Part 3

Besides the ordinary Sun-spots already described, others are at times observed on the surface of the Sun, which show some of the same characteristics, but never attain so large proportions. They always appear as if seen through a fog, or veil, between the granulations of the solar surface. On account of their vagueness and ill-defined contours, I have proposed for these objects the term, "_Veiled Spots_." Veiled spots have a shorter duration than the ordinary spots, the smaller types sometimes forming and vanishing in a few minutes. Some of the larger veiled spots, however, remain visible for several days in succession, and show the characteristics of other spots in regard to the arrangement of their parts.

The veiled spots have no umbra or penumbra, although they are usually accompanied by faculæ resembling those seen near the ordinary spots. They are frequently seen in the polar regions, but are there always of small size and of short duration. The veiled spots are larger, and more apt to arrange themselves into groups, in the regions occupied by the ordinary spots, and it is not rare to observe such spots transform themselves into ordinary spots, and vice versa. The veiled spots, therefore, seem to be ordinary spots filled up, or covered over by the granulations and semi-transparent gases composing the chromospheric layer. That it is so, becomes more evident, from the fact that large Sun-spots in process of diminution are sometimes gradually covered with faint and scattered granules which descend in long, narrow filaments, and become less and less distinguishable as they attain greater depth. This phenomenon, associated with the fact that the luminous bridges seen over the Sun-spots which are closing up are sometimes transformed into branches which show the characteristic structure of the photosphere, goes far to prove that the solar envelopes are mainly composed of an innumerable quantity of radial filaments of varying height.

[PLATE I.--GROUP OF SUN-SPOTS AND VEILED SPOTS.

Observed on June 17th 1875 at 7 h. 30 m. A.M.]

The group of Sun-spots represented in Plate I., was observed and drawn on June 17th, 1875, at 7h. 30m. A. M. The first traces of this group were seen on June 15th, at noon, and consisted of three small black dots disseminated among the granulations. At that time, no disturbance of the surface was noticeable, and no faculæ were seen in the vicinity of these spots. On June 16th, at 8 o'clock A. M., the three small spots had become considerably enlarged, and, as usual, the group consisted of two principal spots. Between these two spots all was in motion: the granulations, stretched into long, wavy, parallel lines, had somewhat the appearance of a liquid in rapid motion. At 1 o'clock, P. M., on the same day, the group had considerably enlarged; the faculæ, the granulations, and the penumbral filaments being interwoven in an indescribable manner. On the morning of the 17th, these spots had assumed the complicated form and development represented in the drawing; while at the same time two conspicuous veiled spots were seen on the left hand, at some distance above the group.

Some luminous bridges are visible upon the left hand spot, traversing the penumbra and umbra of this spot in various directions. The umbra of one of the spots is occupied, and partly filled with gray and rosy veils, similar to those above described, and the granulations of the solar surface form a background to the group of spots.

This group of spots was not so remarkable for its size as for its complicated structure. The diameter of the group from east to west was only 2½ minutes of arc, or about 67,000 miles. The upper part of the umbra of the spot situated on the right hand side of the group was nearly 7,000 miles in diameter, or less by 1,000 miles than the diameter of the Earth. Some of the long filaments composing that part of the penumbra, situated on the left hand side of the same spot, were 17,000 miles in length. One of these fiery elements would be sufficient to encircle two-thirds of the circumference of the Earth.

SOLAR PROTUBERANCES

PLATE II

The chromosphere forming the outlying envelope of the Sun, is subject, as has been shown above, to great disturbances in certain regions, causing considerable upheavals of its surface and violent outbursts of its gases. From these upheavals and outbursts of the chromosphere result certain curious and very interesting forms, which are known under the name of "_Solar Protuberances_," "_Prominences_," or "_Flames_."

These singular forms, which could, until recently, be observed only during the short duration of the total eclipses of the Sun, can now be seen on every clear day with the spectroscope, thanks to Messrs. Janssen and Lockyer, to whose researches solar physics is so much indebted.

[PLATE II.--SOLAR PROTUBERANCES.

Observed on May 5, 1873 at 9h, 40m. A.M.]

The solar protuberances, the Sun-spots, and the faculæ to which they are closely related, are confined within the same general regions of the Sun, although the protuberances attain higher heliocentric latitudes.

There is certainly a very close relation between the faculæ and the solar protuberances, since when a group of the faculæ traverses the Sun's limb, protuberances are always seen at the same place. It seems very probable that the faculæ and the protuberances are in the main identical. The faculæ may be the brighter portion of the protuberances, consisting of gases which are still undergoing a high temperature and pressure; while the gases which have been relieved from this pressure and have lost a considerable amount of their heat, may form that part of the protuberances which is only visible on the Sun's limb.

