Chapter 52

[291] This present of a lakh of rupees is known as Lakh Pasaru, and it is not usually given in cash but in kind. It is made up of grain, land, carriages, jewellery, horses, camels and elephants, and varies in value from Rs. 30,000 to Rs. 70,000. A living bard, Mahamahopadhyaya Murar Das, has received three Lakh Pasarus from the Rajas of Jodhpur and has refused one from the Rana of Udaipur in view of the fact that he was made _ayachaka_ by the Jodhpur Raja. _Ayachaka_ means literally 'not a beggar,' and when a bard has once been made _ayachaka_ he cannot accept gifts from any person other than his own patron. An _ayachaka_ was formerly known as _polpat_, as it became his bounden duty to sing the praises of his patron constantly from the gate (_pol_) of the donor's fort or castle. (Mr. Hira Lal.)

[292] _Rajasthan_, ii. p. 548.

[293] _Viserva_, lit. poison.

[294] From _dhol_, a drum.

[295] _Rajasthan_, ii. p. 184.

[296] Lit. _putli_ or doll.

[297] _Tribes and Castes_, art. Bhat.

[298] _Ibidem._ Veiling the face is a sign of modesty.

[299] Postans. _Cutch_, p. 172.

[300] Vol. ii. pp. 392-394.

[301] _Rasmala_, ii. pp. 143, 144.

[302] _Bombay Gazetteer_, _Hindus of Gujarat_, Mr. Bhimbhai Kirparam, pp. 217, 219.

[303] In Broach.

[304] Westermarck, _Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas_, ii. p. 242.

[305] Westermarck, _ibidem_, p. 246.

[306] Westermarck, _ibidem_, p. 248.

[307] The above account of _Dharna_ is taken from Colonel Tone's _Letter on the Marathas_ (India Office Tracts).

[308] This article is compiled from papers drawn up by Rai Bahadur Panda Baijnath, Superintendent, Bastar State; Mr. Ravi Shankar, Settlement Officer, Bastar; and Mr. Gopal Krishna, Assistant Superintendent, Bastar.

[309] _Bassia latifolia_.

[310] The principal authorities on the Bhils are: _An Account of the Mewar Bhils_, by Major P. H. Hendley, _J.A.S.B._ vol. xliv., 1875, pp. 347-385; the _Bombay Gazetteer_, vol. ix., _Hindus of Gujarat_; and notices in Colonel Tod's _Rajasthan_, Mr. A. L. Forbes's _Rasmala_, and _The Khandesh Bhil Corps_, by Mr. A. H. A. Simcox, C.S.

[311] The old name of the Sesodia clan, Gahlot, is held to be derived from this Goha. See the article Rajput Sesodia for a notice of the real origin of the clan.

[312] _Rajasthan_, i. p. 184.

[313] _Ibidem_, p. 186.

[314] Reference may be made to _The Golden Bough_ for the full explanation and illustration of this superstition.

[315] _Rajasthan_, ii. pp. 320, 321.

[316] _History of the Marathas_, i. p. 28.

[317] See article.

[318] _Rajasthan_, ii. p. 466.

[319] Malcolm, _Memoir of Central India_, i. p. 518.

[320] _An Account of the Bhils, J.A.S.B._ (1875), p. 369.

[321] _Hyderabad Census Report_ (1891), p. 218.

[322] _The Khandesh Bhil Corps_, by Mr A. H. A. Simcox.

[323] Forbes, _Rasmala_, i. p. 104.

[324] _Memoir of Central India_, i. pp. 525, 526.

[325] _Ibidem_, i. p. 550.

[326] _Hobson-Jobson_, art. Bhil.

[327] _An Account of the Bhils_, p. 369.

[328] _The Khandesh Bhil Corps_, p. 71.

[329] _Ibidem_, p. 275.

[330] _Eugenia jambolana._

[331] _Soymida febrifuga._

[332] _Phyllanthus emblica._

[333] _Terminalia belerica._

[334] _Bombay Gazetteer, Hindus of Gujarat_, p. 309.

[335] See article Kunbi.

[336] _Sorghum vulgare._

[337] _Loc. cit._ p. 347.

