Part 11

The apparent healthy condition of the flesh after death is produced by the favorable temperature that is maintained, dryness of the atmosphere, etc., together with the general favorable conditions of the subject, which will render the preservation of such remains quite perfect, in some instances for a surprisingly long time. It is shown that disease of long standing completely exhausts the vital fluids before death, especially when the functions of the body have failed to produce the necessary nutrition. Thus it will be observed that the process of decomposition is very different than when the system is full of albumenoids and watery fluids, notwithstanding the tissues may have been seized upon by putridity before death. With consumptives, the disease reduces the flesh to dry parchment, or nearly so, leaving but a very small portion of water in the system. Hence, as putrefaction is impossible in the absence of moisture, and the active agent, albumen, equally reduced, decomposition of such substances that remain ensues only by a process of decay, slow combustion or oxidation, the slowly uniting of oxygen with the substance. In this the constituent parts of the animal tissues break up into simpler compounds by the chemical changes that nature produces, and differs from other forms of putrefaction only by the length of time employed. In cases like typhoid fever, the flesh, after death, assumes more of a putrid and sloughing condition, as the fluids are not so completely exhausted as in the former disease, thus leaving more of the active agents in the body for its immediate destruction.

When death is the result of a putrid malady, putrefaction begins almost immediately when the body grows cold; its effects are noticeable much sooner when the atmosphere is warm. In general, in our climate, the work of decomposition becomes evident after from thirty-five to forty hours. Its first effects are noticeable on the skin of the stomach; this takes on a greenish discoloration, which soon spreads and covers the whole surface of the body; at the same time everything is seized upon by what is termed putridity; the moist parts soften and decay; little by little the flesh sinks and grows watery, and is thus carried away or burned up by the air’s oxygen.

And now, dear reader, we would impress your mind with the fact that the moment of the appearance of putrefaction absolutely varies with the degree of outward temperature, the causes of death, and the general condition of the remains, and just in accordance to the quantity of fluids remaining in the system. The degree of difficulty in retaining the life’s characteristics are encountered, first, because of the albumenoids, the active agents of putrefaction; second, the large per cent. of water they contain; hence we have the necessary mobility of putrefaction, and the very substances that are most prone to the active ferments, united with the agents of disorganization, vibrois and bacteria, or rather the germs of those thread-like corpuscles which penetrate the skin and wind their way through the ducts into the vessels of circulation, which seem to conduct the rabid element to every structure. The living germs that collect on the surface of the body and in the digestive canal, develope, multiply, pierce into all the points of the organism, and produce in it a complete separation of all the tissues and humors.

When persons have been killed suddenly, there being no disease to tamper with the functions of the body, the process of nutrition would be complete until the very moment the vitality is removed; hence the supply of fuel for this fire of dissolution. The corruption of these animal matters is not more possible than the fermentive action of gluten in grape juice, and precisely the same. When these animal matters maintain a high temperature, the products formed are said to be destructive distillation.

Many cases are recorded of similar stages of decomposition, which is an apparent spontaneous combustion, renewing the normal temperature of life, many times giving flushness to the cheeks, and thus appearing to have life renewed, notwithstanding the body had been cold for many hours previous to this phenomenon taking place, the result of a peculiar chemical action. But these instances seldom or never occur, while the difficulty encountered is in completely reducing the heat from the bodies of those persons killed by accident, which fact renders the successful preservation of such remains for any length of time utterly impossible, as the fetid gases are evolved in such great abundance as to literally cook the flesh and escape into the air. Developed in the cadaverous odor, a pungent and ammoniacal stench, except there be prompt application of some powerful chemical reagent, with which the organized material may enter into combination and thus overcome the delivellant tendencies of the affinities of its elements. If ice is used and the temperature of the body reduced below 32°, the water in the system is frozen, which acts as if the tissues had been dried, and putrefaction is thus arrested for such time as the proper temperature is maintained.

PRACTICES WHICH MUST BE ABOLISHED.

Some usages which seem to be sanctioned by long practice, but not by any remarkable amount of good judgment, ought to be discountenanced and done away with, simply upon the ground that these acts conflict directly with all sanitary laws, and to a great extent endanger the lives of the persons who may be present. Still, these repeated transgressions upon the common precautionary measures against contagion are not the result of a desire to do wrong, neither do they always arise from sheer ignorance, but they are almost always caused by an utter disregard of even the simplest prudence.

For instance, how often, where a child has succumbed to the attack of some infectious disease, like scarlet fever, diphtheria, etc., how often will parents, regardless of the contagious character of the disease, insist upon kissing the pallid lips of the corpse, and, moreover, invite other children to follow the same dangerous practice.

