CHAPTER XI.

MODE OF NAVAL WARFARE OF THE NORTHMEN.

Sea fights—Standard and shield burgh—Method of fighting—Use of grappling irons—Choice of the crew—Boarding of ships—Battle at the river Helga—Custom of strengthening ships’ sides before a combat—Rowers protected by shields—Use of stones as weapons—Harbours protected by cables—The war levy.

From the numerous sea-fights described in the Sagas, we see that the most important and decisive part of the struggle took place near the prow and stem of the ship. Here the strongest and most valiant men were always stationed,[153] among them the standard-bearer of the chief or king, round whom they were ranged in battle order, and formed the _skjald-borg_ (shieldburg).

“During the winter King Harald had a large dragon made and fitted out very splendidly. He placed on it his hird and Berserks. The stem defenders were the most carefully selected, for they had the king’s standard. That part aft of the prow near the pumping-room (_austr-rum_) was called rausn (forecastle). It was manned with Berserks. Only those who surpassed others in strength and bravery and all kinds of skill got into the hird of King Harald. Only with such men was his ship manned, and he had then a large choice of hirdmen out of every Fylki” (Harald Fairhair’s Saga, c. 9).

In a sea-fight between Hakon Herdibreid and King Ingi:

“Hakon went on board the east voyage[154] Knörr, and a shieldburgh was put round him there, but his standard remained on board the longship where he had been.”[155]

Before the fight it was the custom to sound the horns and hoist the standards, and to tie the stems of the ships together, so that each line formed an unbroken whole; sometimes several anchors seem to have been employed for this purpose, as it is said that they were used to hold the ships together during the battle. When they came to the attack, the men sought to drag the ships of the enemy closer by means of grappling-hooks (_stafnlé_) and anchors. Eirik Jarl decided the battle of Svold by attacking the outermost ships of Olaf Tryggvason. As soon as one ship was cleared of men, he loosened its fastenings.

“It was then customary when men fought on board ships to tie them together and fight in the prows” (Harald Fairhair’s Saga, ch. 11).

In the celebrated battle of Svold most violent and fatal was the defence on the Long Serpent among the forerooms-men and the stem-defenders (see pp 192–3).

After leaving Norway Olaf steered the Long Serpent himself, and the crew was so carefully chosen that no man who was older than sixty or younger than twenty was to be on board, and they were picked also with regard to valour and strength. The king’s hirdmen were first chosen, composed of the strongest and bravest men from the country and foreign lands.

“Ulf the red carried King Olaf’s standard, and was placed in the front (prow) of the Serpent together with Kolbjörn Stallari, Thorstein Oxfoot, Vikar of Tiundaland the brother of Arnljót Gellini. The following men were on the forecastle (rausn) in the bows:—Vakr Raumason Elfski, Bersi the Strong, An the archer of Jamtaland, Thránd the Hardy of Thelamörk, and Úthyrmir (Unsparing), his brother. From Hálogaland were:—Thránd the Squinting, Ögmund Sandi, Hlödvir (Louis) the Long of Saltvik, Harek the Keen. From the inner part of Thrandheim were:—Ketil the Tall, Thorfinn the Dashing, Hávar of Orkadal and his brothers. The following were in the foreroom:—Björn of Studla, Börk of Firdir, Thorgrim Thjódólfsson of Hvin, Asbjörn and Orm, Thórd of Njardarlög, Thorstein the white of Oprustadir, Arnor of Mœri, Hallstein and Hauk of Firdir, Eyvind Snake, Bergthor Bestil, Hallkel of Fjalir, Olaf Dreng (good warrior), Arnfinn of Sogn, Sigurd Axe, Einar of Hördaland, Finn, Ketil of Rogaland, Grjótgard the nimble. The following were in the Krapparum[156]:—Einar Thambarskelfir (he was not up to the standard being only eighteen winters old), Thorstein Hlifarson, Thórólf, Ivar the Starter, Orm Hood-nose, and many other very famous men were on the Serpent, though we cannot name them. Eight men were in every _half-room_ (sixteen in one room), selected one by one. Thirty men were in the foreroom. People said that the picked men on board surpassed other men as far in fineness and strength and bravery as the Long Serpent surpassed other ships. Thorkel Nefja, the king’s brother, steered the Short Serpent, Thorkel the Wheedler and Jostein, the king’s uncles, the Trana; both these ships were very well manned. Eleven large ships left Thrandheim with Olaf, also twenty-seaters and smaller ships and store-ships (_vistabyrding_)” (Olaf Tryggvason’s Saga (Heimskringla), c. 102).

When the crew felt that they were unequal to the contest by being boarded, they then cut the ropes that tied them to other ships, and tried to avoid the coming danger.

