Part 56

[138] This article is compiled principally from a monograph by Munshi Kanhya Lal, Assistant Master, Raipur High School, and formerly of the Gazetteer Office; and also from papers by Mr. Panda Baijnath, Superintendent of Bastar State, and Mr. Gokul Prasad, Tahsildar of Dhamtari. The descriptions of marriage, funeral and birth customs are taken from Munshi Kanhya Lal's monograph.

[139] By the Rev. G. K. Gilder of the Methodist Episcopal Mission of Raipur.

[140] Chalki is said to have been a Brahman who gave shelter to the pregnant fugitive widow of a Raja; and her child was the ancestor of the Bastar dynasty. But the name may also be taken from the Chalukya Rajput clan.

[141] The Rawats or Ahirs are graziers, and the Bhatra, Parja and Muria are primitive tribes allied to the Gonds.

[142] Linguistic Survey, vol. vii. p. 331, and a note kindly furnished by Sir G. Grierson at the time of the census.

[143] Buchanania latifolia.

[144] Bassia latifolia. Both these trees are valued because the fruit of the first and the flowers of the second afford food.

[145] A black pulse.

[146] The Hindus number the days of each lunar fortnight separately.

[147] It is simply water in which gold has been dipped.

[148] Crooke, ii. 481.

[149] Brief View, p. 31.

[150] Buchanania latifolia.

[151] Based principally on the account of the Hatkars on p. 200 of Sir A. Lyall's Berar Gazetteer, with some notes taken by Mr. Hira Lal in Buldana.

[152] Colonel Meadows Taylor, Tara, p. 404.

[153] Ain-i-Akbari, quoted in Berar Gazetteer, p. 200.

[154] Berar Gazetteer.

[155] Partly based on a paper by Munshi Kanhaya Lal of the Gazetteer Office.

[156] Muhammadans of Gujarat, by Khan Bahadur Fazalullah Lutfullah Faridi, pp. 21, 22.

[157] Rasmala, ii. p. 90.

[158] Faridi, ibidem.

[159] See article on Bhat.

[160] Acacia arabica.

[161] The late Mr. A. M. T. Jackson's notes, Ind. Ant., August 1912, p. 56.

[162] Laws of Manu, xi. p. 175, quoted in The Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, ii. p. 476.

[163] Westermarck, The Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, ii. p. 470.

[164] Ibidem, ii. p. 471.

[165] Ibidem, ii. pp. 481, 482.

[166] Ibidem, ii. pp. 487-489.

[167] This article is compiled from a paper by Mr. Babu Rao, Deputy Inspector of Schools, Seoni District.

[168] In this year only 33 Holias were returned as against more than 4000 in 1891; but, on the other hand, in 1901 the number of Golars was double that of the previous census.

[169] Mysore Census Report (1891), p. 254.

[170] Ethnographic Notes in Southern India, p. 258.

[171] This article is principally based on information collected by Mr. Hira Lal in Bhandara.

[172] A corruption of Uika.

[173] See the articles Mahar and Kunbi.

[174] This article is partly based on a paper by Bihari Lal, Patwari, of Hoshangabad.

[175] Semaria is a common name of villages, and is of course as such derived from the semar tree, but the argument is that the Jadams took the name from the village and not from the tree. Totem is perhaps rather a strong word for the kind of veneration paid; the vernacular term used in Bombay is devak.

[176] This article is based on an account of the Jaduas by Mr. A. Knyvett, Superintendent of Police, Patna, and kindly communicated by Mr. C. W. C. Plowden, Deputy Inspector-General of Police, Bengal, through Mr. G. W. Gayer, in charge of the Central Provinces Criminal Investigation Department.

[177] Sherring, Castes and Tribes, iii. p. 123.

[178] The nut of Eleocarpus lanceolatus.

[179] Aegle marmelos.

[180] Hindu Manners, Customs, and Ceremonies, 1897 ed. p. 118.

[181] This article is partly based on information contributed by Mr. Debendra Nath Dutt, Pleader, Narsinghpur; Mr. Ganga Singh, Extra Assistant Commissioner, Hoshangabad; and Mr. Aduram Chaudhri of the Gazetteer Office. The correct pronunciation of the caste name is Jat, but in the Central Provinces it is always called Jat.

[182] Punjab Census Report (1881), para. 421.

[183] Early History of India.

[184] Mahabharata, viii. 2026, et seq., translated by Professor H. H. Wilson, and quoted in vol. i. pp. 260, 262 of Dr. J. Wilson's Indian Caste.