And again, another prolific source of disease lies in the fact that funeral services will be conducted in a close, warm, ill ventilated room, crowded with a sympathizing audience, in close proximity to a corpse emitting foul and infectious effluvia, and inhaling these into the system. It is true that these same noxious gases may not always be detected by the smell, as the floral ornamentations, the crowded state of the room, etc., all tend to disguise any unpleasant odors; but the germ of contagion is still there and actively at work.

It is a fact, patent and undeniable, that carelessness in the keeping and disposing of bodies is an act of guilty neglect, and the sooner the community be made acquainted with the danger attending such practices as those above spoken of, the better it will be for the enforcement of those sanitary measures which are necessary in every well regulated city or town.

We have already spoken of dangers to be encountered in the handling of bodies, but the subject is of so much importance to undertakers, and concerns the profession so closely, that it may not be amiss here to renew our former cautions, also to add a few more suggestions, so as to modify the danger thereof, even if it cannot be completely eradicated.

DANGERS ARISING FROM HANDLING THE DEAD.

To those who, like physicians, students and nurses, are almost constantly thrown into direct contact with every form of epidemic, contagious and infectious diseases, the dangers arising therefrom are considerable. But undertakers are exposed to a still greater risk, namely: that of handling the remains of those who have died from the effects of those same diseases. Not only do they have to guard against the infectious character of the contagion, but they have also to protect themselves against the malignant effluvia which emanates from the victims of the contagion after disintegration of the body has taken place, the nauseous and sickening gases which are generated by decay, and the deadly virus which may be innoculated into the system, either through some puncture or abrasion of the skin; the virulent effects of the poison may be carried carelessly to the mouth, the nose or the eyes by a thoughtless action. Too much care cannot be exercised by undertakers in handling a corpse, especially if the subject is known to be afflicted with some infectious or malignant complaint.

Still, the precautions generally in use among undertakers, and the different preparations that are commonly recommended as preventives, are useless in most cases, as there are conditions of the system which will increase the danger, and in some instances leave it open to the insidious attacks of disease and contagion. Too much importance has been attached, so far, by undertakers, to the artificial means devised by some, under the names of preservatives, antidotes, etc., etc. The reliance placed on them, in a great many cases, has proved futile, and although some possess real and undisputed merit, they proved ineffectual when the system has been influenced by the following

CONDITIONS OF THE SYSTEM,

which will increase the danger of contagion:

_Fear._—Almost in every case, if a person is brought in sudden contact with the remains of one who has died of either cholera, small pox, yellow fever, or any of those terrible epidemic and contagious diseases which will in a few weeks decimate a populous city, the feeling will be one of repulsive horror; in some this feeling will amount to absolute fear, which will show itself in the dilated pupil, the bleached countenance, and the momentous forebodings which assail the mind and predispose the system to the attacks of the disease. In this case, the mind influences the body to such an extent that the disease has already fastened itself upon the system, before the first symptoms are felt.

Another and potent cause of danger is that which proceeds from a debilitated condition of the system, the causes of which are numerous: over-exertion of either the body or the mind; labor carried on incessantly without due regard to relaxation; imperfect nutrition, or long fast, are all causes which will tend to render the system more vulnerable to the aggressions of sickness.

But the most pernicious and fatal of all mistakes, is that of using stimulants to ward off the effects of contagion. How many of our professionals and their assistants have given way to the use of ardent spirits, under the delusion that it was absolutely necessary, to avoid the noxious effects of infectious diseases. It is a well authenticated fact, and one worthy of notice, that persons who generally indulge in the use of spirituous liquors, even in a moderate quantity, are those who are first attacked by epidemic or contagious diseases, and who almost always fall victims to it. Take, for instance, the case of a surgeon about to perform a dangerous operation. His first inquiry will be about the habits of the patient; he knows well enough that a man addicted to drink will not bear up under the trial.

The only means we have to protect ourselves from the dangers of infection from dead bodies are, first, a perfect ventilation of the room where the remains lie, so as to obviate the bad tendency which the air of the death-chamber might have upon the system. Attention must also be paid to the diet; the food eaten should be generous and nutritious, and it is proper to take a _small quantity_ of wine at a time when the body and mind are debilitated by long and exhaustive manipulation of the dead, but avoid all excess of fluids or solids. _Temperance is strictly necessary._

Wounds received while handling a corpse should not be neglected; if a simple abrasion, it should be covered; if pricked, the liquid muriate of ammonia or caustic potass are recommended to be applied as cauteries. These are the early measures to be pursued; but after absorption has taken place, a different course must be practised, and a good physician consulted without delay. The garments ordinarily worn should never be brought into direct contact with the remains of a person tainted with some infectious disease.

