Chapter 13

taken from the main articles and are arranged here in index form as an aid to identification. Section or clan names, however, will not usually be found in the main articles. They have been selected from an alphabetical list prepared separately, and are included as being of some interest, in addition to those contained in the articles. The Glossary also serves the purpose of indicating how subcaste and clan names are common to several castes and tribes.

GLOSSARY

_Abhimanchkul_.--A section of Komti in Chanda. They abstain from using a preparation of lead which is generally ground to powder and applied to wounds.

_Abhira_.--An immigrant nomad tribe from which the modern Ahir caste is believed to have originated. A division of Maratha and Gujarati Brahmans, so called because they are priests of the Abhiras or the modern Ahirs.

_Abdhut_.--Name for a religious mendicant. Applied to Gosains, _q.v._

_Acharya_, _Acharaj_.--(Superintendent of ceremonies.) Title of the heads of the Swami-Narayan sect. A surname of Adi Gaur Brahmans in Saugor.

_Adhia_.--(Half.) A subcaste of Telis considered to be illegitimate in Betul.

_Adhaighar_, _Arhaighar_.--(2 1/2 houses.) A subdivision of Saraswat Brahmans.

_Adhali_.--A name given to Malyars by outsiders.

_Adigaur_.--A subdivision of Brahman, probably a branch of the Gaur Brahmans, though in Saugor they are considered to be Kanaujias.

_Adkandh_, _Adikandh_.--(Superior Khonds.) A subcaste of Khonds, being the most Hinduised section of this tribe. A title of Khond.

_Adnath_, _Adinath_.--A subdivision of Jogi. Adinath was the father of Matsyendranath and grandfather of Gorakhnath, the first great Jogi.

_Agamudayan_.--A large Tamil cultivating caste, of which a few members reside in the Central Provinces in Jubbulpore and Raipur. They are the families of Madras sepoys who have retired from regiments stationed in these places. The Agamudayans sometimes call themselves by the title of Pillai, which means 'Son of a god' and was formerly reserved to Brahmans.

_Agarwala_, _Agarwal_.--A subcaste of Bania. See Bania-Agarwala.

_Agastya_.--An eponymous section of Brahmans.

_Aghorpanthi_.--Synonym for Aghori.

_Agnihotri_.--A surname of Kanaujia and Jijhotia Brahmans in Saugor. (One who performs the sacrifice to Agni or the god of fire.)

_Agnikula_.--A name given to four clans of Rajputs said to have been born from the fire-pit on Mount Abu. See article Panwar Rajput.

_Agrahari_.--A subcaste of Bania found chiefly in Jubbulpore District and Raigarh State. Their name has been connected with the cities of Agra and Agroha.

_Agrajanma_.--(First-born.) A synonym for Brahmans.

_Aharia_.--Clan of Rajput. Synonym for Sesodia.

_Ahir_.--The professional caste of herdsmen. A clan of Maratha. A subcaste of Rawat and Salewar Koshti in Nimar. A subcaste of Bishnoi, Gurao, and Sunar.

_Ahirwar_.--A resident of the old town of Ahar in the Bulandshahr district. Subcaste of Kori.

_Ahivasi_, _Ahiwasi_.--(From Ahiwas, 'The abode of the dragon,' the hermitage of Sanbhari Rishi in Mathura.) A Brahmanical or pseudo-Brahmanical tribe. They are said to be sprung from a Brahman father and a Kshatriya mother, and were formerly pack-carriers. Found in Jubbulpore and the Nerbudda Valley.

_Ahke_.--(Seduced.) A sept of the Uika clan of Gonds in Betul. They are said to be so named because their priests once seduced a Dhurwa girl, and her son was given this name.

_Aithana_.--A subcaste of Kayasth.

_Ajodhia_.--Subcaste of Jadam.

_Ajudhiabasi_.--See Audhia.

_Akali_.--Order of Sikh devotees. See article Sikh.

_Akhadewale_.--A class of Bairagis who do not marry. Also known as Nihang.

_Akhroti_.--A subdivision of Pathans. (From _akhrot_, walnut.)

_Akre_.--A bastard Khatik. Title of a child a Khatik gets by a woman of another caste.

_Alia_.--A grower of the _al_ plant. A subcaste of Bania and Kachhi, a synonym of Chasa.

_Alia_, _Alkari_.--These terms are derived from the _al_ or Indian mulberry (_Morinda citrifolia_). The Alias are members of the Kachhi caste who formerly grew the _al_ plant in Nimar for sale to the dyers. Its cultivation then yielded a large profit and the Alias devoted themselves solely to it, while they excommunicated any of their members who were guilty of selling or giving away the seed. The imported alizarin has now almost entirely superseded the indigenous dye, and _al_ as a commercial product has been driven from the market. Alkari is a term applied to Banias and others in the Damoh District who were formerly engaged in the cultivation of the _al_ plant. The members of each caste which took to the cultivation of this plant were somewhat looked down upon by the others and hence became a distinct group. The explanation generally given of the distaste for the crop is that in the process of boiling the roots to extract the dye a number of insects have to be killed. A further reason is that the red dye is considered to resemble or be equivalent to blood, the second idea being a necessary consequence of the first in primitive modes of thought, and hence to cause a certain degree of pollution to those who prepare it. A similar objection is held to the purveying of lac-dye as shown in the article on Lakhera. Notwithstanding this, clothes dyed red are considered lucky, and the _al_ dye was far more commonly used by Hindus than any other, prior to the introduction of aniline dyes. Tents were also coloured red with this dye. The tents of the Mughal Emperors and royal princes were of red cloth dyed with the roots of the _al_ plant. [408] Similarly Nadir Shah, the victor of Panipat, had his field headquarters and lived in one small red tent. In these cases the original reason for colouring the tents red may probably have been that it was a lucky colour for battles, and the same belief may have led to the adoption of red as a royal and imperial colour.

_Alkari_.--Synonym for Alia.

_Alua_.--A subcaste of Uriya Brahmans, so named because their forefathers grew the _alu_ or potato.

_Amal_.--A section of Komti. The members of this section do not eat the plantain.

_Ambadar_.--(Mango-branch.) A section of Rawat (Ahir).

_Ambashta_.--A subcaste of Kayasth.

_Amethia_.--(From Amethi, a pargana in Lucknow District.) A sept of Rajputs, who are Chauhans according to Sir H.M. Elliott, but others say they are a branch of the Chamar Gaur.

_Amisht_.--A subcaste of Kayasth.

_Amnait_.--Subcaste of Bhatra.

_Amrite_.--(From Amrit nectar.) A section of Kirar.

_Anapa_.--(Leather-dealers.) Subcaste of Madgi.

_Anavala_.--A subdivision of Gujarati or Khedawal Brahmans. They derive their name from the village Anaval in Baroda. They are otherwise known as Bhatela, Desai or Mastan.

_Andhra_, _Tailanga_.--One of the five orders of the Panch Dravid Brahmans inhabiting the Telugu country.

_Antarvedi_.--A resident of Antarved or the Doab, the tract of land between the Ganges and the Jumna rivers. Subcaste of Chamar.

_Apastambha_.--A Sutra of the Vedas. A subdivision of Brahmans following that Sutra and forming a caste subdivision. But they marry with Rig-Vedis, though the Sutra belongs to the Black Yajur-Vedi.

_Atharvarvedi_, _Antharwarvedi_.--A subcaste of Brahmans who follow the Atharvar-Veda and are very rarely met with.

_Arab_.--This designation is sometimes returned by the descendants of the Arab mercenaries of the Bhonsla kings. These were at one time largely employed by the different rulers of southern India and made the best of soldiers. In the Maratha armies [409] their rate of pay was Rs. 12 a month, while the ordinary infantry received only Rs. 5. General Hislop stated their character as follows: [410]

"There are perhaps no troops in the world that will make a stouter or more determined stand at their posts than the Arabs. They are entirely unacquainted with military evolutions, and undisciplined; but every Arab has a pride and heart of his own that never forsakes him as long as he has legs to stand on. They are naturally brave and possess the greatest coolness and quickness of sight: hardy and fierce through habit, and bred to the use of the matchlock from their boyhood: and they attain a precision and skill in the use of it that would almost exceed belief, bringing down or wounding the smallest object at a considerable distance, and not unfrequently birds with a single bullet. They are generally armed with a matchlock, a couple of swords, with three or four small daggers stuck in front of their belts, and a shield. On common occasions of attack and defence they fire but one bullet, but when hard pressed at the breach they drop in two, three, and four at a time, from their mouths, always carrying in them from eight to ten bullets, which are of a small size. We may calculate the whole number of Arabs in the service of the Peshwa and the Berar Raja at 6000 men, a loose and undisciplined body, but every man of them a tough and hardy soldier. It was to the Arabs alone those Provinces looked, and placed their dependence on. Their own troops fled and abandoned them, seldom or never daring to meet our smallest detachment. Nothing can exceed the horror and atarm with which some of our native troops view the Arab. At Nagpur in November 1817 the Arabs alone attacked us on the defence and reduced us to the last extremity, when we were saved by Captain Fitzgerald's charge. The Arabs attacked us at Koregaon and would have certainly destroyed us had not the Peshwa withdrawn his troops on General Smith's approach. The Arabs kept General Doveton at bay with his whole army at Nagpur for several days, repulsing our attack at the breach, and they gained their fullest terms. The Arabs worsted us for a month at Malegaon and saved their credit. They terrified the Surat authorities by their fame alone. They gained their terms of money from Sir John Malcolm at Asirgarh. They maintained to the last for their prince their post at Alamner and nobly refused to be bought over there. They attacked us bravely, but unfortunately at Talner. They attacked Captain Spark's detachment on the defence and destroyed it. They attacked a battalion of the 14th Madras Infantry with 26-pounders and compelled them to seek shelter in a village; and they gave us a furious wind-up at Asirgarh. Yet the whole of these Arabs were not 6000."

There is no doubt that the Arabs are one of the finest fighting races of the world. Their ancestors were the Saracens who gained a great empire in Europe and Asia. Their hardihood and powers of endurance are brought to the highest pitch by the rigours of desert life, while owing to their lack of nervous sensibility the shock and pain of wounds affect them less than civilised troops. And in addition their religion teaches that all who die in battle against the infidel are transported straight to a paradise teeming with material and sensual delights. Arab troops are still employed in Hyderabad State. Mr. Stevens notices them as follows in his book _In India_: "A gang of half-a-dozen, brilliantly dishevelled, a faggot of daggers with an antique pistol or two in each belt, and a six-foot matchlock on each shoulder. They serve as irregular troops there, and it must be owned that if irregularity is what you want, no man on earth can supply it better. The Arab irregulars are brought over to serve their time and then sent back to Arabia; there is one at this moment, who is a subaltern in Hyderabad, but as soon as he crosses the British border gets a salute of nine guns; he is a Sheikh in his own country near Aden."

The Arabs who have been long resident here have adopted the ways and manners of other Musalmans. Their marriages are in the Nikah form and are marked by only one [411] dinner, following the example of the Prophet, who gave a dinner at the marriage of his daughter the Lady Fatimah and Ali. In obedience to the order of the Prophet a death is followed by no signs of mourning. Arabs marry freely with other Sunni Muhammadans and have no special social or religious organisation. The battle-cry of the Arabs at Sitabaldi and Nagpur was '_Din, Din, Muhammad_.'

_Arakh_.--A caste. A subcaste of Dahait, Gond and Pasi.

_Aranya_.--Name of one of the ten orders of Gosains.

_Are_.--A cultivating caste of the Chanda District, where they numbered 2000 persons in 1911. The caste are also found in Madras and Bombay, where they commonly return themselves under the name of Marathi; this name is apparently used in the south as a generic term for immigrants from the north, just as in the Central Provinces people coming from northern India are called Pardeshi. Mr. (Sir H.) Stuart says [412] that Are is a synonym for Arya, and is used as an equivalent of a Maratha and sometimes in a still wider sense, apparently to designate an immigrant Aryan into the Dravidian country of the south. The Ares of the Central Provinces appear to be Kunbis who have migrated into the Telugu country. The names of their subcastes are those of the Kunbis, as Khaire, Tirelle, a form of Tirole, and Dhanoj for Dhanoje. Other subdivisions are called Kayat and Kattri, and these seem to be the descendants of Kayasth and Khatri ancestors. The caste admit Brahmans, Banias, and Komtis into the community and seem to be, as shown by Mr. Stuart, a mixed group of immigrants from Maharashtra into the Telugu country. Some of them wear the sacred thread and others do not. Some of their family names are taken from those of animals and plants, and they bury persons who die unmarried, placing their feet towards the north like the forest tribes.

_Arka_.--A sept of Gonds in Chanda who worship the saras crane.

_Armachi_.--(The _dhaura_ tree.) A totemistic sept of Gonds.

_Arora_, _Rora_.--An important trading and mercantile caste of the Punjab, of which a few persons were returned from the Nimar District in 1901. Sir D. Ibbetson was of opinion that the Aroras were the Khatris of Aror, the ancient capital of Scinde, represented by the modern Rori. He described the Arora as follows: [413] "Like the Khatri and unlike the Bania he is no mere trader; but his social position is far inferior to theirs, partly no doubt because he is looked down upon simply as being a Hindu in the portions of the Province which are his special habitat. He is commonly known as a Kirar, a word almost synonymous with coward, and even more contemptuous than is the name Bania in the east of the province. The Arora is active and enterprising, industrious and thrifty.... 'When an Arora girds up his loins he makes it only two miles from Jhang to Lahore.' He will turn his hand to any work, he makes a most admirable cultivator, and a large proportion of the Aroras of the lower Chenab are purely agricultural in their avocations. He is found throughout Afghanistan and even Turkistan and is the Hindu trader of those countries; while in the western Punjab he will sew clothes, weave matting and baskets, make vessels of brass and copper and do goldsmith's work. But he is a terrible coward, and is so branded in the proverbs of the countryside: The thieves were four and we eighty-four; the thieves came on and we ran away; and again: To meet a Rathi armed with a hoe makes a company of nine Kirars (Aroras) feel alone. Yet the peasant has a wholesome dread of the Kirar when in his proper place: Vex not the Jat in his jungle, nor the Kirar at his shop, nor the boatman at his ferry; for if you do they will break your head. Again: Trust not a crow, a dog or a Kirar, even when asleep. So again: You can't make a friend of a Kirar any more than a _sati_ of a prostitute."

_Asathi_.--A subcaste of Bania. They are both Jains and Hindus.

_Ashram_.--Name of one of the ten orders of Gosains.

_Ashthana_.--A subcaste of Kayasth.

_Atharadesia_.--(A man of eighteen districts.) Subcaste of Banjara.

_Athbhaiya_.--(Eight brothers.) A subdivision of Saraswat Brahman in Hoshangabad. An Athbhaiya cannot take a wife from the Chaubhaiya subdivision, to whom the former give their daughters in marriage.

_Athia_.--A subcaste of Chadar, so named because they worship their goddess Devi on the 8th day (Athain) of Kunwar (September), and correspond to the Brahmanical Sakta sect, as opposed to the other Chadar subcaste Parmasuria, who correspond to the Vaishnavas.

_Audhalia_.--Synonym for Audhelia.