[185] Ibidem, paras. 422-424.

[186] Kashyap was a Rishi or saint, but he may probably have developed into an eponymous hero from Kachhap, a tortoise.

[187] Hoshangabad Settlement Report, p. 62.

[188] Aegle marmelos.

[189] Hoshangabad Settlement Report, loc. cit.

[190] This article is entirely based on an account of the caste furnished by Rai Bahadur Panda Baijnath, Superintendent, Bastar State.

[191] Bassia latifolia.

[192] Boswellia serrata.

[193] This has been fully demonstrated by Sir J. G. Frazer in The Golden Bough.

[194] Colebrooke's Essays.

[195] Quoting from Dr. George Smith's Life of Dr. Wilson, p. 74.

[196] Ibidem, pp. 13-15.

[197] Weber's Indian Literature, p. 239.

[198] Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chap, lxiii.

[199] Republished in the Theosophist.

[200] Eastern India, ii. p. 756.

[201] Travels in the Mughal Empire, Constable's edition, p. 316.

[202] Rajasthan, ii. p. 19.

[203] Maclagan, l.c. p. 115.

[204] Ibidem, l.c.

[205] Maclagan, l.c.

[206] Crooke's Tribes and Castes, art. Kanphata.

[207] Crooke's Tribes and Castes, art. Jogi.

[208] Sleeman, Report on the Badhaks, pp. 332, 333.

[209] These proverbs are taken from Temple and Fallon's Hindustani Proverbs.

[210] Bombay Gazetteer, vol. xxi. p. 184.

[211] Phaseolus radiatus.

[212] Newcomb's Astronomy for Everybody, p. 33.

[213] Owing to the precession of the equinoxes, the sidereal year is not the same as the solar year, being about 20 minutes longer. That is, the sun passes a particular star a second time in a period of 365 days 6 hours and 9 minutes, while it passes the equatorial point in 365 days 5 hours 48 minutes 49 seconds, this latter period being the solar year. The difference is due to slight changes in the direction of the earth's axis, which change the position of the celestial equator and of the equinoctial point where the sun crosses it. It is not clear how the Hindus get over this difficulty, but the point does not affect the general account.

[214] The stars corresponding to the nakshatras and their symbols are mainly taken from Mr. L. D. Barnett's Antiquities of India, pp. 190, 191, compared with the list in Mr. W. Brennand's Hindu Astronomy, pp. 40, 42.

[215] Taken from Professor Newcomb's Astronomy for Everybody.

[216] The moon's orbit is really an ellipse like that of the earth and all the planets.

[217] Barnett, op. cit. p. 190.

[218] The Indian Calendar, by Messrs. Sewell and Dikshit, pp. 11 and 25.

[219] Brennand's Hindu Astronomy, p. 100.

[220] The Indian Calendar, Sewell and Dikshit, p. 28 and Table I.

[221] This seems to have been done by some ancient Indian astronomers.

[222] The Indian Calendar, p. 29.

[223] Taken from Brennand's Hindu Astronomy, p. 39.

[224] Barnett, Antiquities of India, p. 193.

[225] The above particulars regarding the measurement of time by the gharial are taken from 'An Account of the Hindustani Horometry' in Asiatic Researches, vol. v. p. 81, by John Gilchrist, Esq. The account appears to be to some extent controversial, and it is possible that the arrangement of the gharis may have varied in different localities.

[226] The information contained in this paragraph is taken from Captain Mackintosh's Report on the Ramosis, chap. iii. (India Office Library Tracts), in which a large variety of rules are given.

[227] Some of these names and also some of the women's names have been taken from Colonel Temple's Proper Names of the Punjabis.

[228] Punjab Ethnography, para. 612.

[229] This passage is taken from Sir G. Grierson's Peasant Life in Bihar, p. 64.

[230] This article is based on a paper by Mr. Pancham Lal, naib-tahsildar, Murwara, with extracts from the Central Provinces Monograph on Pottery and Glassware, by Mr. Jowers, and some information collected by Mr. Hira Lal.

[231] Dhal means a shield, and the ornament is of this shape.

[232] Crooke's Tribes and Castes, article Kachhi.

[233] Partly based on a paper by Munshi Kanhya Lal of the Gazetteer office.

[234] Irvine, Army of the Mughals, pp. 158, 159.

[235] Boswellia serrata.

[236] Sesamum indicum.

[237] This article is compiled from papers by Mr. Sarat Chandra Sanyal, Sessions Judge, Nagpur, and Mr. Abdul Samad, Tahsildar, Sohagpur.

