CHAPTER XV.

HALLS AND BUILDINGS.

Vast size and beauty of some buildings—Wood the only material used—Halls—Durability of the wooden structures—Carved doorways—Use of tapestry—Walls adorned with shields—The seats—Positions of the guests—Carved benches—Houses and rooms—Women’s apartments—Open hearths—Use of turf as fuel—Representations of episodes from the sagas.

From the Eddas and Sagas we sometimes get a vivid conception of the vast size, beauty, and magnificence of some of the buildings of the Vikings in their home in the North.

The only material mentioned in their construction is wood.

Each prominent man or chief lived on his estate with his family, followers, and servants. The collection of buildings they occupied was called _bœr_;[184] they were of different styles, and varied in number according to the power, wealth, and taste of the owners, and often seem to have been far apart from each other; every house was known by a different name. These buildings appear to have been built so as to form a quadrangle, the front facing an open space or grass plot called _tún_, the whole being surrounded by a fence called gard,[185] through which the entrance was by a gate, “_grind_,” or gateway, “_hlid_.”

“Raudulf lived in the days of King St. Olaf in the Austrdal (Österdal valley), when the king was journeying round the land and forcing people to embrace Christianity. He sent his sons to King Olaf, and invited him home to a feast. It was rather late in the day when the king came to Raud, with two hundred men; he saw high and well-closed fences, and when they came to the gate it was open, but nevertheless well guarded.... When the king rode in, Raud bondi stood there with his sons and many people. Raud received him and his men well; they alighted from their horses. The king asked the bondi: ‘Is this fine house which I see here in the enclosure a church?’ The bondi answered: ‘It is my sleeping-house, which was built this summer, and is now just finished;’ the whole roof of the house was shingle-covered, and tarred. Then they went to the sitting-room, and the king saw that it was very large; it was roofed with planks and tarred” (Fornmanna Sögur, v. 331).

The finest buildings were called _holl_ (hall), and were only built by kings, chiefs, or jarls.[186] Another building, called _sal_,[187] seems to have been the same as the hall, as it was built for the reception of guests. Here and there we have descriptions of halls belonging to prominent chiefs, richly ornamented with carvings, which sometimes represented the deeds of warriors; and were it not for some of these mementoes, which have been rescued from oblivion and decay, we might doubt that the art of carving had been carried to such perfection as it was. Walls, doors, beds, seats, &c., are mentioned as being richly carved.

“Olaf Höskuldsson had a hall made in Hjardarholt larger and more magnificent than people had before seen; on the wall and on the ceiling famous Sagas were carved with such skill that the hall was thought to be far more splendid when the hangings were taken down” (Laxdæla, c. 29).

“It was customary at that time to have large halls at the bœr, at which the people sat before long fires in the evening; tables were placed in front of the men, who afterward slept alongside the walls, away from the fires. During the daytime the women carded and spun wool in these halls” (Gretti’s Saga, ch. xv.).

Some of the churches and farm-houses built in the beginning of the Christian era, and some of the doors, testify to the durability of their wooden structures.

The carved doorways with illustrations from the Eddaic songs must have been taken from buildings of a far earlier date than the churches, but it is impossible to tell the date. Some of the carvings are from two inches in depth to a line.

Only in two places are stone-built (_steinhöll_) halls mentioned.

“Gunnhild, Queen of Norway, said to Ögmund (one of her men): ‘Show them (Rút and his men) the way to my house, and make a good feast for them there.’ Ögmund went with them to a stone-hall, covered with the finest tapestry” (Njala, ch. 3).[188]

King Atli sent an invitation to the sons of Gjuki, Gunnar and Högni, brothers of Gudrun, his wife.

Atli sent Early to Gunnar, A man skilled in riding; Knefród was he called; He came to the burgh of Gjuki And to the hall of Gunnar, To the benches around the fire, And to the well-loved beer.

There the warriors drank Wine in the foreign hall, Silent and hiding their fear; They feared the wrath of the Hunar; Then shouted Knefród, The southern man, With a chilling voice, Sitting on a high bench—

“Atli sent me to ride Hither on his errand On a horse chafing the bit Through the unknown dark forest To bid you both, Gunnar, To come to the bench With eagle-beaked helmets To call on him.”