[338] _Western India._

[339] _Asiatic Studies_, 1st series, p. 174.

[340] _Asiatic Studies_, 1st series, p. 352.

[341] _Bombay Gazetteer, Hindus of Gujarat_, p. 302.

[342] _Bombay Gazetteer_, vol. xii. p. 87.

[343] _An Account of the Bhils_, pp. 362, 363.

[344] _Account of the Mewar Bhils_, pp. 357, 358.

[345] Forbes, _Rasmala_, i. p. 113.

[346] _Nimar Settlement Report_, pp. 246, 247.

[347] Sir G. Grierson, _Linguistic Survey of India_, vol. ix. part iii. pp. 6-9.

[348] This article is based mainly on Captain Forsyth's _Nimar Settlement Report_, and a paper by Mr. T. T. Korke, Pleader, Khandwa.

[349] _Eugenia jambolana._

[350] _Bauhinia racemosa._

[351] _Settlement Report_ (1869), para. 411.

[352] Mr. Montgomerie's _Nimar Settlement Report_.

[353] _Memoir of Central India_, ii. p. 156.

[354] Crooke's _Tribes and Castes_, art. Bhishti.

[355] Elliott's _Memoirs of the North-Western Provinces_, i. p. 191.

[356] Crooke's _Tribes and Castes_, ii. p. 100.

[357] Rudyard Kipling, _Barrack-Room Ballads_, 'Gunga Din.'

[358] Thacker and Co., London.

[359] This article is mainly compiled from papers by Mr. Pandurang Lakshman Bakre, pleader, Betul, and Munshi Pyare Lal, ethnographic clerk.

[360] This article is compiled partly from Colonel Dalton's _Ethnology of Bengal_ and Sir H. Risley's _Tribes and Castes of Bengal_; a monograph has also been furnished by Mr. B. C. Mazumdar, pleader, Sambalpur, and papers by Mr. A. B. Napier, Deputy Commissioner, Raipur, and Mr. Hira Lal.

[361] _Ethnology of Bengal_, p. 140.

[362] _Linguistic Survey_, vol. xiv. _Munda and Dravidian Languages_, p. 217.

[363] Page 142.

[364] _Ibidem_, p. 141.

[365] In the article on Binjhwar, it was supposed that the Baigas migrated east from the Satpura hills into Chhattisgarh. But the evidence adduced above appears to show that this view is incorrect.

[366] _Tribes and Castes_, art. Binjhia.

[367] Crooke, _Tribes and Castes_, art. Bhuiya, para. 4.

[368] _Ibidem_, para. 3.

[369] _Ibidem_, art. Bhuiyar, para. 1.

[370] _Ibidem_, para. 16.

[371] Dalton, p. 147.

[372] Page 142.

[373] The question of the relation of the Baiga tribe to Mr. Crooke's Bhuiyars was first raised by Mr. E. A. H. Blunt, Census Superintendent, United Provinces.

[374] Mr. Mazumdar's monograph.

[375] From Mr. Mazumdar's monograph.

[376] This article is compiled from a paper taken by Mr. Hira Lal at Sonpur.

[377] This article is based on papers by Mr. Hira Lal, Mr. Gokul Prasad, Tahsildar, Dhamtari, Mr. Pyare Lal Misra of the Gazetteer office, and Munshi Ganpati Giri, Superintendent, Bindranawagarh estate.

[378] From the _Index of Languages and Dialects_, furnished by Sir G. Grierson for the census.

[379] _Tribes and Castes of Bengal_, art. Binjhia.

[380] _Early History of Mankind_, p. 341.

[381] This article is based on a paper by Mr. Mian Bhai Abdul Hussain, Extra Assistant Commissioner, Sambalpur.

[382] _Bassia latifolia_.

[383] This article is compiled from Mr. Wilson's account of the Bishnois as reproduced in Mr. Crooke's _Tribes and Castes_, and from notes taken by Mr. Aduram Chaudhri in the Hoshangabad District.

[384] The total number of precepts as given above is only twenty-five, but can be raised to twenty-nine by counting the prohibition of opium, tobacco, _bhang_, blue clothing, spirits and flesh separately.

