Part 2

If the quantity applied is too small to meet the demands of the crop, unless all seasonal conditions are favorable, the chances are that the results will not be completely satisfactory, as weather conditions are not likely to be perfect; it may be too wet or too dry, too cold or too hot, and hence, during certain periods, the plants would not be able to obtain their food--that is, it would be impossible for the plant to absorb always its food uniformly, or in such amounts and at such times as would result in the best development of the plant. In all cases an amount should be applied that would exceed the needed requirement under perfect conditions.

In the second place, if the quantity found to be necessary for a definite increase of crop, under average conditions, were all applied at once, say in the early spring, a greater opportunity would be offered for losses from leaching than would be the case if the material were given in successive dressings, so that the losses due to the escape of the nitrogen would be minimized; on the other hand, if no losses occurred, the plant might take up more than could be utilized in a normal development, thus defeating the purpose, because resulting in a product of less commercial value. This would apply, of course, only in the case of those crops that are injured by abnormal development in certain directions, as, for example, too large a proportion of straw in cereal grains, too large a root in sugar beets, etc. All these difficulties may be obviated by a fractional application, or, in other words, by supplying the nitrogen at the time and in the quantity best adapted for the plant and for the purpose in view in its growth. The results from the use of nitrogen may be also unsatisfactory if nitrogen only of the elements essential is used. The best results from the use of nitrate can come only when there exist in the soil, or are applied with it, sufficient amounts of the mineral elements to enable the plant to obtain a food suited to its needs--nitrogen is but one element of plant food.--(N. J. A. E. Sta., 157.)

PREPARATION OF THE SOIL.

Where there is considerable choice in the location of the garden plot, it is often possible to select land that will require very little special preparation. On the other hand, it may be necessary to take an undesirable soil and bring it into suitable condition, and it is generally surprising to note the change that can be wrought in a single season.

_Plowing._--Autumn is the time for plowing hard or stiff clay soils, especially if in a part of the country where freezing takes place, as the action of the frost during the winter will break the soil into fine particles and render it suitable for planting. Sandy loams and soils that contain a large amount of humus may be plowed in the spring, but the work should be done early in order that the soil may settle before planting. In the Southern States, where there is not sufficient frost to mellow the soil, this process must be accomplished by means of frequent cultivations, in order that the air may act upon the soil particles. It is desirable to plow the garden early, at least a few days sooner than for general field crops.

Sandy soils will bear plowing much earlier than heavy clay soils. The usual test is to squeeze together a handful, and if the soil adheres in a ball it is too wet for working. In the garden greater depth of plowing should be practiced than for ordinary farm crops, as the roots of many of the vegetables go deeply into the soil. Subsoiling will be found advantageous in most cases, as the drainage and general movement of the soil moisture will be improved thereby.

Hand spading should be resorted to only in very small gardens or where it is desirable to prepare a small area very thoroughly.

_Smoothing and Pulverizing the Soil._--After plowing, the next important step is to smooth and pulverize the soil. If the soil be well prepared before planting, the work of caring for the crops will be very materially lessened. It is not sufficient that the land be smooth and fine on top, but the pulverizing process should extend as deep as the plowing. Some gardeners prefer to thoroughly cut the land with a disk harrow before plowing, so that when it is turned by the plow the bottom soil will be fine and mellow. After the plow the disk or cutting harrow is again brought into play and the pulverizing process completed. If the soil is a trifle too dry and contains lumps, it may be necessary to use some form of roller or clod crusher to bring it down. For smoothing the surface and filling up depressions a float or drag made from planks or scantlings will be found serviceable.

TIME OF PLANTING.

No definite rule can be given regarding the time for planting seeds and plants in the garden, for the date varies with the locality and the time that it is desired to have the crop mature. A little practice will soon determine when and how often sowings should be made in order to escape frost and mature the crop at a time when it will be most useful. Certain crops will not thrive during the heated part of the summer, and their time of planting must be planned accordingly.

THE SELECTION AND PURCHASE OF GARDEN SEEDS.

In order to have a good garden it is necessary to plant good seeds. It is not alone essential that the seeds be capable of growing; they must be capable of producing a crop of the desired quality, under the conditions existing where the gardening is to be done. Some varieties of vegetables are restricted in their adaptations, while others thrive over a wide range of territory and under widely different conditions of soil and climate. If the behavior of different varieties in a given locality is not known, the safe plan to follow in selecting varieties for planting is to choose mainly those that have proved themselves adapted to a wide range of conditions and have thereby become recognized as standard sorts. The newer varieties may be tested in small quantities until their suitableness for a given place and purpose has been determined. Particular care should be taken to select varieties that are capable of yielding a product of high quality. Such varieties are numerous, and some are better for one region than another.