_Audhia_, _Ajudhiabasi_.--A resident of Oudh. Subcaste of Bania and of Kasar and Sunar.

_Audichya_.--A subcaste of Brahmans coming from Oudh.

_Aughad_.--A subdivision of Jogi. They resemble the Aghoris with the difference that they may not eat human flesh.

_Aughar_.--A subdivision of Jogi.

_Aukule_.--A subcaste of Koshtis. They are also called Vidurs, being of mixed descent from Koshtas and other castes.

_Aulia_.--(A favourite of God.) Title of Muhammadan saints.

_Baba_.--Synonym of Gosain.

_Babhan_.--Synonym for Bhuinhar, being the name of a landholding caste in Bengal. Used as a title by Bhuiyas.

_Babuan_.--Title for the descendants of the former ruling families of the Chero tribe.

_Bachhalya_, _Bachhap_, _Bachhilia_.--(From _bachha_, a calf.) A section of Bania, Chadar and Khangar. A section of Patwa in Raipur. They do not castrate bullocks.

_Bad_.--(High or great.) Subcaste of Agharia and Sudh.

_Bad_ or _Bhand_.--A caste. Title of Khatik.

_Bad_.--(Banyan tree.) A section of Joshi.

_Badaria_.--(From _badar_, cloud.) A section of Kandera.

_Badgainya_.--(From Badgaon (_bara gaon_), a large village.) A surname of Sarwaria Brahmans. A section of Basdewa, Gadaria and Kurmi.

_Badgujar_.--(From _bada_, great.) One of the thirty-six royal races of Rajputs. A subcaste of Gujar, also of Gaur Brahman. A section of Mehtar.

_Badhaiya_.--(Barhai, carpenter.) A subcaste of Lohar and Kol. A sept of Savar.

_Badharia_.--A resident of Badhas in Mirzapur. Subcaste of Bahna and Dhuri.

_Badi_.--(A rope-walker.) Synonym of Nat.

_Badkur_.--Title used in the Dhobi caste.

_Badwaik_.--(The great ones.) A subcaste of Mana. A title of Dhobi and Pan or Ganda.

_Bagaria_.--(A young buffalo.) A sept of Dhanwar and Sonkar.

_Bagh_, _Baghwa_.--(Tiger.) A totemistic sept of Ahir, Bhatra, Kawar, Munda, Oraon, Sonkar, Teli and Turi.

_Baghel_, _Baghela_.--(A tiger or tiger-cub.) A clan of Rajputs which has given its name to Baghelkhand. A subcaste of Audhia Sunar and Chamar. A section of Bhilala, Dhanwar, Gond, Lodhi, Mali, and Panwar Rajput.

_Baghmar_, _Baghmarya_, _Bagmar_.--(A tiger-slayer.) A section of Oswal Bania, Basor, Chamar, Dhimar, Koilabhuti Gond, and Teli. A subsept of Nika Gonds in Betul, who abstain from killing tigers.

_Bagri_.--A clan of Rajputs. A subcaste of Jat. One of the 72 1/2 sections of Maheshri Banias. People belonging to the Badhak or Bawaria, and Pardhi castes are sometimes known by this name.

_Bahargainyan_.--(From _Bahar gaon_, outside the village.) A subcaste of Kurmi.

_Baharketu_.--(Bush-cutter.) A subcaste of Korwa.

_Bahelia_.--The caste of fowlers and hunters in northern India. In the Central Provinces the Bahelias are not to be distinguished from the Pardhis, as they have the same set of exogamous groups named after the Rajput clans, and resemble them in all other respects. The word Bahelia is derived from the Sanskrit Vyadha, 'one who pierces or wounds,' hence a hunter. Pardhi is derived from the Marathi _paradh_, hunting. The latter term is more commonly used in the Central Provinces, and has therefore been chosen as the title of the article on the caste.

_Bahre_.--(Outside the walls.) A subdivision of Khedawal Brahmans.

_Bahrup_.--Subcaste of Banjara.

_Bahrupia_.--A small class of mendicant actors and quick-change artists. They are recruited from all classes of the population, and though a distinct caste of Bahrupias appears to exist, people of various castes also call themselves Bahrupia when they take to this occupation. In Berar the Mahar, Mang and Maratha divisions of the Bahrupias are the most common: [414] the former two begging only from the castes from which they take their name. In Gujarat they appear to be principally Muhammadans. Sir D. Ibbetson says of them: [415] "The name is derived from the Sanskrit _bahu_, many, and _rupa_, form, and denotes an actor, a mimic or one who assumes many forms or characters. One of their favourite devices is to ask for money, and when it is refused to ask that it may be given if the Bahrupia succeeds in deceiving the person who refused it. Some days later the Bahrupia will again visit the house in the disguise of a pedlar, a milkman or what not, sell his goods without being detected, throw off his disguise and claim the stipulated reward." In Gujarat "they are ventriloquists and actors with a special skill of dressing one side of their face like a man and the other side like a woman, and moving their head about so sharply that they seem to be two persons." [416] Mr. Kitts states that "the men are by profession story-tellers and mimics, imitating the voices of men and the notes of animals; their male children are also trained to dance. In payment for their entertainment they are frequently content with cast-off clothes, which will of course be of use to them in assuming other characters." [417] Occasionally also they dress up in European clothes and can successfully assume the character of a Eurasian.

_Baid_.--(Physician.) A surname of Sanadhia and Maratha Brahmans in Saugor. A section of Oswal Bania, and Darzi.

_Bairagi_.--A caste or religious order. Subcaste of Bhat.

_Bais_.--A clan of Rajputs.

_Bajania_.--(One who plays on musical instruments.) Subcaste of Panka.

_Bajanya_.--(Drummer.) A subcaste of Panka in Balaghat.

_Bajarha_.--(Bazar.) A section of Daraiha in Bilaspur.

_Bajna_, _Bajgari_.--(Musicians at feasts and marriages.) Subcaste of Ganda.

_Bajpai_.--(A priest officiating at the horse sacrifice.) A surname of Kanaujia Brahmans. A section of Brahmans. Title of some old families whose ancestors were sacrificial priests.

_Bakar Kasai_.--(Goat-butcher.) A subcaste of Khatik.

_Bakra_.--(Goat.) A totemistic sept of Bhatra and Halba.

_Baksaria_.--From Buxar in Bengal. A clan of Rajputs. A section of Daraiha and Lodhi.

_Balla_.--One of the 36 Rajkuls or royal clans of Rajputs noted in Tod's _Rajasthan_.

_Balnik_.--Subcaste of Kayasth.

_Balusudia_.--(Shaven.) Title of Khond.

_Balutedar_.--Name for a village menial in Berar. Title of Dhobi.

_Balwanda_.--(Quarrelsome.) A section of Teli.

_Bam-Margi._--Synonym for the Vam-Margi sect.

_Baman_ or _Brahman_. Subcaste of Bishnoi, Darzi and Gondhali.

_Bamania_.--(From Brahman.) A section of Ahir. They do not touch the pipal tree. A section of Mahar and of Rajjhar in Hoshangabad.

_Bamhan Gour_ or _Brahman Gour_.--A clan of Rajputs in Saugor and Narsinghpur.

_Bamhania_.--A subcaste of Kasar, from Bamhan or Brahman. A section of Katia.

_Bamnaiha_.--(Belonging to a Brahman.) A section of Basor.

_Banaphar_, _Banafar_.--A clan of Rajputs. A section of Daharia.

_Banbhainsa_.--(Wild buffalo.) A section of Rawat (Ahir).

_Banda_.--(Tailless.) A section of Kirar.

_Banda Bagh_.--(Tailless tiger.) A section of Teli.

_Bandar_.--(A rocket-thrower.) Synonym of Kadera.

_Bandarwale_.--(One who catches monkeys.)--Subcaste of Pardhi.

_Bandesia_.--(A man of 52 districts.) Subcaste of Banjara.

_Bandhaiya_.--A subcaste of Nunia who confine themselves to the excavation of tanks and wells. Also a subcaste of Dhimar.

_Bandhaiya_.--(From Bandhogarh.) Subcaste of Nai.

_Bandhia_--(From _bandh_, an embankment.) A subcaste of Darzi and Dhimar. A section of Chamar.

_Bandrele_.--(Monkey.) A section of Basor, and Barai.

_Banghore_.--(Wild horses.) A section of Dom (Mehtar).

_Bania_.--A caste. Subcaste of Bishnoi. A synonym of Sunar in Sambalpur. A subcaste of Banjara. A section of Nandvansi Gauli.

_Banka_.--A small caste found principally in the Kalahandi State which now forms part of Bengal. The caste was formed from military service like the Khandaits, Paiks and Marathas, and some families bear the names of different castes, as Brahman Banka, Kumhar Banka, and so on. They were formerly notorious freebooters, but have now settled down to cultivation. Each man, however, still carries a sword or knife on his person, and in Kalahandi they are permitted to do this without taking out a licence.

_Banku_.--(One who frequents sequestered parts of forests.) A sept of Korku.

_Bansberia_.--(One who performs acrobatic feats on a stick or bamboo.) Synonym of Kolhati.

_Bansia_.--(Angler.) From _bansi_, a fishing-hook. Subcaste of Dhimar.

_Bansphor_.--(A breaker of bamboos.) Synonym of Basor. Subcaste of Mehtar and Mahli.

_Banstalai_.--(A tank with bamboo trees on its bank.) A section of Teli.

_Bant_.--Subcaste of Dhimar.

_Bantia_.--(From _banat_, a red woollen blanket.) A section of Oswal Bania.

_Baone_ or _Baonia_.--From the phrase _Bawan Berar_, a term applied to the Province by the Mughals, because it paid fifty-two lakhs of revenue, as against only eight lakhs realised from the adjoining Jhadi or hilly country in the Central Provinces. Subcaste of Kunbi, Mahar and Mali.

_Baoria_.--Synonym of Badhak.

_Bara-hazar._--(Twelve thousand.) Subcaste of Chero.

_Barade, Berari_.--A resident of Berar. Subcaste of Bahna, Barhai, Chamar, Dhangar, Dhobi, Khatik, Mang and Nai.

_Baram_ or _Birm_.--Subcaste of Bhat.

_Barapatre_.--(A large leaf-plate.) A section of Koshti.

_Baraua_.--(A fisherman.) Synonym of Dhimar; title of Dhimar.

_Bardhia_.--(From _bardh_, a term for the edge of a weapon.) Synonym of Sikligar.

_Bardia_.--One who uses bullocks for transport. Subcaste of Kumhar.

_Baretha_.--(A washerman.) Synonym for Dhobi.

_Barga_.--Subcaste of Oraon.

_Bargah_, [418] _Bargaha_, _Barghat_.--A small caste of cultivators belonging principally to the Bilaspur District. They appear to be immigrants from Rewah, where the caste is numerically strong, and they are also found in the adjacent Districts of the United Provinces and Bengal. In the United Provinces they are employed as higher domestic servants and make leaf-plates, while their women act as midwives. [419] Here they claim kinship with the Goala Ahirs, but in the Central Provinces and Bengal they advance pretensions to be Rajputs. They have a story, however, which shows their connection with the Ahirs, to the effect that on one occasion Brahma stole Krishna's cows and cowherds. Krishna created new ones to replace them, exactly similar to those lost, but Brahma subsequently returned the originals, and the Bargahas are the descendants of the artificial cowherds created by Krishna. In Sarguja, Bargaha is used as a title by Ahirs, while in Rewah the Bargahs are looked on as the bastard offspring of Baghel Rajputs. Dr. Buchanan writes of them as follows: [420] "In Gorakhpur the Rajput chiefs have certain families of Ahirs, the women of which act as wet-nurses to their children, while the men attend to their persons. These families are called Bargaha; they have received, of course, great favours and many of them are very rich, but others look down upon them as having admitted their women to too great familiarity with their chiefs." In the United Provinces they also claim to be Rajputs, as they returned themselves as a clan of Rajputs in 1881. [421] Their position as described by Buchanan is precisely the same as that of the Dauwa Ahirs, who are the household servants of Bundela Rajputs in Bundelkhand, and the facts set forth above leave little or no doubt that the Bargahs are a mixed caste, arising from the connection of Rajputs with the Ahir women who were their personal servants. In the Central Provinces no subdivisions of the caste exist at present, but a separate and inferior subcaste is in process of formation from those who have been turned out of caste. They are divided for the purpose of marriage into exogamous _gotras_ or clans, the names of which correspond to those of Rajputs, as Kaunsil, Chandel, Rana, Bundela, Rathor, Baghel, Chauhan and others. Marriage between members of the same clan and also between first cousins is prohibited. The custom of _guranwat_ or exchanging girls in marriage between families is very prevalent, and as there is a scarcity of girls in the caste, a man who has not got a daughter must pay Rs. 100 to Rs. 200 to obtain a bride for his son. On the arrival of the marriage procession the bridegroom touches with a dagger a grass mat hung in front of the marriage-shed. During the marriage the bridegroom's father presents him with a grass ring, which he places on his wrist. The hands of the bridegroom and bride are tied one over the other with a piece of thread, and the bride's parents catching the hands say to the bridegroom, 'We have given you our daughter; protect her.' The couple then walk seven times round a sacrificial fire and a pestle and slab containing seven pieces of turmeric, nuts and heaps of coloured rice, the bride leading and kicking over a heap of rice from the slab at each turn. The other common ceremonies are also performed. The Bargahs do not tolerate sexual offences and expel a girl or married woman who goes wrong. The Bargahs are usually cultivators in the Central Provinces, but they consider it beneath their dignity to touch the plough with their own hands. Many of them are mlguzrs or village proprietors. They take food cooked without water from a Brahman, and water only from a Rajput. Rajputs take water from their hands, and their social position is fairly high.

_Bargandi_,--Synonym for Kaikari.

_Barghat_.--Synonym of Bargah.

_Barki_.--High. Subcaste of Rautia.

_Barkia_.--(A spinner of fine thread.) Subcaste of Mahar.

_Barmaiyan, Barmian, Malaiya_.--Subcaste of Basor, Dhimar and Gadaria.

_Baroni_.--Title of a female Dhimar.

_Barora_ or _Warkara_.--(Wild cat.) A subsept of the Uika clan of Gonds in Betul.

_Barpaihi_.--(_Bar,_ banyan tree.) A sept of the Uika clan of Gonds in Betul, so named because their priest offered food to their gods on the leaves of a banyan tree.

_Barwa_.--Synonym for Garpagari. One who wards off hailstones from the standing crops. Subcaste of Jogi.

_Bashishta_.--See Vasishta. A section of Vidur.

_Bastarha_.--A resident of Bastar State. Subcaste of Halba.

_Bathri_.--(From _batkur_, a vegetable.) A subcaste of Dhobi and Teli.

_Bathudia_.--Subcaste of Bhuiya.

_Batri_.--A grower of _batar_, a kind of pea. Subcaste of Teli.

_Batti_.--(A ball.) A subsept of the Uika clan of Gonds in Betul, so named because their priest stole balls of cooked mahua. They do not kill or eat goats or sheep, and throw away anything smelt by them.

_Bawan, Bawanjaye_.--_(Bawan_-52.) A subcaste of Saraswat Brahmans.