“The king’s men attacked the jarl’s ship and almost got up on it. When the jarl saw his danger he called to the men in the forepart of the ship to cut the ropes (by which the ships were fastened together) and let them loose; they did so. The king’s men threw their grappling hooks on the club-formed beaks of the prow, and thus held them fast. Then the jarl bade the men in the prow cut off the beaks, which they did. Einar Thambarskelfir had laid his ship on the other side of the jarl’s, and cast an anchor into the prow of the jarl’s ship, and thus they got out on the fjord” (St. Olaf’s Saga, c. 48).

“At this time there was a great war in Norway; Harald Lúfa, the son of Halfdan Svarti (black), was subduing the country.... When he came to Hördaland a mass of warriors met to fight him.... Both sides had many men. This was one of the greatest battles in Norway; most Sagas mention it, for there came men from the whole country, and many from other countries, with a great number of Vikings. Önund laid his ship at the side of that of Thorir Chinlong, which was nearly in the middle of the fleet. King Harald with his ship attacked that of Thorir Chinlong, who was known as the greatest berserk and very valiant. There ensued the severest fights on both sides. The king urged his berserks to attack; they were called Ulfhednar (the wolf-skin coats), and no weapons wounded them; and when they rushed forward nothing withstood them. Thorir defended himself very manfully and fell on his ship with great valour; it was cleared of men from stem to stern, and as the ropes were cut it drifted backward between the others. The king’s men then attacked the ship of Önund; he was in the fore part of the ship, and fought bravely. The king’s men said: ‘That man fights hard in the stem; let us give him some mark in memory of his having been in the battle.’ Önund was standing with one of his feet on the side of the ship, and as he dealt a man a blow a spear was thrust at him; as he parried the blow he bent backwards, when one of the king’s stem-defenders cut off his leg below the knee, after which he could fight no more. The greater part of the men on his ship fell. Önund was carried on board the ship of Thrand, the son of Björn and brother of Eyvind Eastman; he was against King Harald, and lay on one side of Önund’s ship. After this the main fleet broke into flight. Thrand, and the other Vikings who were able to, got away and sailed westward. Önund, as well as Balki and Hallvard Súgandi (gush of wind), went with him. When he was healed he afterwards walked with a wooden leg; from this he was called Önund tree-foot while he lived” (Gretti’s Saga, c. 2).

We see that at that period expeditions to and from the west were common.

The battle at the river Helga (Sweden) is thus described:—

“One evening the spies of Önund saw Knut sailing not far off. Önund let a war blast be blown. His men took down their tents, armed themselves, and rowed out of the harbour (at the mouth of the river) and eastwards along the coast; they laid their ships side by side and tied them together, and made ready for battle. Önund sent spies ashore to tell Olaf, who had the dam broken and let the river into its bed. He then went down to his ships in the night. When Knut came off the harbour, he saw the host of the kings ready for battle. It seemed to him it would be too late in the day to begin a battle, as the whole of his host was not ready. His fleet needed much space for sailing, and there was a long way between his foremost and hindmost ship, and the outermost and the one next to the land. There was little wind. When he saw the Swedes and Northmen had left the harbour, he went in with such ships as could get room there, but the greater part of his host lay out on the sea (outside the harbour). Next morning, when it was almost day, many of their men were on land, some talking, others at their games. They suspected nothing until the water rushed down upon them like a torrent; large timbers followed, and were driven against their ships; these were damaged, and the water flowed all over the fields; the men on land, and also many of those on the ships, lost their lives. All who could, cut their anchor-ropes, and the ships drifted in great disorder. The large dragon, on which the king was, floated out with the current; it was not easy to move it with oars, and it drifted out to the fleet of the kings. When they recognized it, they at once surrounded it. As the ship had sides as high as the walls of a burgh, and many chosen and well-armed men were on board, it was not easy to capture it. After a short time Ulf jarl came up with his ships, and the battle began. Thereupon the host of Knut gathered from all sides. Then Olaf and Önund saw that they had gained as much advantage as was then possible; they pulled back and got loose from the host of Knut, and separated the fleets. Because this attack had not been as Knut had ordered, he did not row after them; they began to array the ships and make themselves ready. When they had separated, and each fleet was mustered, the kings counted their men, and found that they had not lost many; they saw also that the odds would be so great if they waited till Knut had made ready all his great host, and attacked them, that there was little hope of victory. They decided to row with all their ships eastward along the coast” (St. Olaf, c. 106).[157]

Before the conflict the sides of the ships were strengthened by _viggyrdil_ (war-girdle) or _vigfleki_ (war-hurdle).

“King Sverri was at Bergen (Björgyn) with his host, and all his ships lay ready and war-girdled at the gangways” (Sverri’s Saga, c. 52).

When King Svein of Denmark was pursuing King Harald with an overwhelming force,

“He (Harald) bid the men lighten his (ship) by throwing overboard malt, wheat, and pork, and to cut holes in the ale-barrels: this helped awhile. Then he had _viggyrdils_, vats, and empty barrels, as well as the prisoners of war, thrown into the sea” (Harald Hardradi’s Saga, c. 35).