It is always a safe plan to have a little more seed on hand than is actually needed to plant the area desired. Sometimes the first planting of a given crop is destroyed by frost or insects, making replanting necessary. In such a case, delay in replanting could be avoided by having the seeds on hand. The additional expense is slight compared with the value of the crop. In the case of many seeds, an ounce costs but little more than a packet; and in such cases, it is the part of wisdom to purchase an ounce, even though a packet might contain sufficient seed to barely plant the desired area. The more expensive seeds may be purchased in smaller quantities, with less margin between the actual amount required and the quantity purchased.--(U. Ill. B. 154.)

SEED SOWING.

Garden seeds should always be sown in straight rows regardless of where the planting is made. If a window box is employed for starting early plants in a dwelling, the soil should be well firmed and then laid off in straight rows about 2 inches apart. The same method holds good for planting seeds in a hotbed, cold frame, or bed in the garden, except that the rows should be farther apart than in the window box. By planting in straight rows the seedlings will be more uniform in size and shape, and thinning and cultivating will be more easily accomplished. In all cases where the soil of the seed bed is not too wet it should be well firmed or pressed down before laying off and marking for sowing the seeds. After the seeds are sown and covered, the surface should again be firmed by means of a smooth board.

No definite rule can be given for the depth to which seeds should be planted, for the depth should vary with the kind of seed and with the character and condition of the soil. In heavy clay and moist soils the covering should be lighter than in sandy or dry soils. In all cases the depth should be uniform, and when planting seeds in boxes or a bed the grooves in which the seeds are planted should be made with the edge of a thin lath.--(F. B. 255.)

_Planting._--The most distinctive feature of the garden on the farm should be the reduction of hand labor to a minimum. In planting the garden, therefore, it should be laid out in long rows, sufficiently far apart to permit the use of a horse and cultivator in tending the crops. Time and confusion will also be saved if the vegetables are grouped according to their cultural requirements, and the number of plantings made as small as is consistent with the demands of the various crops. Each group of crops may then be planted and tended as one crop, and the garden operations thus greatly simplified. When more than one planting of a given crop is desired for the sake of securing a succession, the second planting may be put in at the same time that other crops are being planted, so that even in this case, the number of plantings need not be multiplied. The use of two or more varieties of the same vegetable, differing in their time of maturity, will also aid in keeping down the number of different plantings.

The arrangement of the garden as to length of rows and time of planting, is not the only labor saving feature that should characterize the typical farmer's garden. Field methods should be practiced in preparing the land for planting, and as much preliminary work done in the fall as is possible, for the sake of both securing an early garden and reducing the amount of labor in spring. After the land is cleared of refuse from preceding crops, it should be heavily manured, and plowed in the fall. The amount of manure to be applied will depend somewhat upon the fertility of the land, but more largely upon the trueness of the farmer's conception of the plant food requirements of garden crops. The best gardens are possible only where plant is supplied much more liberally than is considered ample for field crops. Forty tons of manure per acre is a very moderate application for garden crops, and this amount should be applied annually, even on soils already rich, if maximum crops of vegetables are to be grown.

The plowing under of manure in the fall hastens the drying out of the soil in the spring, so that planting may begin earlier than if the manuring and plowing were deferred until spring. This is both because the soil actually dries out earlier, and also because no time is lost in manuring or plowing after the soil has reached workable condition. It often happens that early in the spring when the cool season crops should be planted, the soil remains in ideal condition for working only a brief period, and then becomes so thoroughly wet by copious rains that further garden work is precluded for two or three weeks. If the manuring and plowing have been done in the fall, it is often possible to plant the early vegetables in the brief period during which the soil is fit to work, while otherwise this entire period might be expended in making preparations, and the actual planting necessarily deferred until the next time the soil was dry. Since the success of many of the early crops depends upon early planting, the wisdom of fall preparation is apparent.

If the land has been manured and plowed in the fall, and is worked at the proper time in spring, very little labor is necessary in the preparation of a seed-bed for the early planting. Soil containing sufficient humus to grow vegetable crops advantageously, can be fitted for planting without the use of hand tools, if the precaution is taken to work it at the exact time it reaches the right degree of dryness. It will then crumble readily, and a seed-bed can be prepared by the use of a disk, harrow, and planker. The use of these tools saves an enormous amount of labor, and is a vast improvement over the old method of using a hoe and rake.