We own seven halls Full of swords; Of each of these The guards are of gold; I know my horse is best, My sword the sharpest; My bow adorns the bench, My brynjas are of gold, My helmet and shield are the whitest.

(Atlakvida.)

The scene depicted on the door-jambs on the following page is thus described:—

Door-jambs, Osstad Church, Sœtersdal. Height, 6 feet; width, 1¾ feet.

“King Atli urged his host to make a fierce assault; they fought hard, but the Gjukimgar made an attack so violent that he retreated into the hall, and they fought inside very sharply. Many fell, and at last all the men of the brothers (Gunnar and Högni) were slain, so that they two alone were alive; but before that many a man went to Hel by their weapons. King Gunnar was attacked, and because of overwhelming force was captured and fettered. Thereupon Högni fought with great valour and manliness, and killed twenty of King Atli’s greatest champions; he threw many into the fire which had been kindled in the hall; all agreed that such a man could hardly be found, but nevertheless at last he was overpowered and taken. King Atli said: ‘It is a great wonder that so many have been slain by him here; cut out his heart, and that shall be his death.’ Högni answered: ‘Do as thou likest, I will gladly bear what you do, and you shall see that my heart is not afraid, I have stood hard things before. I liked to go into trials while unwounded, but now I am badly wounded, and you will yet have your will on me.’ The counsellor of King Atli said: ‘I have better advice; let us rather take the thrall Hjalli, but spare the life of Högni; that thrall is death-fated, live he ever so long he will always be as bad as now.’ The thrall heard this and screamed loudly, and ran away to where he thought he was safe. He said he was to suffer on account of their fight, and that it was undeservedly; that the day was evil on which he was to die and give up his swine-keeping. They seized him and threatened him with a knife; he cried loudly before he felt its point.

“Högni did what is unusual in such personal peril, interceded for the thrall’s life, saying he did not want to hear his screaming, and that he preferred to be the sufferer himself; the thrall was glad to get his life. Högni and Gunnar were both put in fetters. Atli bade Gunnar tell where the gold was, if he wished to live. He answered: ‘I will sooner see the bloody heart of my brother Högni.’ They seized the thrall a second time, and cut his heart out, and showed it to King Gunnar. He said: ‘Here you may see the heart of Hjalli the coward, and it is unlike the heart of Högni the brave, for now it trembles much, but it trembled twice as much when it lay in his breast.’ They went to Högni, urged by King Atli, and cut out his heart, but such was his strength of mind that he smiled while he suffered this torture, and everybody wondered at his firmness; and the deed is ever since held in remembrance. They showed to Gunnar the heart of Högni the brave, who said: ‘It is unlike the heart of Hjalli, for now it quivers little, but less while it was in his breast; thou wilt lose thy life, Atli, as we do now. I alone know where the gold is, for Högni cannot tell thee now. I was sometimes going to tell it while both of us lived, but now I am left to myself; the Rhine shall keep the gold, rather than the Hunar wear it on their arms. King Atli told them to take away the prisoner, and it was done. Gudrun with some men went to Atli, and said: ‘Mayest thou fare as ill as thou didst keep thy word to me.’

“King Gunnar was put into a pit in which were many snakes, and his hands were tied firmly. Gudrun sent him a harp; he showed his art, and played on it with great skill, striking the strings with his toes. He played so well and wonderfully that few thought they had heard the harp played so well with hands, and he continued this idrott until all the snakes fell asleep except a large hideous viper, which crawled to him, and pierced into his body with its snout till it reached his heart; and there he lost his life with great prowess” (Volsunga Saga, c. 37).

The halls had two doors, one for the men, the other for women;[189] many of them, which were often covered with designs in ironwork and runic inscriptions, must have been extremely beautiful. Sweden is especially rich in them. The church door of Versås, represented on the next page, is undoubtedly of great antiquity, as the svastica is found upon it.

