing accompanying the tones, as in the case of worn-out voices. This breathing arises when the air, which is exhaled and which rushes into the cavity of the mouth, is not all in vibration, and it escapes along with the vibrating columns of air. It sometimes happens, also, that in the too great pressure of the exhaled air against the glottis, the arytenoid cartilages, near their bases, and sometimes the vocal chords leave a small opening through which the air escapes with a hoarse noise. By keeping back the breath in singing these faults may be corrected. Long-continued singing piano in exercises is, moreover, beneficial in the forming of the voice.[12]
A simple expiration does not indeed suffice for the generation of a full sounding singing tone. There is required a certain force by which the air is sent through the narrow and stretched glottis. But so great an expense of force as people are usually at is not necessary.
The influence of the same stream of air increases in proportion as the breadth of the vibrating ligaments decreases. The tones of the falsetto and head registers, therefore, require far less breath than those of the chest register. The less the quantity of breath expended in these tones, and the easier and more quickly they are produced, the clearer and fuller do they sound. The mechanism of the head tones especially is, as we have seen, so delicate that only a slight excess of breath calls forth the inharmonic over-tones which render the tone sharp and unmusical. In wind instruments the tone can be forced upwards by a greater pressure of air; that is, by more powerful blowing, which appears to be practicable also in those instruments in whose peculiar timbre the highest inharmonic over-tones overpower the others.[13]
Together with the skill and unintermitted attention which this part of instruction in singing requires of the teacher, there are here yet other and peculiar difficulties which he has to meet. In opposition to the earlier and more correct view, it is no longer beauty of tone, but strength of tone, which is considered the chief excellence of a voice. Accustomed to seek the beauty of the voice in its strength, it is attempted, before the time of instruction begins, to sing as strongly as possible from a full chest with the greatest expulsion of breath. Thence it follows, in the superficial way in which the study of the art of singing is at present conducted, that nothing more is commonly required of a teacher than that he should be able to drill his pupil in some pieces of tolerably well conceived vocal music, which the latter must sing as soon as possible in company. A perfect culture of the voice is scarcely any longer expected of an artist. People with a very scanty musical education and voices very poorly trained are regarded as artists if they execute their parts with expression, and trick them out with those clap-traps which never fail to command the applause of the ordinary public.
A conscientious teacher has, therefore, universal opinion against him when he demands a longer time for the education of a voice, and requires of his pupils that they shall practice singing only piano as long as it is necessary.
THE CORRECT TOUCH OF THE VOICE (TONANSATZ)[14]
Having stated the first condition of a good timbre of the tones, we come now to the second--the right direction of the vibrating columns of air. A correct touch of the voice consists in causing the air, brought into vibration by the vocal ligaments, to rebound from immediately above the front upper teeth, where it must be concentrated as much as possible, rebounding thence to form in the mouth continuous vibrations, which are, at the same time, communicated to the external air. The quicker and the more easily these movements take place, and the farther forward in the mouth the vibrating column of air is reflected, the more beautiful, full and telling is the tone. If the air rebounds farther back in the mouth from any part of the roof of the mouth, then the high inharmonic over-tones are prominent, and there arises either one or the other of those hollow, disagreeable colorings of timbre which are known as throat and nasal tones.
That the voice must be brought forward in the mouth--that is, that the air expired in singing should have the above described direction--is now acknowledged as necessary and aimed at by the best teachers. But the reasons why the tones thus sound better are not known. The Germans and the English, in consequence of their accustomed modes of forming sounds in speaking, have, as we shall see hereafter, more rarely than the Italians, a correct disposition of the tones in singing. It is extremely difficult for many persons to accustom themselves to such a direction of the vibrating air-columns. But with the proper means the skilful teacher always gains his end. These means are to let the pupil practice those syllables which he is accustomed, _in his own language_, to form wholly in front of the mouth.
The old Italian masters considered the management or touch of the tone as one of the most important requirements in the perfect cultivation of the voice. Distinctly, lightly, swiftly and elastically must the column of tone, rightly directed, strike the forward part of the mouth, which at the same moment opens widely enough to communicate without delay the quick agitation to the air external to it.