But it is to the hands we must pay particular attention. Gangrenous or syphilitic sores may be found on a subject, in which case extreme caution must be exerted; the hands should be first well rubbed with lard or sweet oil mixed with carbolate of camphor, and thoroughly washed after the handling of the body is over; then the hands should be well soaked in chlorinated soda (Labarraque solution), as the disinfecting properties of chlorine will be found here particularly useful.

If the above suggestions are faithfully followed, they will be found to greatly diminish the dangers attending the handling of the dead—dangers which can never be entirely avoided.

MANAGEMENT AND DISCIPLINE

OF AN UNDERTAKING ESTABLISHMENT.

Much of the success of an undertaking establishment will be dependent, not only upon the head of the firm himself, but also upon the discipline maintained among those to whom the details of the business are entrusted; and the difficulties surrounding proper management will increase as it extends and involves the employment of more numerous operatives, unless the general duties of all are specifically laid down, and the particular duties of each well defined and insisted upon.

The rules which follow were prepared by a gentleman of considerable experience and unusual success in business; they were designed for a store employing three assistants.

Although, of course, they require modifications to suit the circumstances of different establishments, their general tenor is adapted to all, and the high tone of professional and moral aptitude they require renders them worthy the acceptance of every assistant who would deserve the approval of his employer, and of every employer who desires the best interests of his assistants.

SPECIFIC DUTIES OF THE FIRST ASSISTANT.

1st.—To see that the specific duties of the other assistants are promptly and well performed.

2d.—To attend to mail orders from dealers in the country; select the goods to be packed up and sent out; to wait on customers, etc., that the two other assistants may not be hindered in the performance of their duties.

3d.—He is to attend to the laying out of bodies; and in the absence of the proprietor, or if the pressure of business should require it, he is to take charge of the funerals, with the assistance of the second assistant.

4th.—In case of the absence of either of his juniors, to take the place of the second assistant.

5th.—He is to take charge of the books, collections, etc., should the proprietor wish him to do so.

6th.—He is to take knowledge of and properly note any articles that may be needed for the store, including goods to be purchased and work to be attended to.

7th.—To see that the stock of goods is well supplied with those items which are generally kept by the quantity. Should the place of business be remote from any manufacturing firm of undertakers’ goods, such as coffins, hardware, caskets, etc., he is to keep a faithful and strict account of the sizes, styles and grades of caskets and coffins on hand, as also of the needful requirements in that line; he should also call the attention of the proprietor to the quality, style, etc., of the goods needed, and place in the hands of his employer a list of the goods to be ordered, or likely to be called for.

8th.—To keep a note book of what is necessary to be done in the ordinary business of the store, and to designate employment for the other assistants.

9th.—He is to superintend, and if need be to help, in the lining and trimming of coffins, and, in the absence of the proprietor, to attend to the embalming and preserving of bodies.

10th.—In short, he must, during the absence of the proprietor, take entire charge of the store, and be alone responsible for its business.

SPECIFIC DUTIES OF THE SECOND ASSISTANT.

1st.—It will be his duty to dust the cases, desks, etc., thoroughly every morning. This service must be performed before breakfast, and as often repeated through the day as necessary.

2d.—In the absence of the third assistant, he is to perform his duties.

3d.—He shall assist the proprietor, or the first assistant, in the laying out, washing and dressing of bodies; and also at funerals, in the management of the hearse and carriages.

4th.—He is to trim caskets according to the directions of the first assistant, and follow the instructions given him as to the choice of materials used in their ornamentation.

5th.—He shall see that a sample of each size, style and grade of coffin and casket be always on hand in the show room, and ready to be turned out in the shortest space of time possible.

6th.—He is to keep an exact record, in the book devoted to that purpose, of the name, residence, cause of death, age and place of burial, of all parties which may have been interred by the firm. This register must always be posted up to date.

7th.—It will be his duty to clean the show cases, work room, and the stock in general, once a week, and oftener if necessary.

SPECIFIC DUTIES OF THE THIRD ASSISTANT.

1st.—He is to open the store in the morning; make the fire, and attend to it through the day; sweep out the store; wash the windows; and see that all tools and implements are in their proper place and ready for instant use.

2d.—It shall be his duty to keep cooling boards clean and tidy; to have palls, stools and pedestals dusted and in shape.

3d.—It shall be his duty to pack goods and make boxes when required.