The walls of the halls were hung with tapestry, made by the wives and daughters of the family, often representing the deeds of their forefathers or those of their lord; the carvings on the walls were occasionally very fine. An idea of the vast size of these festive halls can be gleaned from the number of guests and attendants they could hold. Some walls were adorned with shields put so closely together that they overlapped each other; many were inlaid or ornamented with gold and silver, which must have added to the brilliancy of the scene.

“King Knut began his journey to Borgundarhólm (Bornholm), where Egil had made a grand feast for him; he went to this with a large hird.[190] There he had a hall as large as a king’s, hung all over with shields” (Flateyjarbók iii., p. 401).

“King Harald Sigurdarson came to the chief Aslák, and invited himself to his house. Aslák went to meet him, and received him very well. The king and his men were shown in to a hall and seated; it was covered with shields and most splendidly adorned in all respects”[191] (Flateyjarbók iii., p. 401).

Once Thorfinn (an Icelandic poet) sat on an easy chair before King Olaf. The king said to him:

“‘Make a song, Scald, about that which is drawn on the hangings.’ Thorfinn looked at them, and saw that Sigurd slaying Fafnir was embroidered on them” (Flateyjarbók iii.).

The halls were used for feasts,[192] and were built east and west, the long walls running north and south; along the latter were the benches, and in the middle of each of these were the _hásæti_ or high-seats, also called _Ondvegi_ or _Ondugi_, because the two seats were opposite each other (_Ond_ = opposite, _vegi_ = way). The most important benches were the _œdri bekk_, which ran along the northern wall, and the high-seat or the chief seat in the hall, which stood facing the sun, and was for the use of the master of the household, who never allowed any one else to use it. The long bench which ran along the southern wall was called “_úœdri bekk_” (the lower bench); the high-seat on this bench was called _annat ondvegi_, _nordr ondvegi_ and _ondvegi a hinn uœdra bekk_, and was opposite to the other high-seat. To be placed in this _ondvegi_ was the highest honour that could be shown to any one, and consequently this place was only assigned to most prominent men. The nearer the place on the benches assigned to any one was to the high-seat, the greater the honour; the places farthest away, near the doors, were the lowest.

“Thorkel Hák (an Icelander) had been abroad and became renowned in foreign countries ... he went out to Sweden and became the companion of Sörkvir, and they ravaged the coast of the Baltic. East of Balagardssida, Thorkel, when going to get water one evening, met a _finngalkn_ (a kind of dragon monster), which after a prolonged struggle he slew. Then he went east to Adalsysla, where he also slew a flying dragon; afterwards he went back to Sweden, thence to Norway, and then to Iceland. He had these great feats carved above his locked bed, and on a chair in front of his high-seat. He was called Thorkel Hák because he spared no one, either in words or deeds, with whomsoever he dealt” (Njala, 120).

The seats on the _œdri bekk_ were however more prominent than those on the lower bench. Next to the king, on the upper bench, on the right sat the under-kings or other prominent men.

On some occasions at a later period we find that to the left sat the queen with her women in the order of their rank, for the places of the women were then upon the long bench to the left of the king, and to the right of the other _ondvegismen_, the place of the men being on the left of the ondvegi.

Hildigunn wishing to make preparations to receive her kinsman Flosi, said:

“‘Now all my men-servants shall stand outside when Flosi rides into the yard, and the women shall clean the rooms, and put up the hangings and prepare the high-seat for him” (Njala, ch. 116).

The high-seat was often wide enough to hold two or three persons. Sigurd jarl of the Orkneys invited Gilli jarl of Sudreyjar (Hebrides) and Sigtrygg, king in Ireland, for Yuletide.

“Men were so seated that King Sigtrygg sat in the middle of the high-seat, and each of the jarls on either side of him. The men of Sigtrygg and Gilli jarl sat on the inner side, and Flosi and Thorstein Siduhallson on the outer side of Sigurd jarl. The hall was full” (Njala, c. 154).

There were also, in some halls, transverse benches, called _Pall_ or _Thverpall_ (cross-benches); on these the women sat. In such cases the middle seat was the most prominent, and the lowest seat was at the end of the bench in the corner[193]: the word was used as a term of contempt.