[385] Jhuria may be Jharia, jungly; Sain is a term applied to beggars; the Ahir or herdsman sept may be descended from a man of this caste who became a Bishnoi.

[386] The day when the sun passes from one zodiacal sign into another.

[387] The New Moon day or the day before.

[388] This article is largely based on Mr. F. L. Faridi's full description of the sect in the _Bombay Gazetteer, Muhammadans of Gujarat_, and on a paper by Mr. Habib Ullah, pleader, Burhanpur.

[389] _Bombay Gazetteer, Muhammadans of Gujarat_, p. 30. Sir H. T. Colebrooke and Mr. Conolly thought that the Bohras were true Shias and not Ismailias.

[390] _Ibidem_, pp. 30-32.

[391] _J.A.S.B._ vol. vi. (1837), part ii. p. 847.

[392] _Berar Census Report_ (1818), p. 70.

[393] _Castes and Tribes of Southern India_, art. Bohra.

[394] Crooke's edition of _Hobson-Jobson_, art. Bohra.

[395] Moor's _Hindu Infanticide_, p. 168.

[396] _Memoir of Central India_, ii. p. 111.

[397] This article is mainly compiled from a full and excellent account of the caste by Mr. Gopal Datta Joshi, Civil Judge, Saugor, C.P., to whom the writer is much indebted. Extracts have also been taken from Mr. W. Crooke's and Sir H. Risley's articles on the caste in their works on the _Tribes and Castes_ of the United Provinces and Bengal respectively; from Mr. J. N. Bhattacharya's _Hindu Castes and Sects_ (Thacker, Spink & Co., Calcutta, 1896), and from the Rev. W. Ward's _View of the History, Literature and Religion of the Hindus_ (London, 1817).

[398] Crooke's _Tribes and Castes_, art. Brahman, quoting Professor Eggeling in _Encyclopædia Britannica_, s.v. Brahmanism.

[399] _Tribes and Castes of Bengal_, art. Brahman.

[400] _Hindu Manners, Customs, and Ceremonies_, 3rd ed. p. 172.

[401] Muir, _Ancient Sanskrit Texts_, i. 282 _sq._

[402] Quoted in Mr. Crooke's _Tribes and Castes_, art. Brahman.

[403] Quoted by Mr. Crooke.

[404] _Tribes and Castes of the Punjab_, by Mr. H. A. Rose, vol. ii. p. 123.

[405] See also article Rajput-Gaur.

[406] See subordinate articles.

[407] A section of the Kanaujia. See above.

[408] _Tribes and Castes_, art. Brahman.

[409] Chap. ix. v. 173.

[410] Ward's _Hindus_, vol. ii. p. 97.

[411] _Ibidem_, pp. 98, 100.

[412] _Hindu Manners, Customs and Ceremonies_, by the Abbé Dubois, 3rd ed. p. 499.

[413] _Ibidem_, p. 500.

[414] London, Heinemann (1897), pp. 84-91.

[415] This is the famous Gayatri.

[416] It is not known how a slip-knot and a garland are connected with any incarnation of Vishnu. For the incarnations see articles Vaishnava sect.

[417] In the Central Provinces Ganpati is represented by a round red stone, Surya by a rock crystal or the Swastik sign, Devi by an image in brass or by a stone brought from her famous temple at Mahur, and Vishnu by the round black stone or Saligram. Besides these every Brahman will have a special family god, who may be one of the above or another deity, as Rama or Krishna.

[418] _Bipracharanamrita._

[419] _Hindu Castes and Sects_, pp. 19-21.

[420] _Rajasthan_, i. p. 487.

[421] _Rajasthan_, i. p. 698.

[422] At that time £12,500 or more, now about £8000.

[423] _Tribes and Castes of the North-West Provinces and Oudh_, s.v.

[424] _Early History of India_, 3rd ed. p. 376.

[425] _Ibidem_, p. 385.

[426] _Tribes and Castes_, art. Kanaujia.

[427] _Bombay Gazetteer, Hindus of Gujarat_, p. 11.

[428] _Bombay Gazetteer, Satara_, p. 54.

[429] Bhattacharya, _Hindu Castes and Sects_, p. 47.

[430] _Ibidem_, p. 48.