[238] Eastern India, ii. 426.

[239] Ibidem, iii. pp. 119, 120.

[240] Moor, Hindu Infanticide, p. 91.

[241] Yule and Burnell's Hobson-Jobson, Crooke's edition, s.v. Boy.

[242] Tribes and Castes of the N.W.P., art. Kahar.

[243] Private Life of an Eastern King, p. 207.

[244] Ibidem, pp. 200, 202.

[245] Stevens, In India, p. 313.

[246] Tribes and Castes of Bengal, art. Kahar.

[247] Tribes and Castes of Bengal, ibidem.

[248] S.v. Boy.

[249] This article is partly compiled from papers by Mr. G. Falconer Taylor, Forest Divisional Officer, and by Kanhya Lal, Clerk in the Gazetteer office.

[250] Berar Census Report (1881), p. 141.

[251] Hislop papers. Vocabulary.

[252] North Arcot Manual, p. 247.

[253] 1881, p. 141.

[254] Ibidem.

[255] Bombay Gazetteer (Campbell), vol. xii. p. 120.

[256] Bombay Gazetteer (Campbell), vol. xxi. p. 172.

[257] Berar Census Report (1881), p. 141.

[258] Some information for this article has been supplied by Babu Lal, Excise Sub-Inspector, Mr. Aduram Chaudhri, Tahsildar, and Sundar Lal Richaria, Sub-Inspector of Police.

[259] Tribes and Castes of Bengal, art. Kalar.

[260] Bassia latifolia, the tree from whose flowers fermented liquor is made.

[261] The headquarters of the Sanjari tahsil in Drug District.

[262] Phulbaba, lit. 'flower-father.'

[263] This story is only transplanted, a similar one being related by Colonel Tod in the Annals of the Bundi State (Rajasthan, ii. p. 441).

[264] Saccharum spontaneum.

[265] Settlement Report, p. 26.

[266] Mr. (Sir E.) Maclagan's Punjab Census Report (1891).

[267] Religions of India, p. 113.

[268] Apparently also called Sarcostemma viminalis.

[269] Bombay Gazetteer, Parsis of Guiarat, by Messrs. Nasarvanji Girvai and Behramji Patel, p. 228, footnote.

[270] Ibidem.

[271] Hopkins, loc. cit. p. 213.

[272] Rajendra Lal Mitra, Indo-Aryans, ii. p. 419.

[273] Deussen, Outlines of Indian Philosophy, p. 12.

[274] Indo-Aryans, i. p. 393.

[275] Ibidem, p. 396.

[276] Ibidem, p. 402.

[277] Indo-Aryans, i. p. 411.

[278] Garrett's Classical Dictionary, s.v. Varuni and Vishnu.

[279] The Golden Bough, 2nd edition, i. pp. 359, 360.

[280] Indo-Aryans, pp. 408, 409.

[281] Ibidem, pp. 404, 405.

[282] Indo-Aryans, pp. 405, 406.

[283] Bombay Gazetteer, Poona, p. 549.

[284] Cannabis sativa.

[285] A liquor made from the flowers of the hemp plant, commonly drunk in the hot weather.

[286] See Mr. E. Clodd's Myths and Dreams, under Dreams.

[287] A name of Siva or Mahadeo.

[288] 'Victory to Shankar.'

[289] A preparation of opium for smoking.

[290] T. H. Hendley, Account of the Bhils, J.A.S.B. xliv., 1875, p. 360.

[291] M. Salomon Reinach in Orphéus, p. 120.

[292] Sir James Frazer in Attis, Adonis, Osiris, ii. p. 241.

[293] Book IV., chap. lxxv., quoted in Lane's Modern Egyptians, p. 347.

[294] Lane, Modern Egyptians, p. 348.

[295] Eastern India, iii. p. 163.

[296] Sir G. Watt's Commercial Products of India, s.v. Nicotiana.

[297] Ind. Ant., January 1911, p. 39.

[298] Tobacco is no doubt a derivative from some American word, and Platts derives the Hindi tanbaku or tambaku from tobacco. The fact that tanbaku is also Persian for tobacco militates against the Sanskrit derivation suggested by Mr. Ganpat Rai and others, and tends to demonstrate its American importation.

[299] This article is based on papers drawn up by Mr. Hira Lal, Extra Assistant Commissioner, Pyare Lal Misra, Ethnographic Clerk, and a very full account of the tribe by Mr. Ganpati Giri, Manager of Bindranawagarh, which has furnished the greater part of the article, especially the paragraphs on birth, religion and social customs.