“It was the custom of Gunnar and Njal to give feasts to each other once every winter in turns for friendship’s sake. Now Gunnar had to stay with Njal, and went to Bergthorshval with Hallgerd. Helgi (son of Njal) and his wife were not at home. Njal received them well. When they had stayed there for a while Helgi and his wife Thórhalla came home. Then Bergthóra (Njal’s wife) walked with Thórhalla up to the cross-bench (women’s bench), and said to Hallgerd: ‘Thou shalt give up thy seat to this woman.’ She answered: ‘I will not move, for I do not want to be a corner-woman. I shall have my way here.’ Then Thórhalla sat down” (Njala, c. 35).

The high-seats, which were cushioned, were often very beautifully carved with arms on both sides, and two pillars called Ondvegisulur, which were both carved and painted.

Only in extraordinary cases were there more than two high-seats, but we are told that Ingjald Illrádi, in order to receive the guests at his _arvel_ after his father’s death, built a new hall with seven high seats.

“Thordis and Bödvar went up on to the roof of the hall, took away the window covering to let the smoke out, and looked about the hall; they saw that the chair of Grima stood in the middle, and that Thór, seated, with his hammer, was carved on the chair-posts, but they did not see Thormod” (Fostbrœdra Saga).

To sit on the footboard in front of the king was to show submission; and it seems to have been usual when a subject was invested with the title of jarl to sit thus before the ceremony of investiture began.

“One day when King Magnus sat in his high-seat, and had many men with him, Svein Ulfsson sat on the footboard in front of the king. The king said: ‘I will make known to the chiefs and all people my intention, which I want carried out. Svein Ulfsson, a man prominent both by his birth and deeds, has come to me here. He has become my man, and plighted me his word. You know that all the Danes have become my men this summer, and the land is without a chief; when I am gone, it is, as you know, often attacked by the Vendians, Courlanders, and others from Austrveg (eastern lands) and by the Saxar also. I promised to give them a chief to defend and rule the land. I see no man so well fitted for it in every respect as Svein Ulfsson. By his kin he is a chief. Now I will make him my jarl, and give into his hands Danaveldi to rule over while I am in Norway, as Knut the great made his father Úlf jarl chief over Denmark while he was in England....’ He rose, took a sword and fastened it on Svein’s belt; then he took a shield and fastened it on his shoulder; then he put a helmet on his head and gave him the name of jarl, and those grants in Denmark which his father Úlf jarl had had there before. Then a shrine with holy things was brought, on which Svein laid his hands, and took oaths of allegiance to King Magnus, who thereupon led him into the high-seat with himself” (Magnus the Good’s Saga, ch. 24).

A great change was made in the position of the high-seat in later times by Olaf Kyrri (the Quiet), King of Norway (1067–1093), who placed it at the inner end of the hall where the cross-bench stood, instead of being in the centre of the long benches.

The benches were so made as to allow the guests to place at their backs, along the wall, their shields and swords, &c.

“It was an old custom in Norway, Denmark, and Sweden to have doors at each end of the hall in king’s residences and feasting halls, with the king’s high seat on the middle of the long bench facing toward the sun. The queen sat on the left hand of the king, and the seat was then called _Ondvegi_ (high-seat); the seats next to this on both sides were the most dignified for men and women, while the one next to the door was the least. The most high-born, old and wise man, was the king’s counsellor, as it was then the custom of kings to have wise men who knew ancient examples and customs of their forefathers, but the counsellor sat on the northern bench opposite the king, on what was called the lower high-seat; there were also women on his right hand, but men on his left. It was then the custom for chiefs to carry the ale over the fire, and drink to the man sitting in the opposite high seat, and it was a great honour at that time to be toasted by the king.

“King Olaf had a raised bench placed in his feast halls, and put his high seat on the middle of the cross bench. He arranged his pages and candle boys in front; he also had a candle held in front of every high-born man who sat at his table, and a page holding a table cup before each; he had also chairs (stools) for his marshals and other wise men” (Fagrskinna, c. 219, 220).

A few seats, which have been saved from destruction, are beautifully carved with subjects from the Sagas.

Side view of chair. 1/19 real size.