The actual planting of the garden is a simple matter, provided a definite plan has previously been made, so that no time is lost in deciding which vegetable to plant first, where to plant it, or how much to plant. In the home garden, only a small amount of seed of each kind is planted, so that a seed drill cannot be used to advantage, and the planting is therefore almost invariably done by hand. For the small vegetables, sown in drills, the planting involves four distinct operations: (1) making the drills, (2) dropping the seed, (3) covering, and (4) firming. The most rapid way of making the drills in a garden to be planted in long rows is to use a marker that makes three or four drills each time it is drawn across the area to be planted. With a medium weight marker, and the soil in proper condition for planting, the marks will be of the proper depth for planting seeds of any of the smaller vegetables usually sown in drills. For peas or beans a deeper drill may be made with the plow attachment of a wheel hoe. After the seed is dropped, it is covered with a rake, or in the case of deep planting, with a hoe, or a wheel hoe. The soil is firmed over the seed by the use of the feet, the back of a hoe, or a garden roller. Whatever the means employed, the firming must be thorough, especially in light soil or dry weather; for unless the soil is brought in close contact with the seeds, they will not germinate.--(U. Ill. B. 154.)

_Cultivation._--By the proper cultivation of the garden there is accomplished three things: (1) The weeds are kept out so that they do not shade or take away valuable plant food and moisture from the plants which one desires to perfect. (2) The surface soil is brought into the best condition to resist drouth; that is, into the best condition for availing itself to the utmost of the stores of water in the subsoil and to prevent the evaporation of this water from the surface soil. (3) The stores of insoluble plant food are made soluble by the chemical action and fermentation, which are increased by loosening the soil, thereby letting in the air.

_Keeping Out the Weeds._--The methods best adapted for keeping the weeds out of the garden are many and varied, and depend much upon the condition and kind of soil in which the weeds grow; upon the kind of crop and upon the habits of the weeds themselves. The most important step in making easy the prevention of weeds in the garden is the harrowing or other thorough cultivation of the land just before the planting of the seed, to kill the young weeds. If this is done thoroughly, the weeds do not have a better chance than the crop. If this is not done, the weeds will be ahead of the crop in growth, and if started even ever so little when the crop is planted, the result generally is that the crop is seriously overgrown by them before it is large enough to be cultivated. _This is a common mistake, and is, perhaps, responsible for more failures in the garden than any other factor which enters into the consideration of this subject_; and it is a very simple matter to prevent any trouble from this source if a little foresight is exercised.

_Early Cultivation to Kill Weeds._--The next most important factor in the prevention of weeds in the garden is early cultivation. In the case of seeds that require a long time to germinate, it is an excellent plan to lightly rake over the land with an ordinary fine-toothed rake, even before the crop appears above the ground, providing the work is so carefully done as not to disturb the seeds. When the seed is sown with a drill, the line of the row may be plainly seen even before the plants come up, thus making it easy to commence cultivating it in advance of the weeds. In case of such crops as carrots, onions, parsnips and beets, which are quite delicate when young, cultivation should begin with some hand garden cultivator, even if it is intended later on to cultivate with a horse, and the crop is planted with this purpose in view. Such close and careful work cannot be done with any horse implement now in use as with the best hand implements. With proper tools, the work may be done nearly as quickly by hand as by horse power, and far more perfectly when the plants are small. Careful early cultivation is of the utmost importance, since, if the weeds are removed when they are young, the work of weeding is very small. If allowed to remain until well rooted, their removal is often a very serious matter, and frequently, if neglected at this early stage, the weeds become so firmly established as to make it a question whether to remove them or plow under the whole crop; and often it is the part of wisdom to adopt the latter alternative. Aside from its effect in the prevention of weeds, early cultivation is of great value in breaking up the crust that packs firmly around the tender growing stems of plants, and that seriously interferes with their growth. It is also, like all surface cultivation, of aid in the conservation of moisture in the soil.

_Importance of Not Allowing Weeds to Go to Seed._--A common source of weed infection is often found in the few weeds that are allowed to go to seed toward the end of the growing season in the maturing crop or after the crop has been gathered. To some farmers it often seems a small matter to allow a few plants of pig-weed, purslane, tumble weed and weeds of other kinds to go to seed in the garden, but absolute cleanliness should be the only rule in this particular, and it is by far the most economical in practice in the long run. It requires but little labor and saves much useless expense to destroy weeds that are going to seed. If the preventives for weeds suggested are closely followed hand weeding will be reduced to a minimum and will often be unnecessary with any crop.