A daily study of the solar protuberances, continued for ten years, has shown me that these objects are distributed on two zones which are equidistant from the solar equator, and parallel with it. The zone arrangement of the protuberances is more easily recognized during the years of minimum solar activity, as in these years the zones are very narrow and widely separated. During these years the belt of protuberances is situated between 40° and 45° of latitude, north and south. In years of great solar activity the zones spread considerably on either side of these limits, especially towards the equator, which they nearly reach, only a narrow belt, usually free from protuberances, remaining between them. Towards the poles the zones do not spread so much, and there the space free from protuberances is considerably greater than it is at the equator.

During years of maximum solar activity, the protuberances, like the Sun-spots and the faculæ, are very numerous, very large, and very complicated--sometimes occupying a great part of the whole solar limb. As many as twenty distinct flames are sometimes observed at one time. In years of minimum solar activity, on the contrary, the prominences are very few in number, and they are of small size; but, as far as my observations go, they are never totally absent.

In general, the solar flames undergo rapid changes, especially those which are situated in the vicinity of Sun-spots, although they occasionally remain unchanged in appearance and form for several hours at a time. The protuberances situated in higher latitudes are less liable to great and sudden changes, often retaining the same form for several days. The changes observed in the protuberances of the equatorial regions are due in part to the comparatively great changes in their position with respect to the spectator, which are occasioned by the rotation of the Sun. This rotation, of course, has a greater angular velocity on the equator than in higher latitudes. In most cases, however, the changes of the equatorial protuberances are too great and too sudden to be thus explained. They are, in fact, due to the greater solar activity developed in the equatorial zones, and wherever spots are most numerous.

The solar protuberances appear under various shapes, and are often so complicated in appearance that they defy description. Some resemble huge clumsy masses having a few perforations on their sides; while others form a succession of arches supported by pillars of different styles. Others form vertical or inclined columns, often surmounted by cloud-like masses, or by various appendages, which sometimes droop gracefully, resembling gigantic palm leaves. Some resemble flames driven by the wind; others, which are composed of a multitude of long and narrow filaments, appear as immense fiery bundles, from which sometimes issue long and delicate columns surmounted by torch-like objects of the most fantastic pattern. Some others resemble trees, or animal forms, in a very striking manner; while still others, apparently detached from the solar limb, float above it, forming graceful streamers or clouds of various shapes. Some of the protuberances are very massive, while others are so thin and transparent as to form a mere veil, through which more distant flames can easily be seen.

Notwithstanding this variety of form, two principal classes of solar protuberances may be recognized: the cloud-like or quiescent, and the eruptive or metallic protuberances.

The first class, which is the most common, comprises all the cloud-like protuberances resting upon the chromosphere or floating about it. The protuberances of this type often obtain enormous horizontal proportions, and it is not rare to see some among them occupying 20° and 30° of the solar limb. The height attained by protuberances of this class does not correspond in general to their longitudinal extent; although some of their branches attain considerable elevations. These prominences very seldom have the brilliancy displayed by the other type, and are sometimes so faint as to be seen with difficulty. Although it is generally stated by observers that some of the protuberances belonging to this class are detached from the solar surface, and kept in suspension above the surface, like the clouds in our atmosphere, yet it seems to me very doubtful whether protuberances are ever disconnected from the chromosphere, since, in an experience of ten years, I have never been able to satisfy myself that such a thing has occurred. Many of them have appeared to me at first sight to be detached from the surface, but with a little patience and attention I was always able to detect faint traces of filamentary elements connecting them with the chromosphere. Quite often I have seen bright protuberances gradually lose their light and become invisible, while soon after they had regained it, and were as clearly visible as before. Observations of this kind seem to show that while the prominences are for the most part luminous, there are also a few which are non-luminous and invisible to the eye. These dark and invisible forms are most generally found in the vicinity of Sun-spots in great activity. When observing such regions with the spectroscope, it is not rare to encounter them in the form of large dark spots projecting on the solar spectrum near the hydrogen lines. On July 28th, 1872, I observed with the spectroscope a dark spot of this kind issuing from the vicinity of a large Sun-spot, and extending over one-fifth of the diameter of the Sun. This object had been independently observed in France a little earlier by M. Chacornac with the telescope, in which it appeared as a bluish streak.

The second class of solar protuberances, comprising the eruptive type, is the most interesting, inasmuch as it conveys to us a conception of the magnitude and violence of the solar forces. The protuberances of this class, which are always intensely bright, appear for the most part in the immediate vicinity of Sun-spots or faculæ. These protuberances, which seem to be due to the outburst of the chromosphere, and to the violent ejection of incandescent gases and metallic vapors from the interior of the Sun, sometimes attain gigantic proportions and enormous heights.