_Bawaria_.--A dweller of Bhanwargarh tract in Betul district. Subcaste of Korku.

_Bawisa_.--(Twenty-two.) A subcaste of Gujarati Brahmans in Hoshangabad and Makrai State.

_Bayar, Biyar, Biar_.--A small caste of labourers belonging to the eastern Districts of the United Provinces, of whom about 200 persons were returned from Bilaspur in 1891. They are found in the Korba zamindari, and are professional diggers or navvies, like the Murhas. They are apparently a mixed caste derived from the primitive tribes with some Hindu blood. They eat fowls and pork, but will not take food from any other caste. They work by contract on the _dangri_ system of measurement, a _dangri_ being a piece of bamboo five cubits long. For one rupee they dig a patch 8 _dangris_ long by one broad and a cubit in depth, or 675 cubic feet. But this rate does not allow for lift or lead.

_Bazigar_.--(An acrobat.) Synonym of Nat.

_Behar_.--(Cat.) A totemistic sept of Kawar.

_Behera_.--A subcaste of Taonla. A section of Tiyar. A title of Khadal.

_Belwar, Bilwar_.--A small caste of carriers and cattle-dealers belonging to Oudh, whose members occasionally visit the northern Districts of the Central Provinces. They say that their ancestors were Sanadhya Brahmans, who employed bullocks as pack-animals, and hence, being looked down on by the rest of the caste, became a separate body, marrying among themselves.

_Benaika, Binaika_.--A subcaste of Parwar Bania, consisting of the offspring of remarried widows or illegitimate unions. Probably also found among other subcastes of Bania.

_Benatia_.--A subcaste of Sansia in Sambalpur.

_Bendiwala_.--Name of a minor Vishnuite order. See Bairagi.

_Benetiya, Benatia_.--Subcaste of Chasa and Sansia.

_Bengali_.--Bengali immigrants are usually Brahmans or Kayasths.

_Bengani_.--(Brinjal.) One of the 1444 sections of Oswal Bania.

_Benglah_.--An immigrant from Bengal. Subcaste of Bharbhunja.

_Beora Basia_.--(Hawk.) A totemistic sept of Bhatra.

_Beraria_, _Beradia_.--(Belonging to Berar.) A subcaste of Bahna, Barai, Barhai, Chamar, Dhangar, Dhimar, Kasar and Kunbi.

_Beria_.--A caste of gipsies and vagrants, whose women are prostitutes. Hence sometimes used generally to signify a prostitute. A subcaste of Nat.

_Besra_.--(Hawk.) A totemistic sept of Bhatra and Rawat (Ahir).

_Besta_.--A Telugu caste of fishermen. They are also called Bhoi and Machchnaik, and correspond to the Dhimars. They are found only in the Chanda District, where they numbered 700 persons in 1911, and their proper home is Mysore. They are a low caste and rear pigs and eat pork, crocodiles, rats and fowls. They are stout and strong and dark in colour. Like the Dhimars they also act as palanquin-bearers, and hence has arisen a saying about them, 'The Besta is a great man when he carries shoes,' because the head of a gang of palanquin-bearers carries the shoes of the person who sits in it. At their marriages the couple place a mixture of cummin and jaggery on each other's heads, and then gently press their feet on those of the other seven times. Drums are beaten, and the bridegroom places rings on the toes of the bride and ties the _mangal-sutram_ or necklace of black beads round her neck. They are seated side by side on a plough-yoke, and the ends of their cloths are tied together. They are then taken outside and shown the Great Bear, the stars of which are considered to be the spirits of the seven principal Hindu Saints, and the pole-star, Arundhati, who represents the wife of Vasishtha and is the pattern of feminine virtue. On the following two days the couple throw flowers at each other for some time in the morning and evening. Before the marriage the bridegroom's toe-nails are cut by the barber as an act of purification. This custom, Mr. Thurston [422] states, corresponds among the Sudras to the shaving of the head among the Brahmans. The Bestas usually take as their principal deity the nearest large river and call it by the generic term of Ganga. On the fifth day after a death they offer cooked food, water and sesamum to the crows, in whose bodies the souls of the dead are believed to reside. The food and water are given to satisfy the hunger and thirst of the soul, while the sesamum is supposed to give it coolness and quench its heat. On the tenth day the ashes are thrown into a river. The beard of a boy whose father is alive is shaved for the first time before his marriage. Children are tattooed with a mark on the forehead within three months of birth, and this serves as a sect mark. A child is named on the eleventh day after birth, and if it is subsequently found to be continually ailing and sickly, the name is changed under the belief that it exercises an evil influence on the child.

_Betala_.--(Goblin.) One of the 1444 sections of Oswal Bania.

_Bhadauria_.--(From Bhadawar in Gwalior State.) A clan of Rajputs. A clan of Dangi in Saugor from whom Rajputs take daughters in marriage, but do not give daughters to them. A surname of Sanadhia Brahman.

_Bhadonia_.--Subcaste of Dangi.

_Bhadoria_.--(A drum-beater.) Subcaste of Chamar.

_Bhadri_, _Bhaddari_.--A synonym for Joshi, having a derogatory sense, as of one who begs with deceit or fraud.

_Bhadune_.--(From the month Bhadon.) A section of Kalar.

_Bhagat_.--(Devotee.) A section of Ahir or Gaoli, Barai and Panwar Rajput.

_Bhains-Mara_.--(Killer of the buffalo.) A section of Kanjar.

_Bhainsa_.--(Buffalo.) A section of Chamar, Dhanwar, Ganda, Kawar, Kanjar, Mali, Panka and Rawat (Ahir).

_Bhairon_.--(The god Bhairon.) A section of Panwar Rajput.

_Bhaiya_.--(Brother.) One of the 72 1/2 sections of Maheshri Bania.

_Bhala_.--(Spear.) One of the 72 1/2 sections of Maheshri Bania.

_Bhaldar_.--(A spear-man.) A class of Dahaits, who have commonly been employed as village watchmen.

_Bhale Sultan_.--(Lords of the spear.) A clan of Rajputs.

_Bhamti_, _Bhamtia_.--Synonyms of Bhamta.

_Bhanare_.--Named after the town of Bhandara in the Central Provinces. Subcaste of Dhimar.

_Bhand_, _Bhanr_. [423]--A small caste of story-tellers and buffoons. The name is derived from the Sanskrit Bhanda, a jester, and the caste are also known as Naqqal or actor. Only a trifling number of Bhands are shown by the census as belonging to the Central Provinces. Mr. Crooke remarks: "The Bhand is sometimes employed in the courts of Rajas and native gentlemen of rank, where he amuses the company at entertainments with buffoonery and a burlesque of European and native manners, much of which is of a very coarse nature. The Bhand is quite separate from and of a lower professional rank than the Bahrupia. The bulk of the caste are Muhammadans, but they have exogamous sections, some of which, as Kaithela (Kayasth), Bamhaniya (Brahman), Gujartha (Gujar), Nonela (Lunia), and so on, are derived from those of Hindu castes, and indicate that the caste is a heterogeneous community recruited from different sources. There are two recognised endogamous subcastes--the Chenr, which seems to mean little (Hindi, _Chenra_), and the Kashmiri. The former trace their origin to the time of Tamarlane, who, on the death of his son, gave himself over to mourning for twelve years. Then one Sayyid Hasan, a courtier of the Emperor, composed a humorous poem in Arabic, which gained him the title of Bhanr. Sayyid Hasan is regarded as the founder of the caste. Though he was a Sayyid the present Bhanrs are either Shaikhs or Mughals; and the difference of faith, Sunni and Shiah, is a bar to intermarriage. The Kashmiri Bhanrs are said to be of quite recent origin, having been invited from Kashmir by Nasir-ud-Din Haidar, king of Oudh." The Bhands perform their marriages by the Nikah form, in which a Kazi officiates. In virtue of being Muhammadans they abstain from pork and liquor. Dr. Buchanan [424] quaintly described them as "Impudent fellows, who make long faces, squeak like pigs, bark like dogs, and perform many other ludicrous feats. They also dance and sing, mimicking and turning into ridicule the dancing boys and girls, on whom they likewise pass many jokes, and are employed on great occasions." The Bhand, in fact, seems to correspond very nearly to the court jester of the Middle Ages.

_Bhandari_.--(A barber, also a cook in the Uriya country.) A synonym for Nai. A subcaste of Gondhali. A section of Oswal Bania and Halba. Title of the deputies of the chief _guru_ of the Satnami sect.

_Bhangi_.--(Hemp-smoker.) Synonym of Mehtar.

_Bhanr_.--Synonym of Bhand, a story-teller.

_Bhanwar_.--(A bee, also honey.) A section of Gadaria and Kawar.

_Bhaosar_.--Synonym of Chhipa.

_Bharadwaj_.--(A skylark. Name of a great Brahman Rishi or saint.) One of the common eponymous sections of Brahmans. Also a section of Joshi, Lohar, Prabhu, Sunar, and of several clans of Rajputs.

_Bharewa_.--(From _bharat_, a mixture of copper and lead.) A group of brass or bell-metal workers classed with the Kasar caste, but of lower social standing than the Kasars. A subcaste of Sunar in Raipur.

_Bhargava_.--(Born of Bhrigu Rishi.) A subcaste of Kanaujia Brahmans. A section of Maratha Brahmans. Bhargava Dhusar is a subcaste of Bania. See Bania-Dhusar.

_Bharia_.--(From the Bhar tribe.) A tribe. A subcaste of Baiga in Mandla, and of Kol.

_Bharia-Bhumia_.--Synonym of Bharia.

_Bharotia_ or _Mudia_.--(Shaven.) Subcaste of Baiga, also of Ahir.

_Bharthi_.--Name of one of the ten orders of Gosains.

_Bhatia_.--A commercial caste of Sind and Gujarat, a few of whom settle temporarily in the Central Provinces. Sir D. Ibbetson writes of them: [425] "The Bhatias are a class of Rajputs, originally coming from Bhatner, Jaisalmer and the Rajputana desert, who have taken to domestic pursuits. The name would seem to show that they were Bhatis (called Bhatti in the Punjab); but be that as it may, their Rajput origin seems to be unquestioned. They stand distinctly below the Khatri, and perhaps below the Arora, and are for the most part engaged in petty shopkeeping, though the Bhatias of Dera Ismail Khan are described as belonging to a widely-spread and enterprising mercantile community. They are very strict Hindus, far more so than the other trading classes of the western Punjab; and eschew meat and liquor. They do not practise widow-marriage."

Mr. Crooke's account [426] leaves little doubt that the Bhatias are a branch of the Bhatti or Yaduvansi Rajputs of Jaisalmer who have gone into trade; and Colonel Tod expresses the same view: "The Bhattiah is also one of the equestrian order converted into the commercial, and the exchange has been to his advantage. His habits are like those of the Arora, next to whom he ranks as to activity and wealth." [427] "The chief occupation of the Bhatias," Mr. Crooke states, "is moneylending, and to this they add trade of all kinds, agriculture, landholding and Government service. Many of them go on expeditions to Arabia, Kabul, Bokhara and other distant places of business. Many in Bombay carry on trade with Zanzibar, Java and the Malay Peninsula."

_Bhatnagar_.--A subcaste of Kayasth.

_Bhatpagar_.--(Wage of rice.) A section of Katia.

_Bhikshakunti_.--(_Bhiksha_, begging; _kunti_, lame.) A subcaste of Kapewar who are the Bhats or bards of the caste.

_Bhil_.--A tribe. A subcaste of Pardhi.

_Bhilaophod_.--(Those who extract oil from the _bhilawa_ nut, _Semecarpus anacardium_.) Subcaste of Kol.

_Bhilsaiyan_, _Bhilsia_, _Bhilasia_.--(From Bhilsa, a town in Gwalior State.) A section and surname of Jijhotia Brahmans. A section of Purania Sunar and of Rathor Teli and Teli.

_Bhima_.--A small caste belonging to the Mandla and Seoni Districts. They are musicians of the Gond tribe and dance and beg at their weddings. The caste are an offshoot of the Gonds, their exogamous septs having Gond names, as Marabi, Markam, Dhurwa, Parteti, Tekam and so on; but they now marry among themselves. They worship the Gond god, Bura Deo, their own elders serving as priests. At their performances the men play and dance, wearing hollow anklets of metal with little balls of iron inside to make them tinkle. The women are dressed like Hindu women and dance without ornaments. Their instrument is called Tuma or gourd. It consists of a hollow piece of bamboo fixed horizontally over a gourd. Over the bamboo a string is stretched secured to a peg at one end and passing over a bridge at the other. Little knobs of wax are made on the bamboo so that the string touches them during its vibrations. The gourd acts as a sounding-board.

_Bhogta_.--Subcaste of Khairwar.

_Bhoi_.--(One who carries litters or palanquins.) Synonym of Dhimar and Kahar. A title or honorific name for Gonds and one by which they are often known. See article Kahar. A section of Binjhal.

_Bhoir_.--Synonym for Bhoyar.

_Bhojni_.--Subcaste of Chitrakathi. They serve the food at marriage and other ceremonies.

_Bholia_.--(From _bhulna_, to forget.) Synonym of Bhulia.

_Bhona_.--A small caste of labourers in the Mandla District. They are practically all employed by the local Pansaris (Barai) or _pan_-growers in tending their _barejas_ or betel-vine gardens. There is some ground for supposing that the Bhonas are an offshoot of the Bharia or Bharia-Bhumia tribe of Jubbulpore, which is itself derived from the Bhars. One of the sections of the Bhonas is named after the vulture, and at their weddings a man of this section catches a young chicken and bites off the head in imitation of a vulture.

_Bhondih_.--(From _bhond_, dung-beetle.) A section of Ahir.

_Bhonsla_.--A clan of Marathas to which the Rajas of Nagpur belong.

_Bhope_ or _Bhoall_.--Subcaste of Manbhao.

_Bhoriya_.--Synonym of Bhulia.

_Bhoyar_.--A caste. A subcaste of Koshti and Marar.

_Bhudes_.--(The gods on earth.) Title of Brahmans.

_Bhuinhar_.--Name of a landholding caste in Benares and Bengal who claim to be Brahmans or Rajputs. They are also known as Babhan. A title of the Bhuiya tribe. See article Bhuiya. A title of the Bhaina tribe.

_Bhumia_.--(Born from the land, or aboriginal.) A title of the Bharia tribe in Jubbulpore, also a title of Baiga and Korku. A synonym of Bhuiya. A subdivision of Gond. A section of Kurmi.

_Bhura_.--(Grey.) One of the sections of Oswal Bania. A proper name.

_Bhusar_.--(Lord of the earth.) A title of Brahman.

_Bhusarjin_.--(From _bhusa_, the chaff of wheat.) Subcaste of Banjara.

_Bhuskate_.--(From _bhusa_, fodder, one who supplies fodder.) A family name.

_Bhuta_.--A subtribe of Gond in Betul, the same as Koilabhuta. They are said to be of immoral character.

_Biar_.--Synonym of Bayar.

_Bichhuwa_, _Bichhi_.--(From _bichhu_, scorpion.) A section of Dhobi and Kawar.

_Bidur_.--Synonym of the Vidur caste.

