Part 10

There is a similar mountain, though much smaller, some distance away to the west. It is more curious in some respects, there being a stream of water which passes it, and has worn a great many pits, caverns, and cavities in the mass of salt. Before reaching the rock, the stream is perfectly fresh, but very soon it becomes impregnated with salt. The stalactites and pillars are very curious in their formation, and when the sun shines upon them they sparkle like great masses of diamonds. In some places, the crystals of salt jut over the edge of the little stream, and occasionally they fall just a little short of forming an arch.

[Sidenote: THE FRENCH SUPPLY THE DESERT WITH WATER.]

In the desert proper, the French have done something to advance growth by boring Artesian wells. The great need of the desert is water, and many thousands of square miles of land, on which there is not a blade of grass or plant, might be rendered fertile if any means could be devised to supply them with water. The French have given a great deal of study to this subject, but as none of them are possessed of the power of Moses to bring water from a rock where apparently none existed, they have not yet covered the desert with palm trees and wheat fields.

The palm tree must have water to keep it alive. The Arabs say it lives with its head in the fire and its foot in the water; it seems to be happy with the burning sun of the desert, and not even the hottest rays which the heavens can pour down can disturb it in the least so long as its foot is properly bathed. Take away its supply of water, and it dies in a short time. It must be watered twice a week; there is generally a ditch around the foot of the tree, and this ditch is filled either from a canal or with water carried in buckets or skins. About a barrel full of the liquid is needed for each tree.

It will thus be seen that the limit of a palm oasis in the desert may be sometimes determined by the water supply. I have seen thousands of acres of desert land, possessing no value whatever, which would have been far different had there been a running and reliable stream or spring in their vicinity.

The French determined to improve the supply of water, and in this way increase the value of the country both to themselves and the Arabs. The first attempt was made at the oasis of Tuggurt, in 1856. The apparatus was taken there on camels’ backs, with a great deal of trouble, and finally set at work.

After five weeks of labor the drill struck a water course under the gypsum, at a depth of about two hundred feet. An immense spring gushed out with such force that very little strength was required for removing the tools. It flowed about a thousand gallons a minute, and has been flowing at that rate ever since.

The natives were wild with delight. They danced and sung, and made a great many manifestations of joy, not only on the occasion of opening the well, but for days and weeks afterwards. Ever since then, similar scenes have been enacted in other parts of the desert occupied by the French, whenever a well is opened. The culture of dates has been enormously extended by the planting of new groves wherever the wells are made, and both the natives and their conquerors have found the enterprise of mutual advantage. Sometimes the wells are salt or brackish, but the date palm does not mind any little trifle like that. Whether the water which is supplied to it is fresh or salt, hot or cold, does not seem to make any difference to the tree. It prospers and grows and produces fruit all the same.

[Sidenote: INLAND LAKE IN THE DESERT.]

A part of the desert is below the level of the Mediterranean, and some of the scientific men and others interested in the development of Algeria, have proposed to dig a canal from the sea, and allow this empty space to be filled. They would thus create an inland lake on which steamers could run, and which could furnish a vast supply of water to groves of palm trees along its shores. But the enterprise is not likely to be undertaken, for a variety of reasons.

In the first place, the cost would be something enormous, and quite out of proportion to the result proposed. The cutting or canal would be more than a hundred miles long, and for quite a distance, forty or fifty feet deep.

The distance which could be flooded is variously estimated from twenty to forty thousand square miles. Of course the land covered by the water would be of no use, and it includes many prosperous oases of date palms, which would have far more water than they need in order to bear fruits. To start with, there would thus be a heavy loss.

The effect upon the climate of Europe of the proposed inland sea has been much discussed. The whole of France owes its warm, genial climate to the hot winds which blow from Africa across the Mediterranean, and do not lose their soothing temperature till they reach the North Sea and the Baltic. Africa thus becomes a vast furnace to supply Europe with hot air. It is feared by many of the scientific men who have studied the matter, that the inland sea would partially or completely change the climate. The winds would absorb the moisture, and thus form vast rain clouds; instead of conveying warmth and dry air to southern Europe, they would be cool and laden with rain. The grapes would decay upon the vines without ripening; sunny France would be no longer so, and Paris would become as cold as Berlin, and as dreary as London. Doubtless this is an overstatement of the case, but the risk that any of these events might happen outweighs the probable good which the inland sea might accomplish.

[Sidenote: THE SUEZ CANAL.]