While the spectrum of the protuberances of the cloudy type is simple, and usually composed of four hydrogen lines and the yellow line D{3}, that of the eruptive class is very complicated, and, besides the hydrogen lines and D{3}, it often exhibits the bright lines of sodium, magnesium, barium, titanium, and iron, and occasionally, also, a number of other bright lines.

The phenomena of a solar outburst are grand and imposing. Suddenly immense and acute tongues and jets of flames of a dazzling brilliancy rise up from the solar limb and extend in various directions. Some of these fiery jets appear perfectly rigid, and remain apparently motionless in the midst of the greatest disorder. Immense straps and columns form and rise in an instant, bending and waving in all sorts of ways and assuming innumerable shapes. Sometimes powerful jets resembling molten metal spring up from the Sun, describing graceful parabolas, while in their descent they form numerous fiery drops which acquire a dazzling brilliancy when they approach the surface.

The upward motion of the protuberances in process of formation is sometimes very rapid. Some protuberances have been observed to ascend in the solar atmosphere at the rate of from 120 to 497 miles a second. Great as this velocity may appear, it is nevertheless insignificant when compared with that sometimes attained by protuberances moving in the line of sight instead of directly upwards. Movements of this kind are indicated by the displacement of the bright or dark lines in the spectrum. A remarkable instance of this kind occurred on the 26th of June, 1874. On that day I observed a displacement of the hydrogen C line corresponding to a velocity of motion of 1,600 miles per second. The mass of hydrogen gas in motion producing such a displacement was, according to theory, moving towards the Earth at this incredible rate, when it instantly vanished from sight as if it had been annihilated, and was seen no more.

Until recently the protuberances had not been observed to rise more than 200,000 miles above the solar surface; but, on October 7th, 1880, a flame, which had an elevation of 80,000 miles when I observed it at 8h. 55m. A. M., had attained the enormous altitude of 350,000 miles when it was observed at noon by Professor C. A. Young. If we had such a protuberance on the Earth, its summit would be at a height sufficient not merely to reach, but to extend 100,000 miles beyond the Moon.

Although the solar protuberances represented in Plate II. have not the enormous proportions attained by some of these objects, yet they are as characteristic as any of the largest ones, and afford a good illustration of the purely eruptive type of protuberances. The height of the largest column in the group equals 4' 43", or a little over 126,000 miles. A large group of Sun-spots was in the vicinity of these protuberances when they were observed and delineated.

TOTAL ECLIPSE OF THE SUN

PLATE III

A solar eclipse is due to the passage of the Moon directly between the observer and the Sun. Such an eclipse can only occur at New Moon, since it is only at that time that our satellite passes between us and the Sun. The Moon's orbit does not lie precisely in the same plane as the orbit of the Earth, but is inclined about five degrees to it, otherwise an eclipse of the Sun would occur at every New Moon, and an eclipse of the Moon at every Full Moon.

Since the Moon's orbit is inclined to that of the Earth, it must necessarily intersect this orbit at two opposite points. These points are called the nodes of the Moon's orbit. When our satellite passes through either of the nodes when the Moon is new, it appears interposed to some extent between the Sun and the Earth, and so produces a solar eclipse; while if it passes a node when the Moon is full, it is more or less obscured by the Earth's shadow, which then produces an eclipse of the Moon. But, on the other hand, when the New Moon and the Full Moon do not coincide with the passage of our satellite through the nodes of its orbit, no eclipse can occur, since the Moon is not then on a line with the Sun and the Earth, but above or below that line.

Owing to the ellipticity of the Moon's orbit, the distance of our satellite from the Earth varies considerably during each of its revolutions around us, and its apparent diameter is necessarily subject to corresponding changes. Sometimes it is greater, sometimes it is less, than the apparent diameter of the Sun. If it is greater at the time of a solar eclipse, the eclipse will be total to a terrestrial observer stationed nearly on the line of the centres of the Sun and Moon, while it will be only partial to another observer stationed further from this line. But the Moon's distance from the Earth may be so great and its apparent diameter consequently so small that even those observers nearest the central line of the eclipse see the border of the Sun all round the black disk of the Moon; the eclipse is then annular. Even during the progress of one and the same eclipse the distance of the Moon from the parts of the Earth towards which its shadow is directed may vary so much that, while the eclipse is total to some observers, others equally near the central line, but stationed at a different place, will see it as annular.