_Biloria_.--(From _bilori_, marble stone.) A section of Chhipa.

_Bilwar_.--Synonym of Belwar, a carrier and cattle-dealer.

_Bind_.--A large non-Aryan caste of Bihar and the United Provinces, of which 380 persons were returned in 1911. Sir H. Risley says of them: [428] "They are a tribe employed in agriculture, earthwork, fishing, hunting, making saltpetre and collecting indigenous drugs. Traditions current among the caste profess to trace their origin to the Vindhya hills, and one of these legends tells how a traveller, passing by the foot of the hills, heard a strange flute-like sound coming out of a clump of bamboos. He cut a shoot and took from it a fleshy substance which afterwards grew into a man, the supposed ancestor of the Binds. Another story says that the Binds and Nunias were formerly all Binds and that the present Nunias are the descendants of a Bind who consented to dig a grave for a Muhammadan king and was outcasted for doing so." A third legend tells how in the beginning of all things Mahadeo made a lump of earth and endowed it with life. The creature thus produced asked Mahadeo what he should eat. The god pointed to a tank and told him to eat the fish in it and the wild rice which grew near the banks. Mr. Crooke [429] says that they use fish largely except in the fortnight (Pitripaksh) sacred to the dead in the month of Kunwar, and Sir H. Risley notes that after the rice harvest the Binds wander about the country digging up the stores of rice accumulated by field rats in their burrows. From four to six pounds of grain are usually found, but even this quantity is sometimes exceeded. The Binds also feast on the rats, but they deny this, saying that to do so would be to their own injury, as a reduction of the next year's find of grain would thus be caused.

_Binjhal_.--Synonym of Binjhwar.

_Binjhwar_.--A caste derived from the Baiga tribe. A subtribe of Baiga and Gond. A subcaste of Gowari.

_Birchheya_.--(A dweller in the forest.) Subcaste of Ghosi.

_Birchkia_.--(From _birchka_, a tree.) A subcaste of Ghosi.

_Birhor._--A small Kolarian tribe of whom about 150 persons were returned in 1911 from the Chota Nagpur States. The name means a dweller in the forest. Sir H. Risley states that the Birhors live in tiny huts made of branches of trees and leaves, and eke out a miserable living by snaring hares and monkeys, and collecting jungle products, especially the bark of the _chob_ creeper, [430] from which a coarse kind of rope is made. They are great adepts at ensnaring monkeys and other small animals, and sell them alive or eat them. Colonel Dalton described them as, [431] "A small, dirty, miserable-looking race, who have the credit of devouring their parents, and when I taxed them with it they did not deny that such a custom had once obtained among them. But they declared they never shortened lives to provide such feasts and shrank with horror from the idea of any bodies but those of their own blood-relatives being served up to them." It would appear that this custom may be partly ceremonial, and have some object, such as ensuring that the dead person should be born again in the family or that the survivors should not be haunted by his ghost. It has been recorded of the Bhunjias that they ate a small part of the flesh of their dead parents. [432] Colonel Dalton considered the Birhors to be a branch of the Kharia tribe, and this is borne out by Dr. Grierson's statement that the specimen of the Birhor dialect returned from the Jashpur State was really Kharia. [433] Elsewhere the Birhor dialect resembles Mundari.

_Birjhia, Birjia._ (One who practises _bewar_ or shifting cultivation in a forest.) Subcaste of Binjhwar, Baiga and Korwa.

_Birkhandia._--From Birkhand (Sand of heroes), a name for Rajputana. A section of Teli.

_Birtiya._ Title of Nai or barber.

_Bisen, Bisan._--A clan of Rajput. A section of Daharia and of Panwar Rajput. A section of Marar.

_Bobaiaya._--(From Bobbili, a town in Madras.) A section of Teli in Chanda.

_Bogam._--A name for Madrasi prostitutes, perhaps a separate caste. Their honorific title is Sani.

_Bohra._--A Muhammadan caste. A section of Oswal Bania.

_Bombay._--A subdivision of Valmiki Kayasth.

_Bondoya_--A resident of Jitgarh and the Pachmarhi tract of the Central Provinces. Subcaste of Korku.

_Bopchi._--A section of Panwar Rajput.

_Bopchi_--A small caste in the Wardha District numbering a few hundred persons. They are in reality Korkus, the name being a corruption of that of the Bendoya subtribe, but they have discarded their proper tribal name and formed a separate caste. They retain some of the Korku sept names, while others are derived from the Marathi words or from the names of other castes, and these facts indicate that the Bopchis are of mixed descent from Korkus and other low Maratha castes with which unions have taken place. As might be expected, they are very tolerant of sexual and social offences, and do not expel a woman who has a _liaison_ with a man of another caste or takes food from him. She is readmitted to caste intercourse, but has to undergo the penalty of washing her body with cowdung and having a lock of her hair cut off. A man committing a similar offence has his upper lip shaved. They employ Gosains for their _gurus_ and their social position is very low.

_Borakar._(A mat-maker.) Synonym of Gopal.

_Borjharia._--(_Bor_-plum.) A sept of Halba.

_Brahmachare._--(A celibate.) Subcaste of Manbhao.

_Brahman Gaur_, or _Bamhan Gaur_.--A branch of the Gaur clan of Rajputs. A subcaste of Bhat.

_Brid-dhari_.--Begging Bhats. Subcaste of Bhat.

_Brihaspati, Brahaspati_.--An eponymous section of Brahmans.

_Buchar_.--A corruption of the English word 'butcher.' Subcaste of Khatik in Agra.

_Budalgir_.--(From _budla_, a leathern bag made for the transport and storage of oil and _ghi_ (butter).) Subcaste of Chamar.

_Bukekari_.--(A seller of scented powder _(bukka)_.) Synonym of Atari.

_Bundela_.--A clan of Rajputs of mixed descent. Name probably from the Vindhya hills. A subcaste of Basor. A sept of Manihar and Rawat.

_Bundelkhandi_.--A resident of Bundelkhand. Subcaste of Basdewa, Barai, Basor, Chamar, Darzi, Dhobi, Kumhar, Lohar, Nai and Sunar.

_Bundhrajia_.--Subcaste of Kamar.

_Bunkar_.--(A weaver.) Title of Balahi.

_Burad_.--A synonym for the Basor caste of bamboo-workers. A section of Koshti and Oswal Bania.

_Burthia_.--Subcaste of Charan Banjara.

_Burud_.--(A bamboo-worker.) Synonym for Basor in the Maratha country.

_Butka_.--(One who brings leaves.) Subcaste of Chasa.

_Byahut_.--(Married.) Subcaste of Kalar.

_Chadar_.--A caste. A subcaste of Kori.

_Chakere_.--(One who uses the potter's wheel in localities where other Kumhars do not use it.) Subcaste of Kumhar.

_Chakla_.--(A professional washerman.) Synonym for Dhobi.

_Chalukya_.--A synonym for Solanki Rajputs. (Perhaps from _chhullu_ or _challu_, hollow of the hand.) A subcaste of Panwar Rajput.

_Chamar, Chamara_.--(From _chamra_, a hide.) The well-known caste of tanners. A subcaste of Banjara, Barhai and Darzi.

_Chamar Gaur_.--(Chamar and Gaur.) A well-known clan of Rajputs. See Rajput-Gaur.

_Chambhar_.--Name of the Chamar caste in Berar.

_Chamra_.--A contemptuous diminutive for the Chamar caste in Chhattisgarh.

_Chandan, Chandania_.--(Sandalwood.) A section of Chamar, Kawar, Khangar and Kurmi.

_Chandel_.--A famous clan of Rajputs. See Rajput-Chandel.

_Chandewar_.--(Belonging to Chanda.) Subcaste of Injhwar.

_Chandi_.--(One who hides behind a fishing-net.) A sept of Korku.

_Chandra, Chandraha_. (From _chanda_, the moon.) A section of Gujar and Teli.

_Chandravansi_ or _Somvansi_.--(Descended from the moon.) A clan of Rajputs.

_Chandravedi_.--Synonym of Sanaurhia, meaning 'One who observes the moon.'

_Chankhatia_.--A subcaste of Bhuiya and Chamar.

_Channagri_.--A small Jain sect. A subcaste of Bania.

_Chanti_.--Name derived from _chiti_, an ant. Subcaste of Kawar. A section of Kumhar.

_Chanwar_.--(Whisk.) A totemistic sept of Kawar and Pabia.

_Charak_.--A subdivision of Maratha Brahman; a section of Brahman.

_Charan_.--Subcaste of Banjara and Bhat. Title of Bhat in Rajputana.

_Chardeve_.--A clan of Gonds worshiping four gods and paying special reverence to the tortoise.

_Charghar_.--(Four houses.) A subdivision of Saraswat Brahmans.

_Charnagri_.--A Jain sect or subcaste of Bania.

_Chatrapati_.--(Lord of the umbrella.) Title of the ancient Indian kings.

_Chatri, Chhatri_.--A common synonym for a Rajput. A subcaste of Bhamta.

_Chaturbhuji_.--(Four-armed.) An epithet of Vishnu. A title of the Chauhan clan of Rajputs. A class of Bairagis or religious mendicants.

_Chaube, Chaturvedi_.--(From Chaturvedi, or one learned in the four Vedas.) A surname for Kanaujia, Jijhotia and other Hindustani Brahmans. Subcaste of Banjara.

_Chaubhaiya_.--(Four brothers.) A subdivision of Saraswat Brahmans. They take wives from the Athbhaiya subdivision, but do not give girls to them in marriage.

_Chaudhri_, _Chaudhari_, _Choudhri_.--(A headman, the first person.) Title of Kalar Panwar, Rajput and other castes; title of Dhobi, vice-president of the caste committee. A section of Ahir, Maheshri Bania, Gadaria, Gujar, Halba and Marar (Mali). A subdivision of Kapewar.

_Chauhan_.--A famous clan of Rajputs. Name of a low caste of village watchmen in Chhattisgarh, perhaps the illegitimate descendants of Panwar Rajputs.

_Chauka_.--Title of the Kabirpanthi religious service. The _chauk_ is a sanctified place on the floor of the house or yard, plastered with cowdung and marked out with lines of wheat-flour or quartz-dust within which ceremonies are performed.

_Chaukhutia_.--A term which signifies a bastard in Chhattisgarh. Subcaste of Bhunjia.

_Chauske_.--Subcaste of Kalar. They are so called because they prohibit the marriage of persons having a common ancestor up to four generations.

_Chaurasia_.--Resident of a Chaurasi or estate of eighty-four villages. Subcaste of Barai and Bhoyar. A section of Dhimar and Kumhar. Many estates are called by this name, grants of eighty-four villages having been commonly made under native rule.

_Chawara_, _Chaura_.--One of the thirty-six royal races of Rajputs.

_Chenchuwar_, _Chenchuwad_ or _Chenchu_--A forest tribe of the Telugu country of whom a few persons were returned from the Chanda District in 1911. In Madras the tribe is known as Chenchu, and the affix _wad_ or _wadu_ merely signifies person or man. [434] The marriage ceremony of the Chenchus may be mentioned on account of its simplicity. The couple sometimes simply run away together at night and return next day as husband and wife, or, if they perform a rite, walk round and round a bow and arrow stuck into the ground, while their relations bless them and throw rice on their heads. Each party to a marriage can terminate it at will without assigning any reason or observing any formality. The bodies of the dead are washed and then buried with their weapons.

_Chenr_.--(Little.) Subcaste of Bhand.

_Cheorakuta_.--(One who prepares _cheora_ or pounded rice.) Subcaste of Dhuri.

_Chero_. [435]--A well-known tribe of the Munda or Kolarian family, found in small numbers in the Chota Nagpur Feudatory States. They are believed to have been at one time the rulers of Bihar, where numerous monuments are attributed, according to the inquiries of Buchanan and Dalton, to the Kols and Cheros. "In Shahabad [436] also most of the ancient monuments are ascribed to the Cheros, and it is traditionally asserted that the whole country belonged to them in sovereignty. An inscription at Budh Gaya mentions one Phudi Chandra who is traditionally said to have been a Chero. The Cheros were expelled from Shahabad, some say by the Sawaras (Saonrs), some say by a tribe called Hariha; and the date of their expulsion is conjectured to be between the fifth and sixth centuries of the Christian era. Both Cheros and Sawaras were considered by the Brahmans of Shahabad as impure or Mlechchas, but the Harihas are reported good Kshatriyas.

"The overthrow of the Cheros in Mithila and Magadha seems to have been complete. Once lords of the Gangetic provinces, they are now found in Shahabad and other Bihar Districts only holding the meanest offices or concealing themselves in the woods skirting the hills occupied by their cousins, the Kharwars; but in Palamau they retained till a recent period the position they had lost elsewhere. A Chero family maintained almost an independent rule in that pargana till the accession of the British Government; they even attempted to hold their castles and strong places against that power, but were speedily subjugated, forced to pay revenue and submit to the laws. They were, however, allowed to retain their estates; and though the rights of the last Raja of the race were purchased by Government in 1813, in consequence of his falling into arrears, the collateral branches of the family have extensive estates there still. According to their own traditions (they have no trustworthy annals) they have not been many generations in Palamau. They invaded that country from Rohtas, and with the aid of Rajput chiefs, the ancestors of the Thakurais of Ranka and Chainpur drove out and supplanted a Rajput Raja of the Raksel family, who retreated into Sarguja and established himself there.

"All the Cheros of note who assisted in the expedition obtained military service grants of land, which they still retain. The Kharwars were then the people of most consideration in Palamau, and they allowed the Cheros to remain in peaceful possession of the hill tracts bordering on Sarguja. It is popularly asserted that at the commencement of the Chero rule in Palamau they numbered twelve thousand families, and the Kharwars eighteen thousand; and if an individual of one or the other is asked to what tribe he belongs, he will say, not that he is a Chero or a Kharwar, but that he belongs to the twelve thousand or to the eighteen thousand, as the case may be. The Palamau Cheros now live strictly as Rajputs and wear the _paita_ or caste thread."

It has been suggested in the article on Khairwar that the close connection between the two tribes may arise from the Kharwars or Khairwars having been an occupational offshoot of the Cheros and Santals.

In Palamau [437] the Cheros are now divided into two subcastes, the Bara-hazar or twelve thousand, and the Terah-hazar or thirteen thousand, who are also known as Birbandhi. The former are the higher in rank and include most of the descendants of former ruling families, who assume the title Babuan. The Terah-hazar are supposed to be the illegitimate offspring of the Bara-hazar.

"The distinctive physical traits of the Cheros," Colonel Dalton states, "have been considerably softened by the alliances with pure Hindu families, which their ancient power and large possessions enabled them to secure; but they appear to me still to exhibit an unmistakable Mongolian physiognomy. They vary in colour, but are usually of a light brown. They have, as a rule, high cheek-bones, small eyes obliquely set, and eyebrows to correspond, low broad noses, and large mouths with protuberant lips."

_Cherwa_.--Subcaste of Kawar.

_Chetti_.--Subcaste of Gandli.

_Chhachan_.--(A hawk.) A section of Rawat (Ahir).

_Chhadesia_.--(A man of six districts.) Subcaste of Banjara.