Not altogether distinct from mining matters, as it certainly required a vast deal of excavating, is the Suez Canal—a French enterprise of the greatest magnitude. The plan for making a canal between the Mediterranean and Red seas is very old, and has received a great deal of attention from ancient times to the present. One important difference between the canal of to-day and those of the olden time is in its direct course from sea to sea, which makes it altogether a salt-water canal. The old plans were in favor of tapping the Nile and connecting the river with the Red Sea, so that a portion of the route would be a fresh-water one. The size of modern ships rendered it necessary to abandon the Nile scheme altogether, as the shallowness of the river would not permit the passage of the ordinary sea-going vessel, even if we leave unconsidered those vast specimens of the naval architect’s skill which are the pride and boast of all maritime nations.

According to Herodotus and other writers, “the first to attempt the construction of the canal to the Red Sea,” was Pharaoh Necho II, one of the Egyptian kings, who reigned about six hundred and ten years before Christ. His canal left the Nile at Bubastis, near Zagazig, and followed along a valley leading toward the Red Sea, which then extended much farther inland than it does at present. Pliny estimates the length of this canal at sixty-two Roman miles, or fifty-seven English ones, and modern measurements show that these figures were very nearly correct. Herodotus estimates the distance from the Red Sea to the mouth of the Nile at one hundred and fourteen miles, and he says that 120,000 men perished while cutting it. This is probably an exaggeration or a slip of the pen, as he doubtless meant to say that that number of men was engaged in the work.

The canal was not finished during the reign of Necho II. The work was continued by his successors, and finally completed, but it was neglected, and the drifting sands soon filled the canal and made it useless. It remained so for centuries, though several attempts were made to clear it out. It is said to have been re-opened about the year 1000 of our era, by one of the Arab sultans, but it was again neglected, with the same result as before.

[Sidenote: PLAN OF NAPOLEON FOR DIGGING A CANAL.]

In modern times, the first to take up the subject and give it careful attention, was the emperor Napoleon, at the time of his conquest of Egypt in 1798. He personally examined the traces of the canal made by Necho and his successors, and ordered one of his engineers to make a careful survey of the route, to ascertain what difference there might be between the levels of the two seas.

This engineer reported a difference of thirty feet, and as this would render it impossible to make a direct canal without locks, a scheme was projected for making use of a portion of the Nile, as in the olden time, and having a system of locks where the salt-water canal joined the river. But the chances of war interfered, as the French were compelled to evacuate Egypt before the plan had been reported.

Nothing more was done until 1846, when a mixed commission was appointed to investigate the matter. They exploded the old error of a difference of level, and showed that the height of the water on each side was so nearly the same as to make no appreciable difference. Further than to establish this fact, the commission did not go, except to draw up some elaborate plans, which never amounted to anything.

[Sidenote: HOW THE CANAL WAS PLANNED AND DUG.]

In 1855, a project was completed by M. de Lesseps, for a canal without locks, and this is the scheme which has been successfully carried out by the Suez Canal Company. Some of the details were changed, but none of them are of any serious consequence.

It would require too much space to record all the diplomatic and other negotiations that attended the inception of the scheme, and the various means adopted to secure the funds necessary for conducting the work. The financial part of it was quite as difficult as the labor of the engineers, and several times it looked as though the enterprise must be abandoned altogether. The whole capital required by the canal, from commencement to completion, was about seventeen million pounds sterling, or eighty-five millions of dollars!

The work of excavating was begun on the 25th of April, 1859, by a few laborers who dug a small ditch in the presence of M. de Lesseps and four directors of the company, on the spot selected for the Mediterranean mouth of the canal. Immediately after this working, encampments were established all along the line, and the enterprise was earnestly pushed. At first, the work was performed without any machinery. Men and donkeys were the active force, the former armed with shovels, and the latter having a couple of baskets hung across their backs.

A native would fill the baskets with sand and drive the donkey on. They proceeded to where the burden was to be deposited, and when they arrived there, the baskets were emptied, and the donkey was driven back for a fresh load.

But it was found that the removal from agriculture and their other usual employments of the men necessary for digging the canal, was a serious interference with the affairs of the country. Twenty thousand men were required every month, and the drain was found to be so great that, in 1863, the Khedive refused to furnish them.

Matters then came to a stand still, and the company set about replacing manual labor with machinery. Various machines were devised before success was reached, and the magnificent dredges were made, by which the canal was finished. What was at first thought to be a misfortune proved an advantage, as the dredges were far more economical than manual labor, and enabled the company to finish the work much sooner than would have been possible under the old plan.

[Sidenote: THE FINISHING OF THE CANAL.]

The canal was finished in the latter part of 1869, and opened for traffic on the 17th of November of that year. Forty-eight ships went from Port Said to Suez, on that day and the next, carrying guests who had been invited to the ceremonies. All nations of the world may be said to have taken part in the affair, which was on a magnificent scale, and cost many thousands of dollars to the Khedive of Egypt and the canal company. When the ceremonies were over, the canal was formally opened for business, and has been open ever since.