[300] Jungle Life in India, p. 588.

[301] Criminal Tribes, p. 78.

[302] Criminal Classes.

[303] Berar Census Report (1881), p. 140.

[304] Page 139.

[305] See art. Beria, para. 1.

[306] Ibbetson, Punjab Census Report (1881), para. 527.

[307] Ibidem.

[308] Art. Kanjar, para. 3.

[309] Ibbetson.

[310] Crooke, art. Dom, para. 21.

[311] Lectures, p. 59.

[312] Bombay Gazetteer, Muhammadans of Gujarat, p. 83.

[313] Kennedy, Criminal Tribes of Bombay, p. 257.

[314] Criminal Tribes, p. 46.

[315] Berar Census Report (1881), p. 140.

[316] Tribes and Castes of Bengal, art. Dom.

[317] Nesfield, l.c. p. 393.

[318] Ind. Ant. xvi. p. 37.

[319] Ind. Ant. xv. p. 15.

[320] In Sir G. Grierson's account the Bhojpuri version is printed in the Nagari character; but this cannot be reproduced. It is possible that one or two mistakes have been made in transliteration.

[321] Quoted in Mr. Crooke's article on Dom.

[322] Gayer, Lectures, p. 59.

[323] Gunthorpe, p. 81. Mr. Kennedy says: "Sansia and Beria women have a clove (lavang) in the left nostril; the Sansias, but not the Berias, wear a bullaq or pendant in the fleshy part of the nose."

[324] Gayer, l.c. p. 61.

[325] Crooke, l.c. para. 3.

[326] In a footnote Mr. Nesfield states: "The Kanjar who communicated these facts said that the child used to open out its neck to the knife as if it desired to be sacrificed to the deity."

[327] Butea frondosa.

[328] It is not, I think, used for weaving now, but only for stuffing quilts and cushions.

[329] But elsewhere Mr. Nesfield says that the brushes are made from the khas-khas grass, and this is, I think, the case in the Central Provinces.

[330] This article is compiled principally from a note by Mr. Paiku, Inspector of Police, Chanda.

[331] This article is based principally on a paper by Nand Kishore, Bohidar, Sambalpur.

[332] Hobson-Jobson, art. Cranny.

[333] Eragrostis cynosuroides.

[334] (London, A. & C. Black.)

[335] This definition of totemism is more or less in accord with that held by the late Professor Robertson Smith, but is not generally accepted. The exhaustive collection of totemic beliefs and customs contained in Sir J. G. Frazer's Totemism and Exogamy affords, however, substantial evidence in favour of it among tribes still in the hunting stage in Australia, North America and Africa. The Indian form of totemism is, in the writer's opinion, a later one, arising when the totem animal has ceased to be the main source of life, and when the clan come to think that they are descended from their totem animal and that the spirits of their ancestors pass into the totem animal. When this belief arises, they cease eating the totem as a mark of veneration and respect, and abstain from killing or injuring it. Finally the totem comes to be little more than a clan-name or family name, which serves the purpose of preventing marriage between persons related through males, who believe themselves to be descended from a common ancestor.

[336] Orphéus (Heinemann), p. 197.

[337] Lane, Modern Egyptians, p. 248.

[338] Orphéus, p. 47.

[339] Ibidem, p. 50.

[340] B. G. Parsis of Gujarat, pp. 232, 241.

[341] Orphéus, pp. 101, 102.

[342] Ibidem, p. 204.

[343] Ibidem, p. 144.

[344] Ibidem, p. 169.

[345] D. M. Flinders-Petrie, Egypt and Israel, p. 61.

[346] Gomme, Folk-lore as a Historical Science, p. 161.

[347] Haug's Essays on the Parsis, p. 286.

[348] Golden Bough, ii. pp. 299-301. See article on Kumhar.

[349] Orphéus, p. 139.

[350] Orphéus, pp. 119, 120.

[351] Ibidem, p. 144.

[352] Religions, Ancient and Modern, Ancient Rome, Cyril Bailey, p. 86.

[353] Religions, Ancient and Modern, Ancient Egypt, Professor Flinders-Petrie, p. 22.

[354] Religions, Ancient and Modern, Ancient Egypt, Professor Flinders-Petrie, pp. 24, 26.

[355] Vide article on Bania.

[356] Dowson's and Garrett's Classical Dictionaries, art. Kartikeya.

[357] Religion of the Semites, p. 265.