_Chhadidar_ or _Darwan_.--Title of the Dahaits, who were door-keepers of the Rajas of Mahoba in former times.

_Chhanava Kule_.--(The ninety-six houses.) A subcaste of Maratha.

_Chhatakia_.--An illegitimate group of the Kumhar caste.

_Chhattisgarhi, Chhattisgarhia_.--Resident of Chhattisgarh or the region of the thirty-six forts, a name given to the eastern tract of the Central Provinces. Subcaste of Bahna, Darzi and Halba.

_Chhehghar (Chhenghar)_.--(Members of the six houses.) A hypergamous division of Kanaujia Brahmans. They take daughters from the other two divisions, but do not give their daughters to them.

_Chhipa_.--(A dyer.) Synonym of Darzi.

_Chhoha_ or _Saroria_.--A subcaste of Agharia of mixed descent.

_Chholia_.--(Rubbish.) A section of Rajjhar.

_Chhote_.--(Inferior.) Subcaste of Agharia and Teli.

_Chhoti Pangat_.--A subcaste of Halba, Synonym Surait. Chhoti Pangat signifies the inferior caste feast, and the implication is that these members cannot join in the proper feast.

_Chhotki Bhir or Gorhi_.--(Low.) Subcaste of Rautia.

_Chhura_,--(Razor.) A section of Panka. It was their business to shave other members of the caste after a death;

_Chicham_.--(Hawk.)--A sept of Gonds.

_Chicheria_.--(From _church_, forelock, which the children of this sept wear.) A sept of Dhimar.

_Chika_.--Subcaste of Majhwar.

_Chikwa_.--Synonym of Khatik.

_Chinchkul_.--A section of Komti. They abstain from the use of ginger and from the juice of the _bhilawa_ or marking-nut tree.

_Chita Purdhi, Chilewala_.--(Leopard-hunter.) A subcaste of Pardhi.

_Chiturkar, Chitrakar_.--(A painter.) Synonym for Chitari.

_Chiter_.--(A painter.) See Chitari.

_Chitevari_.--(One who makes clay idols.) Synonym for Mochi.

_Chitpawan_.--(The pure in heart.) A synonym for Konkanasth Brahman.

_Chitragupta Vansi_.--(Descendants of Chitragupta.) A name for Kayasths.

_Chobdar_.--(A mace-bearer.) Title of Dahait.

_Chorbans_.--(Family of thieves.) A section of Chamar.

_Chourdhar_.--(A whisk-carrier.) A section of Sunar.

_Chuhra_.--Subcaste of Mehtar. Name for the sweeper caste in the Punjab.

_Chungia_.--(One who smokes a leaf-pipe.) Subcaste of Chamar and Satnami.

_Chunwiha_.--(From _chunri_, a coloured sheet worn by women.) A section of Tamera.

_Churha_.--(Thief.) A subcaste of Sunar. A section of Chhipa.

_Cutchwaha_.--Clan of Rajput. Synonym for Kachhwaha.

_Daharia_.--(From Dahar, the old name of the Jubbulpore country.) A clan of Rajputs which has developed into a caste. A subcaste of Bhoyar, Kalar, Mahar, Maratha and Teli. A section of Chadar, Chamar and Katia.

_Dahat_.--A variant for Dahait. A subcaste of Khangar.

_Dahia_.--One of the thirty-six royal races of Rajputs.

_Daijanya_.--Subcaste of Chamar. They are so called because their women act as _dai_ or midwives.

_Dakhne, Dakshne, Dakshni, Dakshini._--(Belonging to the Deccan.) Subcaste of Bahna, Chamar, Gondhali, Gurao, Kunbi, Mahar, Mang and Nai.

_Dakochia_.--A synonym for Bhadri, an astrologer.

_Dal_.--(From _dal_, an army.) Subcaste of Khond.

_Dalboha, Dalbuha_.--(One who carries _dhoolies_ or palanquins.) Subcaste of Ghasia and Katia.

_Dalia_.--(From _dal_ or the pulse of Burhanpur which had a great reputation). Subcaste of Kunbi.

_Dal Khalsa_.--(Army of God.) Title of the Sikh army.

_Dandewala_.--(One who performs acrobatic feats on a stick or bamboo.) Synonym for Kolhati.

_Dandi_.--(One who carries a stick.) Name of a class of religious mendicants. See article Gosain.

_Dandsena_.--(One who carries a stick.) Subcaste of Kalar.

_Dang-charha._--(A rope-climber.) Synonym of Nut.

_Dangiwara_.--Name of part of the Saugor District, which is called after the Dangi caste. Subcaste of Kadera.

_Dangua_.--(A hill-dweller.) Subcaste of Taonla.

_Dangur_.--A small caste of hemp weavers numbering about 100 persons, and residing almost entirely in the village of Masod in Betul District. They are of the same standing as the caste of Kumrawat or Patbina which pursues this occupation in other Districts, but acknowledge no connection with them and are probably an occupational offshoot of the Kunbi caste, from whose members they readily accept any kind of cooked food. Like many other small occupational castes with no definite traditions, they profess to have a Kshatriya origin, calling themselves Bhagore Rajputs, while their families are known by such high-sounding titles as Rathor, Chauhan, Gaur, Solanki and other well-known Rajput names. These pretensions have no foundation in fact, and the Dangurs formerly did not abjure pork, while they still eat fowls and drink liquor. They neither bathe nor clean their kitchens daily. They may eat food taken from one place to another, but not if they are wearing shoes, this being only permissible in the case when the bridegroom takes his food wearing his marriage shoes.

_Dantele_.--(With teeth.) A section of Purania Sunars in Saugor.

_Daraihan_.--A small caste of debased Rajputs found in the Bilaspur District of Chhattisgarh and numbering some 2000 persons in 1901. They say that their ancestors were Rajputs from Upper India who settled in Chhattisgarh some generations back in the village of Dargaon in Raipur District. Thence they were given the name of Dargaihan, which has been corrupted into Daraihan. Others say that the name is derived from _dari_, a prostitute, but this is perhaps a libel. In any case they do not care about the name Daraihan and prefer to call themselves Kshatriyas. They have now no connection with the Rajputs of Upper India, and have developed into an endogamous group who marry among themselves. It seems likely that the caste are an inferior branch of the Daharia cultivating caste of Chhattisgarh, which is derived from the Daharia clan of Rajputs. [438]

Like other Rajputs the Daraihans have an elaborate system of septs and subsepts, the former having the names of Rajput clans, while the latter are taken from the eponymous _gotras_ of the Brahmans. There are fourteen septs, named as a rule after the principal Rajput clans, of whom four, the Chandel, Kachhwaha, Dhandhul and Sakrawara, rank higher than the other ten, and will take daughters from these in marriage, but not give their daughters in return. Besides the septs they have the standard Brahmanical _gotras_, as Kausilya, Bharadwaj, Vasishtha and so on to the number of seven, and the members of each sept are divided into these _gotras_. Theoretically a man should not take a wife whose sept or _gotra_ is the same as his own. The marriage of first cousins is forbidden, and while the grandchildren of two sisters may intermarry, for the descendants of a brother and a sister the affinity is a bar till the third generation. But the small numbers of the caste must make the arrangement of matches very difficult, and it is doubtful whether these rules are strictly observed. They permit the practice of Gunravat or giving a bride for a bride. In other respects the social customs of the caste resemble those of their neighbours, the Daharias, and their rules as to the conduct of women are strict. The men are well built and have regular features and fair complexions, from which their Rajput ancestry may still be recognised. They wear the sacred thread. The Daraihans are good and intelligent cultivators, many of them being proprietors or large tenants, and unlike the Daharias they do not object to driving the plough with their own hands. In the poorer families even the women work in the fields. They have a strong clannish feeling and will readily combine for the support or protection of any member of the caste who may be in need of it.

_Darbania_.--(Door-keeper.) Title of Khangur.

_Darshani_.--Title of the most holy members of the Kanphata Jogis.

_Darshni_.--(From _darshan_, seeing, beholding, as of a god.) A sub-division of Jogi.

_Darwan_.--(A door-keeper.) Title of Dahait.

_Darwe_ or _Dalwe_.--A subcaste of Gonds in Chanda; the Darwes are also called Naik.

_Darwesh_.--Persian name for a Muhammadan Fakir or religious mendicant.

_Darzi_.--A caste of tailors. Subcaste of Ghasia.

_Das_.--(Servant.) Used as the termination of their names by Bairagis or religious mendicants. A term applied by Pankas and other Kabirpanthis to themselves.

_Dasa_.--(Ten.) A subdivision of Agarwala and other subcastes of Bania, meaning those of pure blood.

_Dasghar_.--(Ten houses.) One of the three subdivisions of Kanaujia Brahmans. They give their daughters to members of the Chheghar or six houses and receive them from the Panchghar or five houses.

_Dasnami_.--A member of the ten orders. Synonym for Gosain.

_Datta_ or _Dutt_.--Surname of Bengali Kayasths.

_Daune_.--A subdivision of Prabhu or Parbhu in Nagpur, so called on account of their living in the island of Diu, a Portuguese possession.

_Deccani_.--See Dakhne.

_Dehalwi_.--(From Delhi.) A subdivision of Gaur Kayasths.

_Dehri_.--(A worshipper.) Subcaste of Sudh.

_Dekkala_.--(A genealogist.) Subcaste of Madgi.

_Delki_.--Subcaste of Kharia.

_Deo_.--(God.) A hereditary title borne by certain Feudatory Chiefs. A surname of Karhara Brahmans in Saugor. A subcaste of Gandli in Chanda.

_Deobansi_.--(A descendant of a god.) Subcaste of Patwa.

_Deogarhia_ or _Rajkunwar_.--(From Deogarh.) A subcaste of Pardhan. A subcaste of Audhelia made up of prostitutes. A sept of Dhimar.

_Deokia_.--Title used in the Bedar caste.

_Deoputra_.--(Son of god.) Synonym of Charan.

_Desa_ or _Kota_.--Subcaste of Balija.

_Desai_.--A variant for Deshmukh or a Maratha revenue officer. Title of the Pardhan caste.

_Desawal_.--A subdivision of Brahman in Jubbulpore. They take their name from Disa, a town in Palanpur State in Bombay Presidency.

_Desha, Desaha_.--(Belonging to the home country.) The name is usually applied to immigrants from Malwa or Hindustan. A subcaste of Ahir, Bargah, Bari, Chamar, Dhuri, Gadaria, Kalar, Kol, Kurmi, Lakhera, Lohar, Mahar, Sunar and Teli.

_Deshastha_.--A subcaste of Maratha Brahmans inhabiting the country (Desh) above the Western Ghats. A subcaste of Gurao.

_Deshkar_.--(One belonging to the country.) A subcaste of Gondhali, Gurao, Kasar, Koshti, Kunbi, Mahar, Mali, Maratha, Nai, Sunar and Teli.

_Deshmukh_.--Under Maratha rule the Deshmukh was a Pargana officer who collected the revenue of the Pargana or small subdivision, and other taxes, receiving a certain share. The office of Deshmukh was generally held by a leading Kunbi of the neighbourhood. He also held revenue-free land in virtue of his position. The Deshmukh families now tend to form a separate subcaste of Kunbis and marry among themselves.

_Deshpande_.--The Deshpande was the Pargana accountant. He was generally a Brahman and the right-hand man of the Deshmukh, and having the advantage of education he became powerful like the Deshmukh. Now used as a surname by Maratha Brahmans.

_Deswali_.--Synonym for Mina.

_Devadasi_.--(Handmaidens of the gods.) Synonym for Kasbi.

_Devarukhe_.--A subdivision of Maratha Brahmans. The word is derived from Devarishi, a Shakha (branch) of the Atharva Veda, or from Devarukh, a town in Ratnagiri District of Bombay Presidency. Among Brahmans they hold rather a low position.

_Dewangan_.--(From the old town of this name on the Wardha river.) Subcaste of Koshti.

_Dhaighar_.--(2 1/2 houses.) A subcaste of Khatri.

_Dhakan_.--(A witch.) Subcaste of Bhat.

_Dhakar_.--Name of a caste in Bastar. A clan of Rajputs. A subcase of Barai, Bania and Kirar. A sept of Halba.

_Dhalgar_.--A small occupational caste who made leather shields, and are now almost extinct as the use of shields has gone out of fashion. They are Muhammadans, but Mr. Crooke [439] considers them to be allied to the Dabgars, who make leather vessels for holding oil and _ghi_ and are also known as Kuppesaz. The Dabgars are a Hindu caste whose place in the Central Provinces is taken by the Budalgir Chamars. These receive their designation from _budla_, the name of the leather bag which they make. _Budlas_ were formerly employed for holding _ghi_ or melted butter, oil and the liquid extract of sugarcane, but vegetable oil is now generally carried in earthen vessels slung in baskets, and _ghi_ in empty kerosene tins. Small bottles of very thin leather are still used by scent-sellers for holding their scents, though they also have glass bottles. The song of the Leather Bottél recalls the fact that vessels for holding liquids were made of leather in Europe prior to the introduction of glass. The Dhalgars also made targets for archery practice from the hides of buffaloes; and the similar use of the hides of cattle in Europe survives in our phrase of the bull's eye for the centre of the target.

_Dhamonia_.--(From Dhamoni, a town in Saugor.) A subcaste of Sonkar. A territorial sept of Darzi and Dhobi.

_Dhanak Sammani_.--(One who reverences the bow.) A section of Barai.

_Dhandere_.--(Probably from Dhundhar, an old name of Jaipur or Amber State.) A sept of Rajputs.

_Dhangar_.--(A farmservant.) Synonym of Oraon.

_Dhanka_.--Perhaps a variant for Dhangar. Subcaste of Oraon.

_Dhanoj_, _Dhanoje_.--(From _dhangar_, a shepherd.) Subcaste of Are and Kunbi.

_Dhanpagar_.--(One serving for a pittance of paddy.) A section of Teli.

_Dhanuhar_.--(A corrupt form of Dhanusdhar or a holder of a bow.) Synonym of Dhanwar.

_Dhanuk_.--(A bowman.) A caste. A subcaste of Mehtar.

_Dhanushban_.--(Bow and arrow.) A sept of Kawar.

_Dharampuria_.--(Resident of Dharampur.) Subcaste of Dhobi.

_Dhare_.--Title of Gowari.

_Dhari_.--A subcaste of Banjara. They are the bards of the caste.

_Dharkar_.--Subcaste of Basor.

_Dharmik_.--(Religious or virtuous.) A subcaste of Mahar and Maratha.

_Dhed_.--Synonym for Mahar.

_Dhengar_.--A subcaste of Bharewa (Kasar) and Gadaria.