4th.—It will be required of him to do such errands as the business of the store may demand, and also to close the store at night.

GENERAL REGULATIONS OF THE STORE.

1st.—Business hours will include the time between breakfast and six o’clock, P. M., except when special duty may require it otherwise.

2d.—During business hours, all hands must be employed at some regular store duty.

3d.—As waiting on customers is a duty which requires most knowledge and experience, the first assistant must always serve when there is one customer; the other assistants may help if need be.

4th.—The first assistant must always take that part of the duty which requires most knowledge and skill. This order of duty must never be deviated from, if circumstances will admit of it.

5th.—All other duty must give way to that of waiting on customers.

6th.—Every person entering the store, whether pauper or president, infant or adult, white or colored, must be treated with courtesy and kindness.

7th.—Boisterous mirth and a sullen temper are to be equally avoided, as productive of neither business nor business character. The acquisition of a uniformly cheerful temperament is an attainment worth far beyond the price it usually costs.

8th.—There are to be no masters and no servants. Each one is to feel conscious of the fact that the performance of the duties assigned to him is just as necessary and as important as what pertains to any other hand in the store. All useful employment is honorable; indolence is a disgrace.

9th.—An afternoon of every week will be devoted to the cleaning of the store, in which all must share as occasion offers.

10th.—As neatness, order and cleanliness are necessary, and not mere accomplishments, in an undertaking establishment, all are required to practice them constantly.

11th.—Assistants should be rather select in the choice of their acquaintances; while the occasional visit of a well behaved friend will be countenanced, lounging in the store will not be tolerated.

12th.—Each assistant shall have, if business permits, one afternoon and evening every week, and every other Sunday; the afternoon will comprise the time between twelve o’clock at noon and six o’clock P. M.; the evening, between six o’clock P. M. and the closing of the store. These privileges must not be interfered with unnecessarily.

13th.—No assistant residing in the house will be allowed to be absent at night after the closing of the store, without special permission.

14th.—A vacation of two weeks every year will be allowed each assistant.

15th.—It is not the wish of the proprietor that any of his employes should extol the goods beyond their merits to advance his pecuniary interests, or to say or do aught in the performance of his duties that he would not be willing that others should say or do to him under the same circumstances.

A cheerful compliance with the foregoing rules is confidently expected, and the repeated infraction of a regulation of the store will be cause for dismissal.

In certain establishments, where a driver is kept for the purpose of taking care of horses and driving the hearse or other vehicles, this employe shall be under the immediate supervision of the proprietor.

MODIFICATIONS IN THE MODE

OF EMBALMING BODIES.

There are modifications in the processes used for the preservation of bodies, which are governed by circumstances affecting the different conditions of the body at the time of death. Although we may lay general rules for the quantity and variety of antiseptics used in embalming, there are certain cases where the quantity of the chemicals which enter into the composition of the injecting fluid must be either increased or curtailed, as well as the amount of the injection.

It would require the scope of a cyclopedia to give in detail the proportions of each constituent in the number of different cases which may come under the notice of the embalmer.

The mode of operation in all cases may be the same, but the nature and quantity of the injection will vary, first, with the climatic circumstances of the atmosphere; second, with the cause of death; third, with the age of the deceased; fourth, with the state of the body after death; fifth, with the length of time which has elapsed since death took place.

It has been demonstrated in a previous chapter that a high temperature is conducive to rapid decomposition of organic matter, also that a warm, moist atmosphere will operate in the same manner; it is therefore incumbent upon the operator to guard against these two agents of putrefaction by keeping the body in a moderately cool and well ventilated place until the work of preserving is accomplished; also to give the antiseptics employed time to successfully destroy and render harmless the dangerous effects of the heat.

It must not be understood by the preceding caution that a body cannot be embalmed in an ordinary room during the heat of the summer, but the suggestion herein given is solely for the purpose of facilitating the operation and rendering the success certain; besides, as it has been illustrated in some of the processes precedingly given, the strength as well as the quantity of the injection have been increased when used during the warm season.

As to the modifications to be observed in the treatment of bodies, when the cause of death is taken into consideration. It has formed the subject of some chapters to show that, in cases where death is the result of a certain class of diseases, the body is more prone to putrefy than in others; whilst in other cases, again, the body is to a certain extent preserved from corruption by the agents which have proved fatal to the organism; as, for instance, when death has been the result of poisoning, either by alcohol or arsenic.

The age of the person deceased, and the condition of the body after death, as also the length of time elapsed since death took place, as affecting the mode of treatment, have all been discussed in a former part of this work, and it would hardly be necessary to have a new elucidation upon the same subject.