[358] Ibidem, pp. 269, 270.

[359] Religion of the Semites, pp. 270, 271.

[360] Ibidem, pp. 273, 274.

[361] Religion of the Semites, p. 289.

[362] Ibidem, p. 313.

[363] Religion of the Semites, p. 271.

[364] Religion of the Semites, p. 275.

[365] Golden Bough, ii. p. 321.

[366] Vide art. Kumhar.

[367] Religion of the Semites, p. 338.

[368] Ibidem, p. 281.

[369] Dr Jevons, Introduction to the History of Religion, p. 150.

[370] Religion of the Semites, p. 285.

[371] Orphéus, pp. 123, 125.

[372] In following the explanation of the Passover given by Professor Robertson Smith and M. Reinach, it is necessary with great diffidence to dissent from the hypothesis of Sir J. G. Frazer that the lamb was a substitute for the previous sacrifice by the Israelites of their first-born sons.

[373] Orphéus, p. 272; Religion of the Semites, p. 311.

[374] Religion of the Semites, p. 304.

[375] Ibidem, pp. 305, 306.

[376] Religion of the Semites, pp. 296, 297.

[377] Golden Bough, ii. p. 313.

[378] When the blood of the animal was poured out before the god as his share.

[379] Religion of the Semites, p. 246.

[380] Vide article on Dhanwar.

[381] Sir G. Robertson, Kafirs of the Hindu Kush, pp. 450, 451.

[382] Ibidem, p. 460.

[383] Dalton, Ethnology of Bengal, p. 176.

[384] Grant-Duff, History of the Marathas, vol. i. p. 27. Mr. Hira Lal notes that owing to the predominance of Muhammadans in Berar the practice of slaughtering all animals by the method of halal and the regular employment of the Mullah to pronounce the sacred text before slaughter may have grown up for their convenience. And, as in other instances, the Hindus may have simply imitated the Muhammadans in regarding this method of slaughter as necessary. This however scarcely seems to impair the force of the argument if the Hindus actually refused to eat animals not killed by halal; they must in that case have attached some religious significance or virtue to the rite, and the most probable significance is perhaps that stated in the text. As Mr. Hira Lal points out, the Hindu sacred books provide an elaborate ritual for the sacrifice of animals, but this may have fallen into abeyance with the decline in the custom of eating meat.

[385] Vide article on Mochi.

[386] V. A. Smith, Asoka, p. 56.

[387] Ibidem, p. 58.

[388] This article is compiled from papers by Mr. Rajaram Gangadhar, Tahsildar, Arvi; Mr. Sadasheo Jairam, Sanskrit Professor, Hislop College; and Mr. Deodatta Namdar, Manager, Court of Wards, Chauri.

[389] Crooke's Tribes and Castes, art. Thathera.

[390] Crooke's art. Thathera.

[391] A part of the information contained in this article is furnished by Mr. Aduram Chaudhri of the Gazetteer Office.

[392] Madras Census Report (1901), p. 151, quoting from South Indian Inscriptions, Buchanan's Mysore, Canara and Malabar, and Elliot's History of India.

[393] Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, ii. pp. 444, 445.

[394] The Golden Bough, vol. ii. p. 205 et seq.

[395] Garrett's Classical Dictionary of the Hindus, p. 322.

[396] Westermarck, ibidem, quoting Ward's Hindus, p. 134.

[397] Wheeler's History of India, vol. iv. part ii. pp. 324, 325.

[398] Forbes, Rasmala, i. p. 247.

[399] Crooke's Tribes and Castes, art. Tawaif.

[400] Extract from the Dasa Kumara Charita or Adventures of the Ten Youths, in A Group of Hindu Stories, p. 72.

[401] S. M. Edwardes, By-ways of Bombay, p. 31.

[402] Hindu Manners, Customs and Ceremonies, p. 93.

[403] Eastern India, i. p. 119.

[404] Ibidem, iii. p. 107.

[405] Ibidem, ii. p. 930.

[406] Persian Travels, book iii. chap. xvii.

[407] From a review of A German Staff Officer in India, written by Sir Evelyn Wood in the Saturday Review, 5th February 1910.

[408] Tribes and Castes of Bengal, art. Vaishnava. The notice, as stated, refers only to the lowest section of Bairagis.

[409] Memoir of Central India.

[410] Tribes and Castes of the N.-W. P., art. Katwa.

[411] Temple and Fallon's Hindustani Proverbs.

[412] Perhaps a leather strap or belt.

[413] A revolution or circuit.

[414] A thousand.