_Only by a correct movement of this kind (Ansatz) are those forms of the vibrations obtained in which all the harmonic over-tones belonging to a perfect tone sound together._ The quicker, lighter and more distinct this movement of the tone is, the more telling it is, and it may be heard quite strongly, even when it is sung _piano_ with a full chorus and orchestra. Upon the occasion of the great Musical Festival in Boston (1869), it was a matter of universal wonder that with the powerful chorus of many thousands of voices, Mad. Parepa-Rosa's tones were heard so distinctly that even at a considerable distance the words were plainly understood. As great artists often find the true and only beautiful unconsciously, so Mad. Parepa-Rosa has a perfectly correct touch, whereby she sets the surrounding air vibrating more rapidly than it is possible for a chorus to do with so many unschooled voices. The sounding waves of the tones which this distinguished singer produced with the correct touch, naturally reached the ear sooner and were earlier felt and taken into the consciousness of the listener than those of the mighty chorus, and thus it was that the music of a single voice kept its significance even with the accompaniment of a multitude of voices.
The great influence of the touch upon the fulness, and especially upon the extent to which tones reach, is again best illustrated by the movements of water. When we press on the surface of water slowly, though with the greatest force, and at the same time touch it in another place quickly and lightly, it is not only far more strongly moved by the quick, light touch, but the waves which are produced spread themselves out more rapidly, and run more swiftly over the surface, than those of the slower and more powerful pressure.
As the form of the vibrations necessary to a perfect tone in singing depends mainly upon a right management of tone, it is self-evident that here the greatest care should be taken in teaching vocal music. Here is one of the most difficult tasks for the teacher, and great perseverance and much practice are required of the pupil. But when once a right production of tone has become a habit, so that with every tone all the harmonic over-tones sound, and more breath is then allowed to stream forth immediately after the quick, light rebound of the vibrating column of tone, the vibrations enlarge without changing their form, and so only the strongest, fullest, most beautiful tone possible is obtained. But a touch can only be learned by imitation. We can no more describe the fine shades of tone than of color. And no art, least of all the art of singing, can be learned from books alone.
FORMATION OF VOWELS AND CONSONANTS
The sound of the vowels depends, as we have seen, upon whether one or another of the over-tones takes precedence in sound. But the conditions by which the formation of the vowels is determined lie in the form of the cavity of the mouth, and of the contraction of the same in some one place or another during expiration. These places are different in different languages and dialects. They are among the English, Germans and French farthest back in sounding _a_, as in _father_; farther forward in _a_, as in _may_, _o_, _e_, in the order in which they are here placed; and farther front in the German _u_ (_oo_).
The length of the cavity of the mouth is the greatest in sounding _oo_, the least in _e_, intermediate in _a_. In the pure, clear _a_, as in _may_, or _e_ of the Germans, the cavity is the narrowest. Hence, to form a tone on this vowel is very difficult, and it is the only vowel whose pure pronunciation must be sacrificed to the tone. Good tones can be formed on this vowel when in both series of the chest register there is mingled with it the sound of the German _ö_, pronounced in English nearly like the vowel in _bird_, and in the higher registers the sound of the _e_--that is, of the German _i_. The cavity of the mouth is thus somewhat broadened, and the tone gains more room for its development.
The Swiss form the _o_ and _u_ like the _a_ in _father_, broadest at the back of the mouth, and the _e_ broadest towards the front. But the Italians form no vowel as far front as their clear sounding beautiful _a_, as in _father_; and probably because the _a_ in the Italian language sounds broadest and most distinctly, Italian wagoners drive their beasts with the shout of _a! a!_ while the Germans use for the same purpose, _hü! huo!_ and the Swiss, _hipp!_ One can only approximate an imitation of the Italian _a_ by uttering it in connection with consonants coming rapidly, as in _pfa_, _bra_, and in as short and rapid a manner as possible.
The old Italian masters naturally found their beautiful _a_ most favorable to the formation of a good tone in singing; and thus it has been adopted by other nations. But here is the very reason why a tone free from badly sounding colorings is so rarely heard. We have blindly imitated the Italians, without considering the different modes of forming the vowels in different languages and nations, and that the Italian _a_ is a vowel entirely different from the German and the similarly sounding English _a_. Its correct sound is learned by those to whom it is not vernacular only with difficulty.
As the vowels are differently formed in different languages, so is it also with the consonants. The North Germans form the letter _r_ with the soft palate, which is made to vibrate by the exhalation of the breath. The South Germans, Russians and Italians form the _r_ by the vibration of the tip of the tongue. It is only this mode of forming the _r_ which is to be used in singing, and must be learned by those who do not usually form it thus. This is sometimes rather difficult, but it can be done by repeating frequently and rapidly, one after the other, the syllables _hede_, _hedo_, or _ede_, _edo_. In this way the tongue gets accustomed to the right position and motion, which it by-and-by learns rapidly enough for the formation of the rolling _r_.