_Weed Seeds in Manure for the Garden._--The manure applied to the garden is often coarse and contains many weed seeds, and is a fruitful source of weed infection. The manure intended for the garden that contains the seeds of weeds should be piled up and allowed to ferment until the whole mass is thoroughly rotted. By this means the seeds in it will be killed. But in order to rot manure to best advantage, it should be forked over occasionally when well warmed up by fermentation, and the whole turned over, with the outside of the pile thrown into the center. If dry, it should be watered enough to enable fermentation to continue, and to prevent "fire-fanging." It is seldom advisable to use fresh manure in the garden, and manure should only be applied in this condition when free from weeds, and then only for some late-maturing crops, in which case there will be time for it to rot before the crops need it. All early crops need well rotted manure, and require it in much larger quantities than do the late-maturing crops.--(U. Minn. A. E. S. 38.)

_General Cultivation._--The methods to be pursued in the general cultivation of garden crops will vary somewhat, according to the soil, season and crop. However, it is very important to remember that the destruction of weeds is but a small part of the work of cultivation. The most important part is to so fit the soil that it may best withstand drouth. This is accomplished by frequent shallow cultivation during the period of growth. The first implements to use in the care of such crops as are generally cultivated by hand are those that work the soil to only a very slight depth, close to the plants. Such implements may be used just as the seedlings are breaking ground. As soon as the plants have gained some little strength, implements should be used that will go deeper, until a depth of two or three inches can be easily worked without endangering the safety of the crop by covering the plants with dirt. It is doubtful if any of our garden crops should ever be cultivated more than three inches deep, and it is very certain that many crops are injured by cultivating deeply very close to the plants, in which case the roots are cut off near their upper ends and thus wholly destroyed. Cultivation in a period of drouth results in forming a mulch or blanket of dry earth on the surface of the land, which prevents the moisture from passing into the atmosphere, and a rather shallow blanket, say two inches deep, accomplishes this purpose. A compact subsoil readily transmits the water upwards to the surface soil, in the same manner that a lamp wick carries the oil to the flame. At the surface the soil water is prevented from evaporating by a blanket of loose earth, and is thus saved in the upper subsoil and lower and middle parts of the furrow slice for the roots of the crop; loose surface soil is a good non-conductor of water. During the growth of a crop, the surface of the ground should never be left long with a crust on it, but should be stirred after each rain or after artificially watering.

TOOLS.

There are a number of one-horse cultivators that are especially adapted for work in the garden. These may be provided with several sizes of teeth and shovels, and are easily transformed for various kinds of work. In working the crops while they are small the harrow or smaller teeth may be used, and later when the plants become larger the size of the shovels may be increased. Many gardeners, however, prefer to use the harrow teeth at all times. When it is desirable to ridge up the soil around a crop, the wings, or hillers, may be put on either side of the cultivator. A one-horse turning plow is useful for running off rows or throwing up ridges. Aside from the horse tools in general use on the farm, there are only one or two cultivators that will be required for the garden, and these are not expensive.

The outfit of hand tools for the garden should include a spade, a spading fork, a cut-steel rake, a 10-foot measuring pole, a line for laying off rows, a standard hoe, a narrow hoe, dibbles, a trowel, an assortment of hand weeders, a watering can, a wheelbarrow, and if the work is to be done largely by hand the outfit should also include some form of wheel hoe, of which there are a number on the market.

MULCHING.

The term mulch as generally used means a layer of litter applied to the surface of the ground primarily for the purpose of retarding evaporation from the soil. Mulches are thus used as a substitute for cultivation to conserve the moisture in the soil in summer and to keep down weeds. They are also used as winter and spring coverings for low-growing small fruits to retard flowering and fruiting and thus to protect them from injury by late frosts. What is termed a "soil mulch" or "dust mulch" is maintained by frequent cultivation of the surface soil, and, like the ordinary mulch, is an effective means of retarding evaporation. Among the common materials used for mulching crops are straw, marsh hay, and leaves. These materials are usually applied to the whole surface of the soil in layers 4 to 6 inches deep. Mulching crops with straw or other litter is not very common. On a large scale it is too expensive. It frequently happens on a farm, however, that spring finds an old straw stack in the barnyard that will be practically valueless for feed the following winter. Can it be used profitably as a mulch?

This question was investigated quite thoroughly by the Nebraska Station. Experiments were made to determine how mulching vegetables compares with the most thorough cultivation as a general farm practice. Old straw was the material used. After settling, the layer applied was about 4 inches deep. A large number of different vegetables were grown. In general it was found that mulching in Nebraska gave much better results in normal or dry seasons than in wet seasons.