Carved bridal chair, formerly in Hitterdal Church, Thelemarken, Norway. Now on the farm of Hove. Showing the shape of hats worn and Gunnar in the snake-pit.

This carving may be explained by two different interpretations. The woman between the two horsemen may be Brynhild and the ring that which the gods got from the Dverg Andvari for a ransom for Otr, and which he predicted would always bring misfortune to its owner; or she may be Gudrun confiding to the messenger of Atli a ring, warning Gunnar and Högni of their danger.

One of the principal houses was the _skali_, or _eldhús_,[194] an oblong and quadrangular building, with a door at one, sometimes at both ends, intended for daily life and for feasting.

The _skemma_, _dyngja_, _stofa_, and _herbergi_ were separate rooms, or buildings, sometimes used as sleeping apartments, where the women of the household dwelt or remained during the daytime with their maids or attendants, and occupied themselves with all kinds of work.[195] Sometimes the _skemma_ was built away from other houses, and was then called _utskemma_. Where there was a loft the lower room was called _undir-skemma_. In such rooms the light came from window openings, and no fire could be lighted.[196]

The _stofa_, which was usually occupied by women,[197] was large or small; sometimes it was intended for a sleeping apartment. At the royal residence in Nidaros, St. Olaf built a large _hirdstofa_ (king’s men’s house), with doors at both ends, for meals and general intercourse; a large _svefnskali_ (sleeping house); and also a large _stofa_,[198] in which he held his _hirdstefna_ (king’s men’s meetings). The common entrance led first into the _forstofa_ (lobby), and then into the house proper; both were provided with doors, which could be locked. Sometimes the door was fastened on the inside with a _slagbrand_ (bar).

The lofts, which consisted of rooms in the upper part of the _skali_, were frequently used as bedrooms, and were lighted by _loft-glugg_[199] (loft openings). Outside the loft there was, at least on one side, a _svalir_ (balcony),[200] which was reached by an outside stairway. The loft generally had no communication with the _undir-skemma_.

When _Fjölnir_ assisted King Frodi in Denmark, he was given a loft-room as a sleeping apartment; in an adjoining loft-room the flooring had been removed, in order to fill the large mead-vat standing in the _undir-skemma_. During the night _Fjölnir_ went out, and as he had to return along the _svalir_ to his room, he made a mistake as to the door, and fell down into the mead-vat.[201]

The beds (_hvila_, _rekkja_) were placed round the walls, inside the benches, and consisted of straw, the covering being the clothes worn in the daytime, and over the head a _feld_ (fur cloak) was placed.

The buildings had windows, sometimes called light-holes, covered with a membrane, instead of glass, sufficiently large to enable a man to creep through them. The material used was the after-birth membrane, enclosing the fœtus of the cow, which was stretched over the light-hole. This when dried is almost as transparent as glass, and can, for a certain time, resist the rain. It is still in use in some out-of-the-way places in Iceland; in the Sagas it is called _Skjall_, and the window is called _Skja_.

“Also if men sit in houses with _skjá_ (light-holes) in them, it is so light inside that all men indoors recognise each other” (Konungs Skuggsja, p. 47).

There was no ceiling within the roof; the smoke from the open hearths on the floor, which covered the inside with soot, escaped through the _Ljori_, of which there was at least one, and which also admitted light.[202]

“Olaf Tryggvason burnt the hall of the seid-man Eyvind Kelda who escaped through the _Ljóri_ (the light-hole in the roof)” (Olaf Trygg, c. 69).

We find that turf was occasionally used as fuel.

“Einar sailed westward to Shetland, and many men joined him. After that he went southward to the Orkneys, against Kalf Skurfa and Thorir (Treskegg). There a great battle was fought, and both the Vikings were slain.

‘He gave Treskegg to the Trölls; Torfeinar slew Skurfa: He conquered the islands.’

“After that he conquered the islands, and became a powerful chief. He was the first man to cut turf from the ground for fuel at Torfnes (Turfness) in Scotland, for fuel was scarce in the islands” (Flateyjarbók, vol. i., p. 223).