[431] From Mr. Gopal Datta Joshi's paper.

[432] _Rasmala_, ii. p. 233.

[433] _Rasmala_, ii. p. 259.

[434] _Tribes and Castes_, art. Sanadhya.

[435] Crooke, _ibidem_, paras. 3 and 6.

[436] _Eastern India_, ii. 472, quoted in Mr. Crooke's art. Sarwaria.

[437] Stirling's description of Orissa in _As. Res_. vol. xv. p. 199, quoted in _Hindu Castes and Sects_.

[438] _Hindu Castes and Sects_, p. 63.

[439] This article is compiled from papers by Mr. Wali Muhammad, Tahsildar of Khurai, and Kanhya Lal, clerk in the Gazetteer office.

[440] This article is based on the Rev. E. M. Gordon's _Indian Folk-Tales_ (London, Elliott & Stock, 1908), and the Central Provinces _Monograph on the Leather Industry_, by Mr. C. G. Chenevix Trench, C.S.; with extracts from Sir H. H. Risley's and Mr. Crooke's descriptions of the caste, and from the _Berar Census Report_ (1881); on information collected for the District Gazetteers; and papers by Messrs. Durga Prasad Pande, Tahsildar, Raipur; Ram Lal, Deputy Inspector of Schools, Saugor; Govind Vithal Kane, Naib-Tahsildar, Wardha; Balkrishna Ramchandra Bakhle, Tahsildar, Mandla; Sitaram, schoolmaster, Balaghat; and Kanhya Lal of the Gazetteer office. Some of the material found in Mr. Gordon's book was obtained independently by the writer in Bilaspur before its publication and is therefore not specially acknowledged.

[441] There are other genealogies showing the Chamar as the offspring of various mixed unions.

[442] _Bombay Gazetteer_, vol. xv. Kanara, p. 355.

[443] The Hindus say that there are five classes of women, Padmini, Hastini, Chitrani and Shunkhini being the first four, and of these Padmini is the most perfect. No details of the other classes are given. _Rasmala_, i. p. 160.

[444] _Punjab Census Report_ (1881), p. 320.

[445] _Tribes and Castes of Bengal_, art. Chamar.

[446] _Loc. cit._

[447] From Mr. Gordon's paper.

[448] _Monograph on Leather Industries_, p. 9.

[449] _Ibidem._

[450] See articles on these castes.

[451] _Monograph on Leather Industries_, p. 3.

[452] _Berar Census Report_ (1881), p. 149.

[453] From _mangna_, to beg.

[454] _Tribes and Castes_, art. Chamar.

[455] _Indian Folk-Tales._

[456] _Indian Folk-Tales_, pp. 49, 50.

[457] Shells which were formerly used as money.

[458] _Indian Folk-Tales_, pp. 49, 50.

[459] _Monograph_, p. 3.

[460] _Monograph on Leather Industries_, p. 5.

[461] _Zizyphus xylopera._

[462] _Butea frondosa._

[463] _Anogeissus latifolia._

[464] The above is an abridgment of the description in Mr. Trench's _Monograph_, to which reference may be made for further details.

[465] _Monograph on the Leather Industries_, pp. 10, 11.

[466] _Melia indica._

[467] _Berar Census Report_ (1881), p. 149.

[468] _Rasmala_, i. 395, quoting from the _Ain-i-Akbari_.

[469] From papers by Mr. Parmeshwar Misra, Settlement Superintendent, Rairakhol, and Mr. Rasanand, Sireshtedar, Bamra.

[470] _Tribes and Castes of Bengal_, art. Chasa.

[471] This article is based principally on notes taken by Mr. Hira Lal at Bhatgaon.

[472] _Bombay Gazetteer_, _Hindus of Gujarat_, p. 178.

[473] A corruption for Viswakarma, the divine artificer and architect.

[474] The story, however, really belongs to northern India. Usha is the goddess of dawn.

[475] Krishna's mother.

[476] Little white flowers like jasmine. This simile would be unlikely to occur to the ordinary observer who sees a Hindu child crying.

[477] _Tori balayan leun._ For explanation see above.

[478] Commencement of the agricultural year.

[479] This article is partly based on a paper by Mr. Bijai Bahadur, Naib-Tahsildar, Balaghat.