The canal is a hundred miles long from Suez to Port Said. The following figures of its dimensions will be found interesting:

FEET. Width at water line, where banks are low, 328 Width at water line, where banks are high, 190 Width at bottom, 72 Depth, 26 Slope of bank near water line, one foot in five.

At frequent intervals there are wide spaces where ships may pass, and there are three lakes which were formed by the filling of depressions in the desert. These lakes are pretty sheets of water, and one of them—Lake Timsah—has become a pleasure resort where the people of Cairo go to enjoy salt-water bathing.

The advantages of the canal to the commerce of the world are very great. The old routes have been partially abandoned for the new one, and at present the movement of steamers through the canal averages more than a hundred a month each way, not to speak of sailing ships and smaller craft. The saving of distance by the canal may be shown by the following table.

VIA CAPE OF VIA DISTANCE GOOD HOPE. SUEZ CANAL. SAVED. England to Bombay (nautical miles), 10,860 6,020 4,840 New York to Bombay, “ “ 11,520 7,920 3,600 St. Petersburg to Bombay, “ “ 11,610 6,770 4,840 Marseilles to Bombay, “ “ 10,560 4,620 5,940

IX.

ADVENTURES OF DIVERS.

GOING UNDER WATER.—PEARL DIVING.—COSTUME OF THE DIVERS.—HOW THEY DESCEND.—OBTAINING THE PEARL OYSTERS.—DIVING-BELLS.—HOW THEY ARE MADE.—ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES.—ADVENTURES IN DIVING-BELLS.—SUBMARINE ARMOR.—ITS CONSTRUCTION AND USE.—A DIVER’S ADVENTURE.—A HORRIBLE SIGHT.—THE DIVER’S STORY.—A PEARL DIVER AND A SHARK.—A NARROW ESCAPE.—STRATEGY IN THE WATER.—PEARL DIVING.—PREPARATORY STEPS TO BE TAKEN.—PREPARING FOR THE SEVERE TASK.—TRAINING THE PAPOOSES IN MEXICO.—HOW TO AVOID SHARKS AND DOG-FISH.—THE WAYS THAT ARE DARK, AND THE TRICKS THAT ARE VAIN.

To go under the water is pretty nearly as difficult as to go under the earth. Man is not made to live in the water, although he has been known to pass many hours there without touching land. A great many persons seem to have a dread of water in any shape. They rarely bathe, and never drink the liquid when they can obtain anything stronger. It frequently becomes necessary for men to go beneath the surface of the water, exploring the wrecks of ships, and searching for valuable things that are to be found with a varying quantity of fathoms above them. In the East Indies, and in South America, and other parts of the world, the primitive form of diving without any apparatus whatever has been popular for many hundreds of years. The pearl divers of the East are dressed in a costume somewhat resembling that of the famous Greek Slave, minus her fetters. The diver, when preparing to go below, arms himself with a pick, with which to break away the pearl oysters. He is provided with a stone weighing forty or fifty pounds, and attached to a rope several feet in length. Filling his lungs with air, he grasps the rope in his hand, and then jumps from the side of the boat into the water. The weight of the stone carries him down. When he reaches the bottom, he detaches the oysters from the rocks, places them in a bag at his side, and then rises with his prize to the surface. Ordinarily he does not remain more than a minute, or a minute and a half, below the surface, though instances have been known of pearl divers who would remain as long as four or five minutes under the water. Of course he can only remain as long as the air which has been taken into his lungs will last him, and every one who tries to hold his breath knows that this cannot be for a long time.

The diver generally closes his nostrils with a split stick, or something of the sort, to prevent the entrance of the water, and he is very careful to keep his mouth tightly shut. Water and air do not mix well in one’s lungs, and no man has ever yet invented a system of breathing water instead of air. At the depth to which the pearl diver descends, the pressure of the water causes a very unpleasant sensation in the ears, and before he has made many subaqueous journeys the drum of the ear is generally broken. The breakage of the ear-drum causes no serious injury beyond rendering the person who has undergone it hard of hearing, and instances have been known of divers becoming entirely deaf in consequence of the injury to their ears.

[Sidenote: IMPROVEMENTS IN DIVING.]

[Sidenote: DIVING-BELLS.]