_Dhera_. [440]--A small Telugu caste of weavers, the bulk of whom reside in the Sonpur State, transferred to Bengal in 1905. The Dheras were brought from Orissa by the Raja of Sonpur to make clothes for the images of the gods, which they also claim to be their privilege in Puri. Their exogamous groups are named after animals, plants or other objects, and they practise totemism. The members of the Surya or sun group will not eat during an eclipse. Those of the Nalla (black) sept will not wear black clothes. Those of the Bansethi and Bhanala septs will not use the _bandi_, a kind of cart from which they consider their name to be derived. The Otals take their name from _utti_, a net, from which pots are hung, and they will not use this net. Those of the Gunda sept, who take their name from _gunda_, a bullet, will not eat any game shot with a gun. Marriage within the sept is prohibited, but the Dheras always, where practicable, arrange the marriage of a boy with his maternal uncle's daughter. Even in childhood the members of such families address each other as brother-in-law and sister-in-law. When the bridegroom and bride go home after the marriage ceremony, the bridegroom's sister bars the door of the house and will not let them in until they have severally promised to give her their daughter for her son. A girl must be married before arriving at adolescence on pain of permanent exclusion from the caste. If a suitable husband has not therefore been found when the period approaches, the parents marry the girl to her elder sister's husband or any other married man. She is not bound to enter into conjugal relations with the man to whom she is thus united, and with his consent she may be consequently married to any other man in the guise of a widow. If a bachelor takes such a girl to wife, he must first be married to a _sahara_ tree (_Streblus asper_). When a betrothal is arranged, an elderly member of the bridegroom's family proceeds to the bride's house and asks her people three times in succession whether the betrothal is arranged, and at each reply in the affirmative ties a knot in his cloth. He then goes home and in the bridegroom's house solemnly unties the knots over another cloth which is spread on the ground. This cloth is then considered to contain the promises and it is wrapped up and carefully put away to keep them as if they were material objects.

_Dherha_.--(Brother-in-law or paternal aunt's husband.) Title of Kharia.

_Dhimar_.--A caste. Subcaste of Kori.

_Dhimra_.--Synonym for Dhimar.

_Dhobi_.--The caste of washermen. A sept of Bharia and Bhaina.

_Dhokhede_.--One of doubtful parentage. A sept of Teli.

_Dholewar_.--(From _dhola_, a drum.) A subcaste of Bhoyar and Gaoli. A section of Basor.

_Dholi_.--(A minstrel.) Subcaste of Bhat.

_Dhubela_.--Origin perhaps from the Dhobi caste. Subcaste of Basor.

_Dhulbajia_.--(From _dhol_, a drum.) A subcaste of Chamar, also known as Daijania.

_Dhulia_, _Dholin_, _Dholi_.--(A player on a _dhol_ or drum.) Synonym for the Basor caste. A subcaste of Gond in Chanda and Betul. A subcaste of Mahar.

_Dhunak Pathan_.--Synonym for Bahna.

_Dhunia_.--(From _dhunna_, to card cotton.) Synonym for Bahna.

_Dhunka_.--(A cotton-cleaner.) Subcaste of Kadera.

_Dhur Gond_.--(From _dhur_, dust.) A subcaste of Gonds. They are also known as Rawanvansi or descendants of Rawan.

_Dhuri_.--A caste of grain-parchers. A subcaste of Dhimar.

_Dhuria_.--Subcaste of Nagasia and Dhimar. They are so called because they mark the forehead of the bride with dust (_dhur_) taken from the sole of the bridegroom's foot.

_Dhurwa_.--The word may be derived from _dhur_, dust. Dhur is a name given to the body of Gonds as opposed to the Raj-Gonds. One of the commonest septs of Gonds. A sept of Baiga, Kolta, Kalar and Nat. A title of Parja.

_Dhusar_.--Subcaste of Bania.

_Dhusia_.--Subcaste of Murha.

_Digambari_.--A sect of Jain Banias who do not clothe their idols and apply saffron to their feet. Also a class of Bairagis or religious mendicants.

_Diharia_ or _Kisan_.--(One who lives in a village or a cultivator.). Subcaste of Korwa.

_Dikhit_, _Dikshit_, _Dixit_.--(The Initiator.) A subcaste of Brahman. A clan of Rajputs of the solar race formerly dominant in the United Provinces.

_Dila_.--(A pointed stick tied to a calf's mouth to prevent him from sucking.) A totemistic sept of Kawar. They do not use a stick in this manner. A section of Ahir.

_Dillawal_.--A subcaste of Kasar. Those belonging to or coming from Delhi.

_Dingkuchia_.--(One who castrates cattle and ponies.) Subcaste of Ghasia.

_Dipawalia_.--(One who supplies oil for the lamps at Diwali.) A sept of Teli.

_Dipbans_.--(Son of the lamp.) Title of Teli.

_Diwan_.--Title of the members of the Dahait caste committee.

_Dixit_.--See Dikhit.

_Dobaile_.--(One who yokes two bullocks to the oil-press.) Subcaste of Telis in the Nagpur country.

_Dobisya_.--(Two score.) Subcaste of Halwai.

_Doda_ or _Dor_.--One of the thirty-six royal races of Rajputs.

_Dogle_.--Name applied to Kayasths of illegitimate descent.

_Dohor_. [441]--A small caste of Berar, who are really Chamars; in the Central Provinces the Dohors are a well-known subcaste of Chamars, but in Berar they appear to have obtained a separate name, under which about 6000 persons were returned in 1911. They work in leather like the Chamars or Mochis. With the ambition of bettering their social status among the Hindus the caste strictly observe the sanctity of animal life. No Dohor may molest an animal or even pelt it with stones. A man who sells a cow or bullock to butchers is put out of caste, but if he repents and gets the animal back before it is slaughtered, a fine of Rs. 5 only is imposed. If, on the other hand, the animal is killed, the culprit must give his daughter in marriage without taking any price from the bridegroom, and must feed the whole caste and pay a fine of Rs. 50, which is expended on liquor. Failing this he is expelled from the community. Similarly the Pardeshi Dohors rigidly enforce infant-marriage. If a girl is not married before she is ten her family are fined and put out of caste until the fine is paid. And if the girl has leprosy or any other disease, which prevents her from getting married, a similar penalty is imposed on the family. Nevertheless the Dohors are considered to be impure and are not allowed to enter Hindu temples; the village barber does not shave them nor the washerman wash their clothes. A bachelor desiring to marry a widow must first perform the ceremony with a _rui_ or cotton-tree. But such a union is considered disgraceful; the man himself must pay a heavy fine to get back into caste, and his children are considered as partly illegitimate and must marry with the progeny of similar unions. Either husband or wife can obtain a divorce by a simple application to the caste _panchayat_, and a divorced woman can marry again as a widow. The caste offer sheep and goats to their deities and worship the animals before killing them. At Dasahra they also pay reverence to the skinning-knife, and the needle with which shoes are sewn. The caste burn the bodies of those who die married and bury the unmarried. Before setting out for a funeral they drink liquor and again on their return, and a little liquor is sprinkled over the grave. When a man has been cremated his ashes are taken and thrown into a river on the third day. The chief mourner, after being shaved by his brother-in-law, takes the hair with some copper coins in his hand and, diving into the river, leaves them there as an offering to the dead man's spirit.

_Dolia_.--(Palanquin-bearer.) A section of Dhimar.

_Dom_.--An important caste in Bengal. See article Kanjar. Used as a synonym for Ganda in the Uriya country.

_Domra_.--Subcaste of Turi.

_Dongaria_, _Dongarwar_.--(From _dongar_, a hill.) A sept of Bhil, Dhobi, Mali, Mang and Sonkar. A surname of Maratha Brahmans.

_Dora_.--(Sahib or Lord.) Title of the Mutrasi caste.

_Dosar_.--Subcaste of Bania.

_Dravida_.--(Southern.) See Panch-Dravida.

_Dube_.--(A teacher and a man learned in two Vedas.) A common surname of Hindustani Brahmans. A subcaste of Banjara.

_Dudh_.--(Milk.) Dudh-Barai, a subcaste of Barai; Dudh-Gowari, a subcaste of Ahir or Gowari; Dudh-Kawar, a subcaste of Kawar.

_Dudh Bhai_.--(Milk-brothers.) A fraternity of Gonds in Betul, who are apparently foster-brothers. They do not marry, though they have different septs.

_Dukar_.--A subcaste of Kolhati. From _dukar_, hog, because they are accustomed to hunt the wild pig with dogs and spears when these animals become too numerous and damage the crops of the villagers.

_Dukaria_.--Title of the officer of the Andh caste who constitutes the caste committee.

_Dulha_.--(Bridegroom.) A section of Chadar.

_Dumar_ or _Dom_.--A low caste of sweepers in Bengal. See Kanjar. Subcaste of Basor, Ganda, Panka and Turi. Synonym and subcaste of Mehtar. A section of Kawar.

_Durgbansi_.--A clan of Rajputs in Ragnandgaon.

_Dusre_.--(Second.) A subdivision of Shrivastab, Gaur and Saksena Kayasths, meaning those of inferior or mixed origin as opposed to Khare or those of pure origin.

_Dwarka_.--One of the most holy places in India, situated on or near the sea in Gujarat. It is supposed to have been founded by Krishna. Site of one of the monasteries (Ashram) of Sankaracharya, the founder of the non-dualistic or Vedanta philosophy.

_Dwija_.--(Twice-born.) A title applied to the three higher classical castes, Brahman, Kshatriya and Vaishya, and now especially to Brahmans.

_Ekbahia_.--(One-armed.) Subcaste of Teli, so called because their women wear glass bangles only on one arm.

_Ekbaile_.--One who yokes one bullock only to the oil-press. Subcaste of Teli.

_Elama, Elma_.--Synonym for Velama. A subcaste of Kapewar or Kapu.

_Erenga._--Subcaste of Kharia in Bengal.

_Erna_.--(From Eran, in Saugor district.) A section of Teli.

_Fakir_.--A Muhammadan mendicant. Synonym Sain. See article.

_Farid_.--Sheikh Farid was a well-known Muhammadan saint. A section of Panwar Rajput.

_Farsi_.--Persian. From the Province of Fars. The term Farsi is also used by the Hindus to signify foreign or non-Aryan languages like Gondi.

_Fidawi._--(A disciple.) An order of devotees of the Khojah sect known to the Crusaders as Assassins. Title of Khojah.

_Gadaba_.--Synonym of Gadba.

_Gadaria_.--A caste. Subcaste of Ahir.

_Gadha_.--(An ass.) A sept of the Uika clan of Gonds in Betul, so named because their priest rode on an ass in crossing a river.

_Gadhao_.--(From _gadha_, an ass.) Subcaste of Kunbi.

_Gadhewal, Gadhere, Gadhwe, Gadhilla_.--(One who keeps donkeys. From _gadha_, an ass.) A subcaste of Dhimar, Katia, Koshti, Kumhar and Sonkar. A sept of Gond and Pardhan.

_Gadhwana_.--(From Garha, near Jubbulpore.) Subcaste of Nai.

_Gadiwan_.--(A cart-driver.) Subcaste of Dangri.

_Gadri_.--(From _gadar_, a sheep.) A synonym of Gadaria. A subcaste of Dhangar.

_Gaharwar, Gaharval, Gherwal_.--One of the thirty-six royal races of Rajputs chiefly found in Bilaspur and Khairagarh. A section of Patwas.

_Gahbainya_ or _Gahboniya_.--(Those who hid in a village when called by a king to his presence.) A subcaste of Kurmi. A section of Kurmi.

_Gahlot_ or _Sesodia_.--A famous clan of Rajputs. A section of Daraiha and Joshi.

_Gahoi_.--Subcaste of Bania. See article Bania-Gahoi.

_Gahra_.--Synonym for Ahir or herdsman in the Uriya country.

_Gai-Gowari._--Subcaste of Gowari.

_Gaiki_.--A cowherd. (A subcaste of Gond in Betul.) A section of Chamar.

_Gaikwar_ or _Gaika_.--(A cowherd.) A clan of Maratha. A section of Ahir, Bhil, Kunbi and Mahar.

_Gaita_.--Subcaste of Gond.

_Gaiwale_.--(Cow-keeper.) A subcaste of Moghia.

_Gajarha_.--_(Gajar_, a carrot.) A section of Teli in Mandla.

_Gajjam_.--A sept of the Dhurwa clan of Gonds in Betul named after Gajjami. (Bow and arrows in Gondi.)

_Ganda_.--(A messenger.) A low caste of village watchmen. In the Uriya country the Gandas are known as Dom. A subcaste of Pardhan. Title of Kharia.

_Gandhi_.--A scent-seller. (From _gandh_, a Sanskrit word for scent.) Synonym of Atari. A section of Maheshir Bania.

_Gandli_.--The Telugu caste of oil-pressers, numbering about 3000 persons in the Central Provinces, in the Chanda, Nagpur and Bhandara Districts. They are immigrants from the Godavari District of Madras and have been settled in the Central Provinces for some generations. Here many of them have prospered so that they have abandoned the hereditary calling and become landowners, traders and moneylenders. Like the well-to-do Telis they are keenly desirous of bettering their social position and now repudiate any connection with what may be known as 'the shop,' or the profession of oil-pressing. As this ranks very low, among the more despised village handicrafts, the progress of the Gandlis and Telis to the social standing of Banias, to which they generally aspire, is beset with difficulties; but the Gandlis, in virtue of having migrated to what is practically a foreign country so far as they are concerned, have achieved a considerable measure of success, and may be said to enjoy a better position than any Telis. A few of them wear the sacred thread, and though they eat flesh, they have abjured liquor except in Chanda, where they are most numerous and the proportion of wealthy members is smallest. Here also they are said to eat pork. Others eat flesh and fowls.

The Gandlis are divided into the Reddi, Chetti and Telkala subcastes, and the last are generally oil-pressers. It is probable that the Reddis are the same as the Redu-eddu or Rendu-eddu subcaste of Madras, who derive their name from the custom of using two bullocks to turn the oil-press, like the Do-baile Telis of the Central Provinces. But it has been changed to Reddi, a more respectable name, as being a synonym for the Kapu cultivating caste. Chetti really means a trader, and is, Mr. Francis says, [442] "One of those occupational or titular terms, which are largely employed as caste names. The weavers, oil-pressers and others use it as a title, and many more tack it on to their names to denote that trade is their occupation." Marriage is regulated by exogamous groups, the names of which are said to be derived from those of villages. Girls are generally married during childhood. A noticeable point is that the ceremony is celebrated at the bridegroom's house, to which the bride goes, accompanied by her party, including the women of her family. The ceremony follows the Maratha form of throwing fried rice over the bridal couple, and Brahman priests are employed to officiate. Widow-marriage is permitted. The dead are both buried and burnt, and during mourning the Gandlis refrain from eating _khichri_ or mixed rice and pulse, and do not take their food off plantain leaves, in addition to the other usual observances. They have the _shantik_ ceremony or the seclusion of a girl on the first appearance of the signs of adolescence, which is in vogue among the higher Maratha castes, and is followed by a feast and the consummation of her marriage. They now speak Marathi fluently, but still use Telugu in their houses and wear their head-cloths tied after the Tulugu fashion. [443]

_Gangabalu_.--(Sand of the Ganges.) A family name of Ganda.

_Gangabasia_.--(Living on the banks of the Ganges.) A section of Ahir.

_Gangapari_.--(One coming from the further side of the Ganges.) Subcaste of Barai, Barhai, Chamar, Dhobi, Gondhali, Kumhar and Umre Bania.

_Gangasagar_.--(Sea of the Ganges.) A section of Chitari and Kawar.

_Gangavansi_.--(Descended from the Ganges.) A clan of Rajputs. The chief of Bamra State is a Gangavansi.