The Italians, likewise, form the _l_ with the tip of the tongue, the Germans and English mostly with the side edges of the tongue. With some attention one can, by feeling, find out in his own organ the place for the formation of the different vowels and consonants, and an ear accustomed to delicate differences of tone will perceive the right place in others.
But in teaching, the example of the wagoners must be followed, and as these people have found out the most appropriate vowels and syllables whereby to make themselves understood by their animals, we must choose what is best fitting to the formation of tone in singing.
Long before I found the scientific reason of this mode of proceeding, my attention was called by Frederic Wiek, in Dresden, to the fact that a fine tone can be most quickly attained by practising in the beginning upon the syllables _sü_, _soo_, or _dü_, _doo_, and by not passing to the other vowels until one is accustomed to produce tones in the front of the mouth. These syllables are naturally spoken by the Germans and the English in the front part of the mouth. The _s_ is formed with the lips apart, while the air is blown through the upper teeth; it thus assists one, united with _u_ (_oo_), to direct the tone forwards. But because in the _u_ the lips are almost closed, care must be taken that, within the lips, the teeth are far enough apart. The cavity of the mouth must be large enough to allow of the largest possible wave of sound, since upon the size of that, as we know, the strength of the tone depends. When the pupil, after some practice, has learned to give the right direction to the stream of sound, he must be required gradually to form the other vowels like the _soo_ in the front part of the mouth, passing from this syllable immediately to the other vowels, as, for example, _soo-a_, _soo-o_, _soo-e_, _soo-o-e-ah_, &c. Only care must be taken that the course of the air preserves its right direction.
Solmisation, also, i.e., naming the tones, _c_, _d_, _e_, _f_, _g_, _a_, _b_, by the syllables _do_, _re_, _mi_, _fa_, _sol_, _la_, _si_, assists a good touch when the pupil employs it in the more rapid exercises.
There is no fixed rule that can be laid down in regard to the necessary opening of the mouth and its position. The structure of the palate and the form of the jaw, and the position of the teeth, lips, &c., vary in different persons. The ear of the teacher must alone determine what position of those several parts will best secure a good timbre. But in every case, for the highest tones of the voice the widest possible opening of the mouth is necessary, and even when, in the formation of the vowels, the lips have to be brought nearer to each other, yet the teeth within must be kept apart, that the cavity of the mouth may remain large enough.
Wind instruments show the influence which the orifice and breadth of the bell has upon the strength of the tone. In the human voice the mouth occupies the place of the bell.
We have already made the remark, in speaking of the different registers, that in the chest tones the position of the larynx is lowered. The cavity of the mouth, then, is naturally lengthened, and hence a moderate opening of the mouth, so that, in singing the notes of the low chest register, the teeth are a thumb's breadth apart, suffices for a good tone. The second chest register requires the slightest opening of the mouth. It is enough if one can press a finger between the teeth. With the high falsetto and head tones the cavity of the mouth is always shorter and narrower towards the back, but as the tones ascend, it must be always broader in front. In singing the first falsetto register, the teeth should be about the breadth of the thumb apart; in the second falsetto register, two fingers apart; and in the head register, the mouth must be open as far as possible. But precise rules cannot here be given. I have observed, however, that in thin voices a too broad opening of the mouth in the middle tones of the voice favors the high over-tones more than the fundamental tone, and the tones are thus flat and wanting in timbre.
Lips too thick and stiff sometimes injure the timbre of the tone; they are often the cause of a veiled, muffled timbre, acting like dampers and rendering a part of the over-tones inaudible. In such cases, as soon as he has become accustomed to a correct direction of the column of tone, the pupil should keep the lips as close to the teeth as possible, and draw back somewhat the corners of the mouth.
The tongue also is not infrequently a hindrance to the formation of a good tone, especially when the pupils have not been taught early enough to open their mouths sufficiently wide. When the high tones are to be produced, which require much room in the forward part of the mouth, the tongue is usually drawn back and raised, in order to make the necessary room within the lower front teeth. This, again, is a habit difficult to be broken, and care must be taken that the lower front teeth are lightly touched by the tip of the tongue in singing, in order that the tongue may be accustomed to a natural position. But this is most easily attained when the tongue is at the first kept occupied as much as possible by quick exercises with the syllables of solmisation, or by practising tones in slow time upon syllables beginning with consonants formed by the tip of the tongue. As in pronouncing the German _Sch_ the tongue presses the teeth all around with its outer edge, syllables formed with these consonants serve excellently well to accustom the tongue to a quiet, correct position.