As an improvement upon the primitive form of diving, the Diving-Bell was invented. It is called a bell on account of its shape, and not in consequence of any sonorous quality. It is constructed in the general shape of a bell, or an inverted tumbler; it is lowered, mouth downwards, into the water by means of ropes attached to a ship, a boat, or the arm of a derrick projecting over the water. Generally, however, it is let down from a ship’s side. The earliest diving-bells had no arrangement for supplying them with air. After the quantity within the bell was exhausted, the diver gave a signal by means of a rope, and the bell was drawn to the surface. At present the diving-bell has a flexible rubber tube attached to it, by which it is constantly supplied with fresh air, so that a diver may remain several hours under water without suffering for want of a pure atmosphere. The foul air is let out through a valve in the top of the bell, and is constantly rising in the shape of little bubbles. The pure air is forced down by means of a pump, which must be kept in steady operation. As long as this pump is at work, and the bubbles are rising from the bell, those above can be assured that everything is satisfactory; but let the bubbles cease to rise, and it is instantly known that something is going wrong.

As the bell descends below the surface, the pressure of the air becomes very great, being equal to the pressure of the water. A dense atmosphere of this sort has many peculiarities. It is easy enough to breathe, but the pressure on the drum of the ear is frequently inconvenient. An ordinary whisper will sound as loud as the customary tones of the voice, and if there are two persons in the bell, and one of them speaks as he would naturally speak in the open air, he will seem to the other to be shouting with the full power of his lungs. A slight blow upon any metallic substance within the bell will sound like a very heavy one, and any noise that would cause no inconvenience in the open air may become absolutely painful in the dense atmosphere in the inside of a diving-bell.

A diving-bell must be made very heavy to carry it downward, and large weights are generally placed around its mouth. A shelf inside serves as a seat for the occupant, and when it is lowered to the bottom, the ground can be leisurely surveyed or examined for whatever object the diver has in view. Sometimes, when two persons descend in a bell, one of them may leave the bell by diving into the water, and then returning, but he cannot go very far. Submarine armor, however, enables him to go quite a distance away from the bell, and return at his leisure. Submarine armor possesses many advantages over the ordinary diving-bell. A man encased in a submarine suit can remain under water for a long time, and move about pretty much as he likes.

[Sidenote: SUBMARINE ARMOR.]

Submarine armor consists of a water-proof suit, completely encasing the body of the wearer. It is put on in two sections; the trousers have shoes attached to them, with heavy leaden soles, and at the waist they are firmly fastened to a metallic ring. The upper part of the suit covers the arms, the head, and the chest, and the lower part of it is fastened to a ring which exactly meets the other. The upper part of the suit is put on, and after it the second, or lower part. The two rings are then fastened together by means of screws, and a thin band of rubber upon them excludes both air and water. The head of the diver is enclosed in a helmet made of brass or other metal, and having a thick plate of glass in front. Air is conveyed inside this helmet by means of a rubber tube, and an air pump must be kept in constant operation, to supply the man in armor with the necessary amount of air. The foul air escapes through a valve in the top, just as it escapes from the top of the diving-bell. A suit of clothing of this sort does not add to the beauty of its wearer; it is very cumbersome, and I greatly doubt if it ever becomes fashionable for an afternoon promenade on Broadway. The helmet might answer very well as a disguise, for the reason that the face of the wearer is almost, and generally quite, invisible.

When a diver is properly encased in his armor, he is swung off from the side of the boat or ship, and sinks into the water. The leaden soles upon his shoes carry him straight down, and serve to keep his feet in the proper place and position. The tube supplies him with air, and he can walk about and use his hands freely. He can handle the pick and shovel, and can enter the cabin of a sunken ship; in fact, he can go in any place where the flexible tube can be made to follow; but all the time he is below, the pump must maintain a steady motion, and the valve in the top of his helmet must work freely. A slight accident may cause his death: should any of the machinery of the pump give way, or some careless person on the ship step upon the tube as it lies along the deck, the diver might lose his life. It sometimes happens that on being drawn to the surface the diver is found dead. Some slight accident has cut off his supply of air, and cutting off the air has deprived him of life.

Sunken ships have been explored by means of this diving armor, and sometimes large amounts of treasure are recovered through its use. In some cases miners have prosecuted their operations under water by means of this apparatus. A few years since an expedition was fitted out to examine a wreck of a ship which was sunk more than half a century ago on the coast of South America. She was known to have a great deal of treasure on board. Operations had been undertaken frequently by means of common divers and diving-bells to recover this treasure, but none of the enterprises had been rewarded with success. With their submarine armor to aid them, the new explorers were successful, and were handsomely rewarded for their efforts.

Thrilling stories are told by men who have thus gone below the surface of the water. Some time ago a diver was sent down to examine a steamer that had been sunk in about sixty feet of water, and had carried down many of its passengers. The man went down, and made two or three efforts without success to enter the cabin of the vessel. On the fourth visit he accomplished his object, and reached the cabin. Soon he made a signal to be drawn up. When he was on the deck of the ship, and the armor was removed, he fainted. When he recovered, he was asked the cause of his faintness, and replied,—

[Sidenote: A HORRIBLE SIGHT.]