_Gangthade_.--Dwellers on the banks of the Godavari and Wainganga. These rivers are sometimes called Ganga or Ganges, which is used as a general term for a great river. A subcaste of Maratha.

_Gannore_.--Name of a minor Rajput clan. Subcaste of Balahi.

_Ganth-chor_.--(A bundle-thief.) Title of Bhamta.

_Gaolan_.--A synonym of Ahir or Gaoli, applied to an inferior section of the caste.

_Gaoli_, _Gauli_.--(A milkman.) Synonym for Ahir. Subcaste of Hatkar.

_Gaontia_.--(A village headman.) Title of the head of the Kol caste committee. Title of Kol.

_Garde_.--(Dusty.) A surname of Karhara Brahmans in Saugor.

_Garg_ or _Gargya_.--The name of a famous Rishi or saint. An eponymous section of Brahmans. A section of Agarwala Banias. Gargabansi is a clan of Rajputs.

_Garhawala_, _Garhewala_, _Garhewar_.--A resident of Garha, an old town near Jubbulpore which gave its name to the Garha-Mandla dynasty, and is a centre of weaving. A subcaste of Katia, Koshti and Mahar, all weaving castes. A subcaste of Binjhal.

_Garkata_.--(Cut-throat.) A section of Koshti.

_Garpagari_.--A body of Jogis or Naths who avert hailstorms and are considered a separate caste. See article. From _gar_, hail. A subcaste of Koshta and Kumhar. A section of Ghasia.

_Gate_.--(A bastard.) Subcaste of Naoda.

_Gaur_.--The ancient name of part of Bengal and perhaps applied also to the tract in the United Provinces round about the modern Gonda District. A subcaste of Brahman and Kayasth. A clan of Rajputs. See articles.

_Gauria_, _Gauriya_.--A caste. A subcaste of Dhimar, Khond, Kumhar and Uriya Sansia.

_Gauriputra_.--A son of Gauri, the wife of Mahadeo. Title of Balija.

_Gautam_.--A name of a famous Rishi or saint. A common eponymous section of Brahmans. A clan of Rajputs. A section of Agharia, Ahir, Maratha, Panwar Rajput, Rangari and Jangam.

_Gayake_.--Subcaste of Pardhi, meaning a man who stalks deer behind a bullock.

_Gayawal_.--(From the town of Gaya on the Ganges, a favourite place for performing the obsequies of the dead.) A subcaste of Brahmans who act as emissaries for the owners of the shrines at Gaya and wander about the country inducing villagers to undertake the pilgrimage and personally conducting their constituents.

_Gazulu_.--(A bangle-seller.) Subcaste of Balija.

_Gedam_.--A sept of Gonds. A sept of Baigas.

_Ghadyachi Tong_.--(The rim of the pitcher.) A section of Kirar.

_Ghanta_.--(Bell.) A section of Kumhar.

_Ghantra_.--Name of a caste of Lohars or blacksmiths in the Uriya country.

_Gharbari_.--One who while leading a mendicant life is permitted to marry with the permission of his _guru_. A householder, synonym Grihastha. The married groups of the Gosain, Bairagi and Manbhao orders as distinguished from the Nihang or celibate section.

_Ghasi Mali_.--Subcaste of Mali.

_Ghatole_, _Ghatode_.--Those who dwell on the _ghats_ or passes of the Sainhyadri Hills to the south of the Berar plain. Subcaste of Bahna, Gondhali and Kunbi.

_Ghatmathe_.--(Residents of the Mahadeo plateau in Berar.) Subcaste of Maratha.

_Gherwal_.--A clan of Rajputs. Synonym for Gaharwar.

_Ghidoda_.--(Giver of _ghi_.) A section of Telis so named because their first ancestors presented _ghi_ to the king Bhoramdeo.

_Ghisadi_, _Ghisari_.--A group of wandering Lohars or blacksmiths. Synonym for Lohar.

_Ghoderao_.--(_Ghoda_, a horse.) Subcaste of Chitrakathi. They have the duty of looking after the horses and bullock-carts of the castemen who assemble for marriage or other ceremonies.

_Ghodke_.--Those who tend horses. Subcaste of Mang.

_Ghodmaria_.--(Horse-killer.) A sept of Binjhwar.

_Ghopi_.--(Wild _jamun_ tree.) A sept of Gonds.

_Ghosi_.--A caste. A subcaste of Ahir. A section of Chamar.

_Ghudchoda_.--A subcaste of Pasi, who have become grooms. (From _ghora_, a horse.)

_Ghughu, Ghughwa_.--(Owl.) A section of Ganda, Kawar, Kewat and Panka. Pankas of the Ghughu sept are said to have eaten the leavings of their caste-fellows.

_Ghunnere_.--(Worm-eater.) A section of Teli in Betul and Rathor Teli.

_Ghura_ or _Gura_.--(Dunghill.) A section of Chadar and Sunar.

_Ghuttin_.--A sept of Bhils. They reverence the _gular_, or fig tree.

_Gingra_.--A subcaste of Tiyar.

_Girgira_.--A small caste found in Sonpur State and Sambalpur district. They are fishermen, and also parch rice. They are perhaps an offshoot of the Kewat caste.

_Giri_ or _Gir_.--(_Gir_, mountain.) An order of Gosains.

_Girnara_.--A subcaste of Brahmans in Jubbulpore. They are said to take their name from Girnar in Kathiawar, where they were settled by Krishna after he rose from the Damodar reservoir in the bed of the Sonrekha river at Junagarh. They have the monopoly of the office of priests to pilgrims visiting Girnar. _(Bombay Gazetteer_, ix.)

_Goal_ or _Gowala, Guala_.--(Sanskrit Gopal, a cowherd.) Synonym of Ahir, also subcaste of Ahir.

_Gaoli_.--(A cowherd.) Synonym for Ahir. Subcaste of Maratha.

_Gobardhua_.--(From _gobar_, cowdung.) Subcaste of Chamar.

_Gohia, Gohi_.--(From _goh_ or _gohi_, a large lizard.) A section of Jain Bania or Khatik. A sept of Bhatra and Parja.

_Gohil_.--A well-known clan of Rajputs in the United Provinces.

_Goia_.--(From _gohi_, a mango-stone.) A section of Chadar. They draw a picture of the mango-stone at the Maihar or distribution of sacrificial cakes.

_Gola._--Synonym of Golar.

_Golak_.--Synonym Govardhan or Gaomukh. An illegitimate group of Maratha Brahmans.

_Golalare_.--A subcaste of Bania.

_Golandaz_.--(An artilleryman.) Synonym of Kadera.

_Golapurab_.--A subcaste of Bania, Darzi and Kalar.

_Golkar_.--Synonym of Golar and Ahir.

_Golia_.--One who dyes cloth with _goli ka rang_, the fugitive aniline dyes. Subcaste of Chhipa.

_Golla_.--Synonym of Golar.

_Gollam_.--Synonym of Golar.

_Gondadya_.--(Gond.) Subcaste of Otari.

_Gondi_.--(From the Gonds.) A subcaste of Ahir, Binjhwar and Lohar.

_Gondia_.--Subcaste of Dhimar.

_Gondi-Lohar._--A Gond who works as a blacksmith. Subcaste of Lohar.

_Gondvansi_.--(Descendants of Gonds.) A section of Ghasia.

_Gondwaina_.--Subcaste of Baiga.

_Gopal_.--A caste. Synonym of Ahir in Rajputana.

_Goranda_.--Synonym of Goyanda.

_Gorakhnath_.--A sect of Jogis. From Guru Gorakhnath, a great Jogi.

_Gorasia_.--(From _goras_, milk.) A section of Lonare Mali.

_Gorigawar, Gaigowal_.--(A cowherd.) A section of Otari and Panka.

_Gosain, Goswami_.--A caste. A surname of Sanadhya Brahmans in Saugor.

_Gotte_.--A subcaste of Gond. They are also called Made in Chanda.

_Goundia_.--A class of Bairagi. Synonym Madhavachari. A section of Bharia-Bhumia.

_Gowalvansi_.--Subcaste of Ahir.

_Goyanda, Goranda_.--A name applied to a small class of persons in Jubbulpore, who are descendants of Thug approvers, formerly confined there. The name is said to mean, 'One who speaks,' and to have been applied to those Thugs who escaped capital punishment by giving information against their confederates. Goranda is said to be a corruption of Goyanda. The Goyandas are both Hindus and Muhammadans. The latter commonly call themselves Deccani Musalmans as a more respectable designation. They are said to be a gipsy class of Muhammadans resembling the Kanjars. The Hindus are of different castes, but are also believed to include some Beria gipsies. The Goyandas are employed in making gloves, socks and strings for pyjamas, having probably taken to this kind of work because the Thug approvers were employed in the manufacture of tents. Their women are quarrelsome, and wrangle over payment when selling their wares. This calling resembles that of the Kanjar women, who also make articles of net and string, and sell them in villages. Some of the Goyandas are employed in Government and railway service, and Mr. Gayer notes that the latter are given to opium smuggling, and carry opium on their railway engines. [444]

_Grihastha, Gharbari_.--(A householder.) A name given to those divisions of the religious mendicant orders who marry and have families.

_Guar_.--(From _guara_ or _gwala_, a milkman.) Subcaste of Banjara.

_Gudarh_ or _Gudar_.--(From _gudra_, a rag.) A sect of the Bairagi, Gosain and Jogi orders of mendicants.

_Gudha_ or _Gurha_.--(From _gudh_, a pigsty.) Subcaste of Basor.

_Gugaria_.--One who trades in _gugar_, a kind of gum. Subcaste of Banjara.

_Gujar_.--A caste. A subcaste of Ahir, Darzi, Koshti and Pasi. A clan of Maratha. A section of Khatik.

_Gujarati_.--(From Gujarat.) A territorial subcaste of Bahelia, Bania, Barhai, Chhipa, Darzi, Gopal, Nai, Sunar and Teli.

_Gurasthulu_.--A synonym for the Balija caste.

_Gurbhelia_.--(A ball of molasses.) A section of Gohira Ahirs in Chanda.

_Guria_.--(A preparer of _gur_ or unrefined sugar.) Synonym of Halwai in the Uriya country.

_Gurujwale_.--A class of Fakirs or Muhammadan beggars.

_Guru-Mata._--Title of the great council of the Sikhs and their religious meal.

_Guru_.--(A preacher or teacher or spiritual guide.) Brahmans and members of the religious orders, Bairagis and Gosains, are the Gurus of ordinary Hindus. Most Hindu men and also women of the higher and middle castes have a Guru, whose functions are, however, generally confined to whispering a sacred verse into the ear of the disciple on initiation, and paying him a visit about once a year; it is not clear what happens on these occasions, but the Guru is entertained by this disciple, and a little moral exhortation may be given.

_Gurusthulu_.--Synonym of Balija.

_Guthau_.--Title of Gadba.

_Gwalbansi, Gokulbansi, Goalbansi_.--(Descended from a cowherd.) A subcaste of Ahir or Gaoli, A subcaste of Khairwar.

_Gwalhare_.--(Cowherd.) A subcaste of Lodhi.

_Habshi_.--Synonym of Siddi. An Abyssinian.

_Hadi_.--(Sweeper or scavenger.) One of the 72 1/2 gotras of Meheshri Bania. A synonym for Mangan.

_Hadia_.--(From _hadi_, bone.) A section of Raghuvansi.

_Haihaya, Haihaivansi_.--(Race of the horse.) A clan of Rajputs of the lunar race.

_Hajjam_.--Muhammadan name for Nai or barber.

_Hakkya_.--Title of Hatkar.

_Halai_.--Subcaste of Cutchi.

_Halbi_.--Synonym of Halba. Subcaste of Koshti.

_Haldia, Hardiya, Hardiha, Halde_.--(A grower of _haldi_, or turmeric.) Subcaste of Kachhi, Lodhi, Mali, Rajjhar and Teli. A section of Rajjhar.

_Halia_.--(Ploughman.) A subcaste of Teli in Nandgaon State.

_Halua_.--A subcaste of Uriya Brahmans, so called because they use the plough (_hal_).

_Hans, Hansi, Hansa_,--(The swan.) A section of Agharia, Ahir, Mali and Savar.

_Hansele_.--(_Hansna_, to laugh.) A section of Ahir.

_Hanuman, Hanumanta_.--(The monkey-god Hanuman.) A section of Bhatra, Mahar and Mowar.

_Hara_.--A clan of Rajputs, a branch of the Chauhans.

_Harbola_.--Derived from Hari, a name of Vishnu or Krishna, and _bolna_ to speak. Synonym of Basdewa and also subcaste of Basdewa.

_Hardas_.--A religious mendicant who travels about and tells stories about heroes and gods accompanied with music. Synonym of Chitrakathi.

_Hari_.--(A bone-gatherer.) Synonym of Mehtar and subcaste of Mehtar.

_Haria_.--(_Hal_, plough.) A subcaste of Mahar.

_Harial_.--(Green pigeon.) A section of Ahir.

_Harshe_.--(Glad.) Surname of Karhara Brahmans in Saugor.

_Hatgar_.--Synonym of Hatkar.

_Hatghar_.--Subcaste of Koshti.

_Hathgarhia_.--Subcaste of Kumhar, meaning one who moulds vessels with his hands only, without using the wheel as an implement.

_Hathia, Hasti_.--(From _hathi_, elephant.) A section of Ahir, Chasa, Mehra and Mowar.

_Hatkar, Hatgar_.--A caste. A subcaste of Koshta and Maratha.

_Hatwa_.--A small caste of pedlars and hawkers in the Uriya country, who perambulate the village bazars or _hats_, from which word their name is derived. They sell tobacco, turmeric, salt, and other commodities. The caste are in reality a branch of the Kewats, and are also called Semli Kewat, because their ancestors travelled on the Mahanadi and other rivers in canoes made from the bark of the _semal_ tree (_Bombax Malabaricum_). They were thus Kewats or boatmen who adopted the practice of carrying small articles up and down the river for sale in their canoes, and then beginning to travel on land as well as on water, became regular pedlars, and were differentiated into a separate caste. The caste originated in Orissa where river travelling has until lately been much in vogue, and in Sambalpur they are also known as Uriyas, because of their recent immigration into this part of the country. The Hatwas consider themselves to be descended from the Nag or cobra, and say that they all belong to the Nag _gotra_. They will not kill a cobra, and will save it from death at the hands of others if they have the opportunity, and they sometimes pay the snake-charmers to set free captive snakes. The oath on the snake is their most solemn form of affirmation. For the purposes of marriage they have a number of exogamous sections or _vargas_, the names of which in some cases indicate a military calling, as Dalai, from Dalpati, commander of an army, and Senapati, commander-in-chief; while others are occupational, as Maharana (painter), Dwari (gatekeeper) and Mangual (steersman of a boat). The latter names show, as might be expected, that the caste is partly of functional origin, while as regards the military names, the Hatwas say that they formerly fought against the Bhonslas, under one of the Uriya chiefs. They say that they have the perpetual privilege of contributing sixteen poles, called Naikas, for the car of Jagannath, and that in lieu of this they hold seven villages in Orissa revenue-free. Those of them who use pack-bullocks for carrying their wares worship Banjari Devi, a deity who is held to reside in the sacks used for loading the bullocks; to her they offer sweetmeats and grain boiled with sugar.