FLEXIBILITY OF VOICE
We hear it continually said that it requires a special natural gift to acquire a certain ease and flexibility of voice, and that this natural gift is peculiar to the Italians. But the flexibility of the voice depends upon a physiologico-physical process of the organ of tone, which, among the Italians, goes on in their common speech, and hence is more easily transferred by them to their singing. In trills, roulades, turns, and all tones quickly succeeding one another, the breath must set the vocal chords vibrating in quick, short pulses. The little time used by the breath between these rapidly succeeding pulses to retreat, in order to give another pulse, suffices perfectly to produce easily and quickly the position of the glottis requisite for a higher or lower tone. In order, between the pulses, to give room to the retreating breath, the windpipe expands laterally, whereby the larynx is always somewhat drawn down, in order, with the next pulse of the breath, to take again its former place. This rising and lowering of the larynx can be seen plainly outside the throat, and it can be seen also whether the movement goes on rightly. Upon the degree of rapidity with which this movement goes on depends the greater or less flexibility of the voice.
But when the breath in exhaling presses in regularly increasing strength against the vocal chords, and one wishes to pass quickly to a higher tone and back again, as is required in trills, while the aerial stream continues to flow on with unintermitted force, it is evident that the changed movement of the glottis, even within the limits of a register, demands more time and muscular force than a beautiful trill or run admits of. But at the same time the limits of the tones become, by the uninterrupted stream of air, obliterated, and embellishments sung in this way, with unmoved larynx, indistinct. But ornamentation is now practised only in this latter way, and if pupils do not naturally move their throats correctly, the gift of flexibility is denied them.
A quite prevalent and likewise incorrect way of using the throat is moving the epiglottis with the larynx, which renders the formation of a clear, pure tone impossible, and _fiorituri_ sung in this way are limp and indistinct. The only correct movement shows itself very plainly externally, so that with the tolerably strong movement of the larynx up and down, there can be seen also a slighter movement of the windpipe far below in the neck, about the breadth of two fingers above the breast-bone. The mouth and tongue, however, must be perfectly quiet.
But the cultivation of vocal flexibility in singing is the easiest and most grateful part of the education of the voice, for with ordinary industry on the part of the pupil results are here obtained most speedily. In the very first lessons I teach my pupils the motions of the vocal organ in trills, and if they do not learn them by imitation, I give them simple exercises on the syllable _koo_ to practice for a while. The _k_ is produced by a pulse of the breath, and the _oo_ is, as we have seen, the best vowel sound with which to direct the breath as it is expired. Thus, by singing _staccato_ the syllable _koo_, slowly at first and gradually quicker, with a movement of the larynx and windpipe that is both seen and felt; and with the tongue and lips at rest and motionless, the right movement is given to the organ in trills and all other embellishments, and by continued practice the movement becomes more rapid. Those who need to be taught this movement must never practice continuously for any length of time, for we must avoid fatiguing the organs. When pupils have become accustomed, by rapidly singing the syllable _koo_ on each tone of the trill, to the movement of the larynx, then they can practice upon another syllable, and in the following way: Let the trill be at first always sung _piano_, with an accenting of the higher tone every time and a gradual increasing of the rapidity thus: a¹ accented-b¹ a¹ accented-b¹, and repeat this figure, halving the note lengths every four beats; also in half and whole tones, and then in minor thirds. But the most beautiful trill will be formed by practising triplets in the compass of a whole tone, then of a minor third, major third, fourth, etc., by which first the upper, then the lower tone is accented: accented-a¹ g¹ a¹ accented-g¹ a¹ g¹. The mouth, however, in this exercise must continue immovably open, and the tongue also must lie perfectly still, touching the lower front teeth, for only in this way can one be sure of not moving the epiglottis. Although this is difficult at first, yet the syllable _ku_ (koo) may be sung in this way. Thus, with sufficient practice, any one may acquire a perfect flexibility of voice. When the pupils can make the trill easily upon the middle tones, in which in the beginning exercises must be practised, let them practice also upon the higher and lower tones of the voice. If the trill takes place at the transition of two registers, then both the tones must be formed upon the higher of the two, as in an exchange of registers the glottis requires more time than a good trill admits of.