“We will carry out on the boards (i.e. the sides of the ship) _vigfleki_, and defend ourselves as best we can, but not attack them” (Flateyjarbok).

A man with his shields protected the rowers from the missiles of the enemy; but in spite of this, many were often killed. Three men were generally stationed in each _half-room_, one for rowing, one for protecting the rower, and one for fighting.

Erling Skakki said to King Ingi: “If we now attack them and row against the current, and have three men in every _half-room_, then one must row, the other protect him, and we shall then have not more than one-third of our host in the fight” (Hakon Herdibreid’s Saga, c. 6).

“When the men on board the jarl’s ships began to fall and get wounded, and the line of men on their gunwales got thin, King Olaf’s men went on board. Their standard was carried on board the ship next to the jarl’s, and followed by the king himself” (St. Olaf’s Saga, ch. 48).

Stones were extensively used in sea fights.

Svein Ulfsson,[158] King of Denmark, fought a battle outside Árós (Aarhus) against King Magnus of Norway, of which it is said,

“Svein’s men armed themselves and tied together their ships. There at once ensued a hard battle.... They fought in the stems. Only those who stood there could reach to use their swords; those who stood in the foreroom used _kesjas_ (a kind of lance), and those still farther aft shorter javelins or large arrows; some threw stones with slings, while those who were aft of the mast used bows” (Magnus the Good, c. 31).

“A battle was fought at the mouth of the Gauta river between the kings Ingi and Hakon; there were thrown down on them _kesjas_ (spears), and stones so large, that they were forced to retreat” (Hakon Herdibreid’s Saga, c. 2).

Cables were stretched across the mouths of rivers or harbours, in order to prevent the ships of the enemy from entering.

“Olaf went to Saudungssund and lay there; he stationed one ship on each side of the Sound, and had a thick cable stretched between them. Hakon jarl (son of Eirik who was son of the famous Hakon jarl) rowed shortly after into the Sound with a manned skeid. He thought that two trading vessels were in the Sound, so rowed into it between them. Olaf’s men drew the cable under the middle of the keel of the skeid, and hauled it with windlasses; as soon as it touched the skeid its stern was lifted, and the prow plunged forwards so that the sea came in; the ship was filled and upset” (St. Olaf’s Saga, c. 28).

The country was divided into _skipreida_, or ship levy districts, in Norway, and no doubt there were similar divisions in the other countries of the Northmen. Every skipreida had to build, equip, and man a certain number of ships, some more than others.

_Leidangr_ was the term applied to a levy of men, ships, and money. A levy when necessary was effected in the following manner.

“When a ship has been loosened from its fastenings and a man has not come in to his half-room then his oar shall be raised (= stand with its blade into the air), and witnesses called that he is liable to pay a fine of three marks (merkur). If a man goes on board another ship than the one he should go to he shall row in the expedition of the levy and (besides) pay the fine” (Gulath, 301).

“Olaf summoned a Thing in the town (Nidarós). He made it known to all people that he wanted to have a levy that summer from the country; he wanted a certain number of men and ships from each Fylki; he stated how many ships he wished to have from the fjord (Trondhjemsfjord). Then he sent word southwards and northwards along the coast and inland, and summoned men for war. He had the Long Serpent launched, and all his other ships, small and large” (Olaf Tryggvason’s Saga, c. 107, Heimskringla).

“Hakon Jarl had also equipped his men, intending to do warfare, and had twelve large ships. After Gull Harald had departed, Hakon Jarl went to the king and said: ‘Now we may go on the expedition, and nevertheless have to pay the fine for default in the levy (leidviti). Now Gull Harald will slay Harald Gráfeld, and then take the kingship in Norway’” (Olaf Tryggvason’s Saga, vol. i., Fornmanna Sögur).

Leidviti was the tax which was paid instead of the leidangr, when the latter was not needed, being originally the fine for neglecting to participate in leidangr. It was also paid by the one who took part in the warfare, but on the wrong ship. It seems to be the latter which the jarl refers to—a warfare with loss, in consequence of lack of forethought.

Footnote 153:

They were called _Stafnbúar_, stem or prow men.

Footnote 154:

East voyage = voyage in the East Baltic (Russia, &c.).

Footnote 155:

Cf. also Olaf Tryggvason’s Saga, c. 115.

Footnote 156:

The narrow room, the third room or space from the stern.

Footnote 157:

Cf. also St. Olaf, 185, 186; Njala, c. 30.

Footnote 158:

_Svein Ulfsson_ was the son of Ulf jarl and Astrid, the sister of Knut the Great. He carried on long war against King Magnus the Good, and at last was acknowledged as King of Denmark. This was about the middle of the 11th century.