The shadow cast by the Moon on the Earth during total eclipses, travels along upon the surface of the Earth, in consequence of the daily movement of rotation of our globe combined with the movements of the Earth and Moon in their orbits. The track of the Moon's shadow over the Earth's surface has a general eastward course, so that the more westerly observers see it earlier than those east of them. An eclipse may continue total at one place for nearly eight minutes, but in ordinary cases the total phase is much shorter.

The nodes of the Moon's orbit do not invariably occupy the same position, but move nearly uniformly, their position with regard to the Sun, Earth, and Moon being at any time approximately what it formerly was at a series of times separated by equal intervals from each other. Each interval comprises 223 lunations, or 18 years, 11 days, and 7 or 8 hours. The eclipses which occur within this interval are almost exactly repeated during the next similar interval. This period, called the "Saros," was well known to the ancients, who were enabled by its means to predict eclipses with some certainty.

[PLATE III.--TOTAL ECLIPSE OF THE SUN.

Observed July 29, 1878, at Creston, Wyoming Territory]

A total eclipse of the Sun is a most beautiful and imposing phenomenon. At the predicted time the perfectly round disk of the Sun becomes slightly indented at its western limb by the yet invisible Moon. This phenomenon is known as the "first contact."

The slight indentation observed gradually increases with the advance of the Moon from west to east, the irregularities of the surface of our satellite being plainly visible on the border of the dark segment advancing on the Sun's disk. With the advance of the Moon on the Sun, the light gradually diminishes on the Earth. Every object puts on a dull and gloomy appearance, as when night is approaching; while the bright sky, losing its light, changes its pure azure for a livid grayish color.

Two or three minutes before totality begins, the solar crescent, reduced to minute proportions, gives comparatively so little light that faint traces of the Sun's atmosphere appear on the western side behind the dark body of the Moon, whose limb then becomes visible outside of the Sun. I observed this phenomenon at Creston during the eclipse of 1878. From 15 to 20 seconds before totality, the narrow arc of the Sun's disk not yet obscured by the Moon seems to break and separate towards the extremities of its cusps, which, thus divided, form independent points of light, which are called "_Baily's beads_." A moment after, the whole solar crescent breaks into numerous beads of light, separated by dark intervals, and, suddenly, they all vanish with the last ray of Sunlight, and totality has begun with the "second contact." This phenomenon of Baily's beads is undoubtedly caused by the irregularities of the Moon's border, which, on reaching the solar limb, divide the thin solar crescent into as many beads of light and dark intervals as there are peaks and ravines seen sidewise on that part of the Moon's limb.

With the disappearance of the last ray of light, the planets and the stars of the first and second magnitude seem to light up and become visible in the sky. The darkness, which had been gradually creeping in with the progress of the eclipse, is then at its maximum. Although subject to great variations in different eclipses, the darkness is never so great as might be expected from the complete obscuration of our luminary, as the part of our atmosphere which is still exposed to the direct rays of the Sun, reflects to us some of that light, which thus diminishes the darkness resulting from the disappearance of the Sun. Usually the darkness is sufficient to prevent the reading of common print, and to deceive animals, causing them to act as if night was really approaching. During totality the temperature decreases, while the humidity of the atmosphere augments.

Simultaneously with the disappearance of Baily's beads, a pale, soft, silvery light bursts forth from behind the Moon, as if the Sun, in disappearing, had been vaporized and expanded in all directions into soft phosphorescent rays and streamers. This pale light is emitted by gases constituting the solar atmosphere surrounding the bright nucleus now obscured by the dark body of our satellite. This solar atmosphere is called _Corona_, from its distant resemblance to the aureola, or glory, represented by ancient painters around the heads of saints.

With the bursting forth of the corona, a very thin arc of bright white light is seen along the Moon's limb, where the solar crescent has just disappeared. This thin arc of light is the reversing layer, which, when observed with the spectroscope at that moment, exhibits bright lines answering to the dark lines of the ordinary solar spectrum. Immediately above this reversing layer, and concentric with it, appears the pink-colored chromospheric layer, with its curiously shaped flames and protuberances. During totality, the chromosphere and protuberances are seen without the aid of the spectroscope, and appear of their natural color, which, although somewhat varying in their different parts, is, on the whole, pinkish, and similar to that of peach-blossoms; yet it is mixed here and there with delicate prismatic hues, among which the pink and straw colors predominate.

The color of the corona seems to vary in every eclipse, but as its tints are very delicate, it may depend, in a great measure, upon the vision of the observer; although there seems to be no doubt that there are real variations. At Creston, in 1878, it appeared to both Professor W. Harkness and myself of a decided pale greenish hue.