[480] _Bombay Ethnographic Survey_, draft article on Chitrakathi.

[481] May-June. The Akhatij is the beginning of the agricultural year.

[482] _Berar Census Report_ (1881), paragraph 206. The passage is slightly altered and abridged in reproduction.

[483] Vol. ix. part. ii. _Muhammadans of Gujarat_, p. 57.

[484] _Rajasthan_, ii. p. 292.

[485] _Bombay Gazetteer, l.c._

[486] In recording this point Mr. Faridi gives the following note: "In 1847 a case occurred which shows how firmly the Memans cling to their original tribal customs. The widow of Haji Nur Muhammad of the Lakariya family demanded a share of her deceased husband's property according to Muhammadan law. The _jama-at_ or community decided that a widow had no claim to share her husband's estates under the Hindu law. Before the High Court, in spite of the ridicule of other Sunnis, the elders of the Cutchi Memans declared that their caste rules denied the widow's claim. The matter caused and is still (1896) causing agitation, as the doctors of the Sunni law at Mecca have decided that as the law of inheritance is laid down by the holy Koran, a wilful departure from it is little short of apostasy. The Memans are contemplating a change, but so far they have not found themselves able to depart from their tribal practices."

[487] This article is based on papers by Mr. Vithal Rao, Naib-Tahsildar, Bilaspur, and Messrs. Kanhya Lal and Pyare Lal Misra of the Gazetteer office.

[488] Crooke, _Tribes and Castes_, art. Kol.

[489] _Aegle Marmelos._

[490] _Butea frondosa._

[491] _Nag_, a cobra.

[492] Kept woman, a term applied to a widow.

[493] Moor's _Hindu Infanticide_, p. 133.

[494] James Forbes, _Oriental Memoirs_, i. p. 313.

[495] Rajendra Lal Mitra, _Indo-Aryans_, i. p. 263.

[496] _Journal of Indian Art and Industry_, xvi., April 1912, p. 3.

[497] Dr. Jevons, _Introduction to the History of Religion_, p. 60.

[498] _Private Life of an Eastern King_, p. 294.

[499] _Hobson-Jobson, s.v._ 'Roundel.'

[500] Old English manuscript quoted by Sir R. Temple in _Ind. Ant._ (December 1904), p. 316.

[501] _Hobson-Jobson, s.v._ 'Kittysol.'

[502] _Hobson-Jobson, s.v._ 'Roundel.'

[503] _Hobson-Jobson, ibidem._

[504] W. W. Skeat, _The Past at our Doors_.

[505] Skeat, _ibidem_, p. 95.

[506] This article is compiled from papers by Mr. Bahmanji Muncherji, Extra Assistant Commissioner; Mr. Jeorakhan Lal, Deputy Inspector of Schools, and Pandit Pyare Lal Misra, ethnographic clerk. The historical notice is mainly supplied by Mr. Hira Lal.

[507] Tod's _Rajasthan_, i. p. 128.

[508] This article is based on notes taken by Pandit Pyare Lal Misra in Wardha, and Mr. Hira Lal in Bhandara.

[509] _Proper Names of the Punjabis_, p. 74.

[510] _Punjab Census Report_ (1881), para. 645.

[511] Crooke's _Tribes and Castes_, art. Darzi.

[512] Buchanan's _Eastern India_, Martin's edition, ii. pp. 417, 699.

[513] _Ibidem_, p. 977.

[514] Vol. i. pp. 178-184.

[515] Webb's _Heritage of Dress_, p. 33.

[516] _Bombay Gazetteer, Hindus of Gujarat_, p. 180, quoting from Ovington, _Voyage to Surat_, p. 280.

[517] _Bombay Gazetteer, Hindus of Gujarat_, p. 180.

[518] _Bombay Gazetteer, Nasik_, p. 50.

[519] According to another account Namdeo belonged to Marwar. Mr. Maclagan's _Punjab Census Report_ (1891), p. 144.

[520] _Berar Census Report_ (1881), para. 231.

[521] This article is partly based on a note by Mr. Gokul Prasad, Tahsildar, Dhamtari.