[415] The third Baisakh (June).

[416] Butea frondosa.

[417] A description of the ceremony is given in the article on Kurmi.

[418] This article is based almost entirely on a monograph contributed by Mr. Hira Lal.

[419] Ethnology, p. 158.

[420] Fruit of the egg-plant.

[421] Ethnology, pp. 136, 137.

[422] Jungle Life in India, pp. 315, 316.

[423] This article is based partly on papers by Munshi Kanhya Lal of the Gazetteer office, Mr. Sundar Lal, Extra Assistant Commissioner, Saugor, and Mr. J. N. Sil, Pleader, Seoni.

[424] Hindus of Gujarat, p. 59, quoting from Ind. Ant. vi. 192-193.

[425] Hindu Castes and Sects, p. 175.

[426] Eastern India, i. p. 162.

[427] Ibidem, ii. p. 466.

[428] Ibidem, ii. p. 736.

[429] Ibidem, ii. p. 122.

[430] Essays, vol. ii. p. 182.

[431] Ethnology of Bengal, pp. 312, 313.

[432] United Provinces Census Report (1901), pp. 222-223.

[433] Lala Jwala Prasad, Extra Assistant Commissioner, in Sir E. A. Maclagan's Punjab Census Report for 1891.

[434] Memoir of Central India, vol. ii. pp. 165-166.

[435] The Kanungo maintains the statistical registers of land-revenue, rent, cultivation, cropping, etc., for the District as a whole which are compiled from those prepared by the patwaris for each village.

[436] Hindus of Gujarat, p. 60.

[437] Ibidem, p. 64.

[438] Ibidem, p. 61.

[439] Bhattacharya, Hindu Castes and Sects, p. 177. It is true that Dr. Bhattacharya states that the Kayasths were also largely employed under the Hindu kings of Bengal, but he gives no authority for this. The Gaur Kayasths also claim that the Sena kings of Bengal were of their caste, but considering that these kings were looked on as spiritual heads of the country and one of them laid down rules for the structure and intermarriage of the Brahman caste, it is practically impossible that they could have been Kayasths. The Muhammadan conquest of Bengal took place at an early period, and very little detail is known about the preceding Hindu dynasties.

[440] Risley, Tribes and Castes of Bengal, art. Bihar Kayasth.

[441] Sherring, Tribes and Castes, vol. iii. pp. 253-254.

[442] Bhattacharya, Hindu Castes and Tribes, p. 177.

[443] Hindus of Gujarat, p. 81.

[444] Ibidem, p. 67.

[445] Ibidem, p. 68, and Mackintosh, Report in the Ramosis, India Office Tracts, p. 77.

[446] Hobson-Jobson, s.v. Cranny.

[447] Hobson-Jobson, p. 167.

[448] Memoir of Central India, loc. cit.

[449] Hindus of Gujarat, p. 60.

[450] Tribes and Castes of Bengal, art. Bengal Kayasth. The Kayasths deny the story that the five Kayasths were servants of the five Brahmans, and say that they were Kshatriyas sent on a mission from the king of Kanauj to the king of Bengal. This, however, is improbable in view of the evidence already given as to the historical status of the Kayasths.

[451] Tribes and Castes, ibidem.

[452] Hindu Castes and Sects, p. 155.

[453] Ibidem, pp. 375, 380.

[454] See articles on Ghasia and Dhobi.

[455] Village Communities, p. 125.

[456] Hindu Castes and Sects, ibidem, p. 177.

[457] Tribes and Castes, art. Kayasth.

[458] Bhattacharya, loc. cit., p. 188.

[459] Hindus of Gujarat, p. 72.

[460] Dasrath and Kaushilya were the father and mother of Rama.

[461] These are the occupations of the Kayasths.

[462] Geography and Astronomy.

[463] Quoted from the Matsapuran in a criticism by Babu Krishna Nag Verma.

[464] This article is based on papers by Mr. Mahfuz Ali, tahsildar, Rajnand-gaon, Mr. Jowahir Singh, Settlement Superintendent, Sambalpur, and Mr. Aduram Chaudhri of the Gazetteer Office.

[465] Tribes and Castes of Bengal, art. Kaibartta.

[466] Tribes and Castes of Bengal, art. Kewat.

[467] Tribes and Castes of Bengal, ibidem.

[468] A curved stick carried across the shoulders, from which are suspended two panniers.

[469] This article is based on Mr. Crooke's and Colonel Dalton's accounts, and some notes taken by Mr. Hira Lal at Raigarh.