Door-jambs of Hyllestad Church, Sœtersdal. Height, 7 feet; width, 1⅔ feet. Representation of seven episodes from the Volsunga Saga—Regin forging a sword; Sigurd trying it; Sigurd piercing the snake Fafnir; Sigurd roasting the heart of Fafnir; Sigurd’s horse _Grani_; Sigurd slaying Regin; and Gunnar in the snake-pit playing the harp with his toes.

Door-jambs in Faaberg Church, Gulbrandsdal, about 7½ feet long.

Door-jambs in Lardals Church, Jarsberg. Height, 6⅙ feet; breadth of broader plank, 1⅔ feet. Representation of the skin of Regin’s brother in the shape of an otter, and Sigurd slaying Fafnir.

Door-jambs, Ulvick Church, Hardanger; 8 feet high; nearly 2 feet wide.

Door-jambs, Hyllestad Church, Sætersdal; 7 feet high, 1⅔ feet wide.

Ornaments of silver rivetted upon wood. ⅔ real size.—Mammen find, later iron age.

We see in smaller objects (as on p. 272) how highly finished were the carvings in the earlier iron age.

When a house was built the people inquired if the ground be lucky or unlucky in the new house. They measured the length and breadth repeatedly, and then they carefully examined if all the measurements were the same. If the measurements grew longer they thought it foreboded an increase of well-being for the dwellers; if the opposite they thought it foreboded a decrease in the well-being of the persons.

Ogmund went to Iceland from Norway.

“He measured the ground for his house. It was a belief that if the measurement was the same when it was tried repeatedly, then the well-being of the man whose measuring-yard grew too short would decrease, but increase if it grew longer. The measurement was performed three times and the yard was too short.”

Footnote 184:

Bœr or Bu, meant a dwelling-place occupied by a single family.

Footnote 185:

The name gard, gaard, still signifies all the buildings of a farm.

Footnote 186:

Hrolf Kraki, 34, 40; Jomsvikinga Saga, 5, 22; Volsunga, 3; Half’s Saga, 12; Egil, 8.

Footnote 187:

The _sal_ is also called _Disarsal_, a building for sacrifices to the Disir.

Footnote 188:

Cf. also Heimskringla.

Footnote 189:

“The land-owner shall pay the value of the land at the _Karldyr_ (men’s door).” Gragas ii.

Footnote 190:

Bodyguard.

Footnote 191:

Cf. also Njala, 117.

Footnote 192:

The banqueting halls were called _veitsluskali_.

Footnote 193:

Njala 120; Fornmanna Sögur.

Footnote 194:

The _skali_ is often called the drinking or the sleeping _skali_. Orkneyinga, 18, 70, 115; Gisli Sursson, 29; Droplaugarsona Saga, 18, 28; Fornmanna Sögur, i. 288, 292; Kormak, 58; Fostbrœdra, 13; Njala, 78; Gunnlaug, XI.

The _eldhús_ meant a hall or chief room, where fires were kept. Gisli Sursson, 14, 15, 97; Eyrbyggja, 98; Laxdæla, 54.

Footnote 195:

_Dyngja_—cf. Egil, 159; Gisli Sursson, 15; Njal, 66; Kormak, 10; Bjorn Hitdk, 68. _Skemma_—Fœreyinga, 259; Gisli Sursson, 7; Kormak, 228; Islendinga Sögur, ii. 28. _Herbergi_ seems to have been a general term for any kind of room.

Footnote 196:

Harald Hardradi, 70.

Footnote 197:

Fœreyinga, 41; Islendinga Sögur, ii. 250; Fostbrœdra, 164. A _bad-stofa_, or bath room, is mentioned. Eyrbyggja, Forn. Sögur, xiii. In St. Olaf’s Saga, 82, the _stofa_ is said to be in the loft.

Footnote 198:

A house of the latter kind was also called _málstofa_ (speaking-house) (Harald Hardradi’s Saga, c. 45).

Footnote 199:

Ingi’s Saga, 28; Egil’s Saga, 236; Njal,, 114, 199; Fms., 85; Ynglinga, St. Olaf, 116.

Footnote 200:

Magnus the Good’s Saga, c. 13.

Footnote 201:

Yngl. Saga, c. 14.

Footnote 202:

Ynglinga Saga, 34.