[522] This article is based entirely on a paper by Rai Bahadur Panda Baijnath, Superintendent, Bastar State.

[523] Compiled mainly from a paper by Kanhya Lal, clerk in the Gazetteer office.

[524] Cf. the two meanings of the word 'stock' in English.

[525] _Tribes and Castes of Bengal_, art. Dhanuk.

[526] _Eastern India_, i. 166, as quoted in Crooke's _Tribes and Castes_.

[527] Cf. the two perfectly distinct groups of Paiks or foot-soldiers found in Jubbulpore and the Uriya country.

[528] _Tribes and Castes of the N. W. P. and Oudh_, art. Basor.

[529] The following particulars are from a paper by Kanhya Lal, a clerk in the Gazetteer office belonging to the Educational Department.

[530] This article is based almost entirely on a monograph by Mr. Jeorakhan Lal, Deputy Inspector of Schools, Bilaspur.

[531] _Grewia vestita._

[532] The term brother's brother-in-law is abusive in the same sense as brother-in-law (_sala_) said by a man.

[533] See commencement of this article.

[534] _Cynodon dactylon._

[535] _Shorea robusta._

[536] This article is based partly on papers by Mr. Govind Moreshwar, Head Clerk, Mandla, and Mr. Pancham Lal, Naib-Tahsildar, Sihora. Much of the interesting information about the occupations of the caste was given to the writer by Babu Kali Prasanna Mukerji, Pleader, Saugor.

[537] As a rule a husband and wife never address each other by name.

[538] Among Hindus it is customary to give a little more than the proper sum on ceremonial occasions in order to show that there is no stint. Thus Rs. 1-4 is paid instead of a rupee.

[539] _Berar Census Report_ (1881), p. 133.

[540] _Ibidem_, _l.c._

[541] _Ibidem_, _l.c._

[542] _Anthocephalus kadamba._

[543] From _ghat_, a steep hillside or slope; hence a river-crossing because of the banks sloping down to it.

[544] _Trapa bispinosa._

[545] _Jungle Life in India_, p. 137.

[546] _Berar Census Report_ (1881), p. 132.

[547] The following notice of caste offences is from Mr. Govind Moreshwar's paper.

[548] Not probably on account of the commission of a crime, but because being sentenced to imprisonment involves the eating of ceremonially impure food. These rules are common to most Hindu castes, and the Dhimars are taken only as a typical example. They seem to have little or no connection with ordinary morality. But in Jhansi Mr. Crooke remarks that a Kahar is put out of caste for theft in his master's house. This again, however, might be considered as an offence against the community, tending to lower their corporate character in their business, and as such deserving of social punishment.

[549] This article is partly based on an account of the caste furnished by Mr. H. F. E. Bell and drawn up by Mr. F. R. R. Rudman in the _Mandla District Gazetteer_.

[550] _Folklore of Northern India_, vol. ii. p. 8.

[551] Sherring's _Hindu Castes_, i. 342-3.

[552] _Tribes and Castes_, art. Dhobi.

[553] _Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan._

[554] _Berar Census Report_ (1881), p. 155.

[555] _Central Provinces Census Report_ (1891), p. 202.

[556] _Loc. cit._

[557] _Bihar Peasant Life, s.v._ Dhobi.

[558] _Ethnographic Notes in Southern India_, p. 226.

[559] _Behind the Bungalow._

[560] This article is mainly compiled from papers by Mr. Gokul Prasad, Naib-Tahsildar, Dhamtari, and Pyare Lal Misra, a clerk in the Gazetteer office.

[561] _Tribes and Castes of Bengal_, art. Kandu.

[562] This article is taken almost entirely from a paper drawn up by Mr. Hira Lal, Extra Assistant Commissioner.

[563] This article is mainly compiled from Sir E. D. Maclagan's _Punjab Census Report_ (1891), pp. 192-196, the article on Fakir in the Rev. T. P. Hughes' _Dictionary of Islam_, and the volume on _Muhammadans of Gujarat_ in the _Bombay Gazetteer_, pp. 20-24.

[564] Hughes, p. 116.

[565] _Punjab Census Report_ (1891), p. 196.

[566] Hughes' _Dictionary of Islam_, art. Fakir.