_Havelia_.--(Resident of a Haveli or fertile wheat tract.) Subcaste of Ghosi and Kurmi.

_Hawaidar_.--(A maker of fireworks.) Synonym of Kadera.

_Hela_.--(From _hela_, a cry.) Subcaste of Mehtar.

_Hichami_.--(A comb.) A sept of Maria Gonds.

_Hijra_.--(A eunuch.) See article. A subcaste of Gondhali.

_Hindustani_.--Subcaste of Kunbi.

_Hira, Hirani_.--(Diamond.) A section of Bhulia and of Uriya Sansia.

_Hirangotri_.--(_Hiran_, deer.) A section of Agarwal Bania.

_Ho_.--Synonym of Kol.

_Holer_.--(A hide-curer.) Subcaste of Mang.

_Holia, Holer_.--A caste. A subcaste of Golar. Holer, perhaps from Holia, a subcaste of Mang.

_Hudila_.--(Wolf.) A totemistic sept of Kawar.

_Hulhulia Sahu_.--A section of Chasa so named, because as a mark of respect they make the noise 'Hulhuli,' when a king passes through the village.

_Huna, Hoon_ or _Hun_.--One of the thirty-six royal races of Rajputs. Probably descendants of the Hun invaders of the fifth century. See articles Rajput and Panwar Rajput.

_Husaini_.--Subcaste of Brahman.

_Ikbainha_.--A subcaste of Kurmi, so called because their women put bangles on one arm only.

_Iksha Kul_ or _Ikshawap Kul_.--A section of Komti. They abstain from using the sugarcane and the _sendia_ flower.

_Ilakeband_.--(From _ilaqa_ or _alaqa_, meaning connection, and _bandhna_, to bind.) Synonym of Patwa.

_Inga_.--Subcaste of Gowari.

_Irpachi_.--(Mahua flowers.) A sept of Dhurwa Gonds in Betul.

_Ivna Inde_.--(_Inde_, chicken.) A sept of Dhurwa Gonds in Betul. They offer chickens to their gods.

_Ivna Jagleya_.--(_Jagna_, to be awake.) A sept of the Dhurwa clan of Gonds in Betul. They are so named because they kept awake to worship their gods at night.

_Jadam, Jaduvansi, Yadava_.--An important clan of Rajputs now become a caste. Name derived from Yadu or Yadava. A subcaste of Gujar. A subcaste and section of Ahir; a section of Rathor Rajputs in Betul.

_Jadia, Jaria_.--(An enameller.) A subcaste of Sunar. They practise hypergamy by taking wives from the Pitariye and Sudihe subdivisions, and giving daughters to the Sri Nagariye and Banjar Mahuwe subdivisions. Also an occupational term meaning one who sets precious stones in rings.

_Jadubansi, Yadubansi_.--See Jadum. A subcaste of Ahir.

_Jaga_.--(Awakener.) Synonym of Basdewa.

_Jagat_.--(An awakener or sorcerer.) A sept of Gond in many localities. A section of Nat and Kasar.

_Jaharia_.--(From _jahar_, an essence.) Subcaste of Satnami.

_Jain_.--Name of a religion. See article. A subcaste of Kalar, Kumbar and Simpi (Darzi).

_Jaina_.--(One who follows the Jain faith.) Subcaste of Komti, Gurao.

_Jain Koshti_.--Subcaste of Koshti.

_Jaipuria_.--(A resident of Jaipur.) Subcaste of Mali.

_Jaiswar_.--(From the old town of Jais in Rai Bareli District.) A subcaste of Chamars, who usually call themselves Jaiswara in preference to their caste name. A subcaste of Barai, Kunbi and Kalar.

_Jalalia_.--A class of Fakirs or Muhammadan beggars.

_Jaitwa_ or _Kamari_.--A clan of Rajputs; one of the thirty-six royal races mentioned by Colonel Tod.

_Jallad_.--(An executioner.) Subcaste of Kanjar.

_Jamadagni_.--An eponymous section of Karhare Brahman and Agharia.

_Jambu_.--(From the _jaman_ tree.) A subcaste of Brahman and Marar. A sept of Korku.

_Jambu Dalia_.--(Born in a shed made of _jaman_ branches.) A section of Ghasia.

_Jamnabasi_.--(Residing on the banks of the Jumna.) A subcaste of Dhobi.

_Jangam_.--A caste of Saiva mendicants, who call themselves Vir Shaiva, and are priests of the Lingayat sect; a subcaste of Jogi.

_Jangra_.--(Perhaps the same as Jharia or jungly.) A subcaste of Lodhi. A section of Dhimar, Mali and Sunar.

_Jani_.--A wise man; an exorciser.

_Janta_.--(Flour grinding-mill.) A section of Panka, a sept of Kawar.

_Janughanta_.--Mendicants who tie bells to their thighs; a kind of Jogis.

_Jaria_.--A totemistic section of Basor, who worship the _ber_ or wild plum tree.

_Jasondhi, Dasaundhi_.--A caste. A subcaste of Bhat.

_Jasondhi, Karohla_.--A small caste of the Narsinghpur District, who were employed at the Gond and Maratha courts to sing the _jas_ or hymns in praise of the chiefs. They may be considered as a branch of the Bhat caste, and some of them are said to be addicted to petty theft. Some Jasondhis, who are also known as Karohla, now wander about as religious mendicants, singing the praises of Devi. They carry an image of the goddess suspended by a chain round the neck and ask for gifts of _tilli_ (sesamum) or other vegetable oil, which they pour over their heads and over the image. Their clothes and bodies are consequently always saturated with this oil. They also have a little cup of vermilion which they smear on the goddess and on their own bodies after receiving an offering. They call on Devi, saying, '_Maiji, Maiji Mata meri, kahe ko janam diya_' or 'Mother, mother, why did you bring me into the world?' Women who have no children sometimes vow to dedicate their first-born son as a Karohla, and it is said that such children were bound to sacrifice themselves to the goddess on attaining manhood in one of three ways. Either they went to Benares and were cut in two by a sword, or else to Badrinarayan, a shrine on the summit of the Himalayas, where they were frozen to death, or to Dhaolagiri, where they threw themselves down from a rock, and one might occasionally escape death. Their melancholy refrain may thus be explained by the fate in store for them. The headquaters of the order is the shrine of the Bindhyachal Devi in the Vindhyan Hills.

_Jat_.--A caste. One of the thirty-six royal races of Rajputs. A subcaste of Barhai, Bishnoi and Kumhar.

_Jatadhari_.--(With matted hair.) A sect of celibate Manbhaos.

_Jati_.--Name of Jain mendicant ascetics.

_Jaunpuri_.--(From Jaunpur.) A subcaste of Halwai and Lohar.

_Jemadar_.--Honorific title of Khangar and Mehtar.

_Jemadarin_.--Title of the female leaders of the Yerukala communities of thieves.

_Jera_.--(A forked stick for collecting thorny wood.) A section of Dangi.

_Jhadi, Jhade, Jharia, Jharkua_. (Jungly.)--A name often applied to the oldest residents of a caste in any locality of the Central Provinces. In Berar it is used to designate the Wainganga Valley and adjacent hill ranges. A subcaste of Ahir, Barai, Barhai, Chamar, Dhangar, Dhanwar, Dhobi, Gadaria, Gurao, Kapewar, Kasar, Katia, Kewat, Khatik, Khond, Kirar, Kumhar, Kunbi, Kurmi, Mahar, Mali, Nai, Sunar, Teli and Turi.

_Jhadukar_.--(From _jhadu_, a broom.) A synonym of Mehtar.

_Jhal_ or _Jhala_.--One of the thirty-six royal races of Rajputs. A subcaste of Raj-Gond.

_Jhankar_.--Name of a village priest in the Uriya country. The Jhankar is usually a Binjhwar or member of another primitive tribe.

_Jhara, Jhira, Jhora_.--Synonym of Sonjhara.

_Jharha_.--subcaste of Lodhi. _Jharia_.--(Jungly.) See Jhadi. _Jharola_.--(Perhaps from the town of Jhalor in Marwar.) A subcaste of Brahmans in Jubbulpore.

_Jhinga_.--(A prawn-catcher.) Subcaste of Dhimar.

_Jijhotia_ or _Jujhotia_.--(From Jajhoti, the old name of the country of Lalitpur and Saugor.) A subcaste of Brahmans of the Kanaujia division. A subcaste of Ahir; a section of Joshi and Kumhar.

_Jildgar_.--(A bookbinder.) A class of _Mochi._

_Jingar._--(A saddlemaker.) A class of Mochi. A subcaste of Chamar and of Simpi (Darzi).

_Jirayat_.--Synonym for Mochis in Berar who have taken up the finer kinds of ironwork, such as mending guns, etc.

_Jire-Mali._--Formerly was the only subcaste of Mali who would grow cumin or _jira_.

_Jiria_.--(From _jira_, or cumin.) Subcaste of Kachhi.

_Jogi, Jugi_. A caste. A subcaste of Dewar. A section of Chamar, Chhipa and Lohar.

_Joharia_.--(From _johar_, a form of salutation.) Subcaste of Dahaits in Bilaspur.

_Johri_.--A subcaste of Rajput.

_Jokhara_.--A small class of Muhammadans who breed leeches and apply them to patients, the name being derived from _jonk_, a leech. They were not separately classified at the census, but a few families of them are found in Burhanpur, and they marry among themselves, because no other Muhammadans will marry with them. In other parts of India leeches are kept and applied by sweepers and sometimes by their women. [445] People suffering from boils, toothache, swellings of the face, piles and other diseases have leeches applied to them. For toothache the leeches are placed inside the mouth on the gum for two days in succession. There are two kinds of leeches known as Bhainsa-jonk, the large or buffalo-leech, and Rai-jonk, the small leech. They are found in the mud of stagnant tanks and in broken-down wells, and are kept in earthen vessels in a mixture of black soil and water; and in this condition they will go without food for months and also breed. Some patients object to having their blood taken out of the house, and in such cases powdered turmeric is given to the leeches to make them disgorge, and the blood of the patient is buried inside the house. The same means is adopted to prevent the leeches from dying of repletion. In Gujarat the Jokharas are a branch of the Hajjam or Muhammadan barber caste, [446] and this recalls the fact that the barber chirurgeon or surgeon in mediæval England was also known as the leech. It would be natural to suppose that he was named after the insect which he applied, but Murray's Dictionary holds that the two words were derived from separate early English roots, and were subsequently identified by popular etymology.

_Jondhara_.--(Indian millet.) A totemistic sept of Korku and Halba.

_Joshi_.--(An astrologer.) A caste. A surname of Karhara Brahmans.

_Juthia_.--(One who eats the leavings of others.) Subcaste of Basor.

_Jyotishi_.--A synonym for Joshi; an astrologer.

_Kabiraya_.--(Followers of Kabir.) A subcaste of Kori. A section of Koshti.

_Kabirpanthi_.--A member of the Kabirpanthi sect. A subcaste of Panka and Agharia. A class of Bairagis or religious mendicants.

_Kabra_.--(Spotted.) One of the 72 1/2 sections of Maheshri Bania.

_Kabutari_.--(Pigeon.) A synonym for Kolhati. A name given to female dancers of the Nat caste.

_Kabutkunia_.--(Those who find place at the corner of the door.) A subcaste of Sudh in Sambalpur, being the illegitimate issues of the Baro Sudh subcaste.

_Kachara_.--Synonym of Kachera.

_Kachchhi_.--(From Cutch in Gujarat.) A subdivision of Balmiki Kayasths and Mathur Kayasths.

_Kachhap_.--(Tortoise.) A totemistic sept of Agharia, Sudh, Bhulia, Chasa, Kamar and Khandait.

_Kachhotia_.--Subcaste of Jadam.

_Kachhutva_.--(The tortoise.) A totemistic sept of several groups of Gonds, also of Darzi, Halba, Kol, Rawat, Munda, Jat, Kachhi and Lohar.

_Kachhwaha_.--(The tortoise.) One of the thirty-six royal races of Rajputs, the princes of Jaipur or Amber being of this clan. They derive the name from Cutch, or from Kush, an eponymous ancestor. A section of Nandbansi Ahir, Gadaria, Kachhi and Nat. The Kachhwaha section of Gadarias worship the tortoise.

_Kada-kalle-bhallavi._--One who uses donkeys for pack-carriage (_bhallavi_), but stole a horse (_kalle-kada_). A sept of the Dhurwa clan of Satdeve Gonds in Betul.

_Kagar_.--Synonym of Dhimar.

_Kagwaria_.--From _kagwar_, an offering made to the ancestors in the month of Kunwar. Subcaste of Kol.

_Kaibartta_.--Synonym of Kewat.

_Kaikadi_.--Synonym of Kaikari.

_Kainthwans_.--A subcaste of Pasi in Saugor and Betul, said to have originated in a cross between a Badhak or Baori, and a Kayasth woman.

_Kaith_.--Synonym for Kayasth.

_Kaitha, Kaithia_.--Subcaste of Bharbhunja and Darzi.

_Kakra_.--One who arranges for the lighting at the marriage and other ceremonies. Subcaste of Chitrakathi.

_Kala_.--(Black.) A subcaste of Golkar (Ahir.

_Kalachuri_.--Synonym for the Haihaya clan of Rajputs.

_Kalanga_.--A caste. A subcaste of Gond.

_Kalanki_.--A subdivision of Maharashtra Brahmans found in Nagpur. They are considered degraded, as their name indicates. They are said to have cut up a cow made of flour to please a Muhammadan governor, and to follow some other Muhammadan practices.

_Kalapithia_,--(Having black backs.) A subcaste of Savars in Puri of Orissa. They have the right of dragging the car of Jagannath.

_Kalawant_.--Title of Mirasi.

_Kalbelia_.--(Catcher of snakes.) A subcaste of Nat.

_Kalibelia_.--(_Bel_, an ox.) A section of Chadar. They draw a picture of an ox at their weddings.

_Kalihari_.--(Bridle.) A section of Teli in Nandgaon, so named because they presented a bridle to their king.

_Kalkhor_.--(Castor-oil plant.) A totemistic sept of the Audhalia caste.

_Kalutia, Kalota_.--A subtribe of Gonds in Chanda and Betul.

_Kalwar_.--Synonym of Kalar.

_Kamad._ [447]--A small caste of jugglers, who come from Rajputana and travel about in the Hoshangabad and Nimar Districts. They were not returned at the census, and appear to belong to Rajputana. Their special entertainment consists in playing with cymbals, and women are the chief performers. The woman has eight or nine cymbals secured to her legs before and behind, and she strikes these rapidly in turn with another held in her hand, twisting her body skilfully so as to reach all of them, and keeping time with the music played on guitar-like instruments by the men who accompany her. If the woman is especially skilful, she will also hold a naked sword in her mouth, so as to increase the difficulty of the performance.

The Kamads dress after the Rajputana fashion, and wear yellow ochre-coloured clothes. Their exogamous sections have Rajput names, as Chauhan, Panwar, Gudesar, Jogpal and so on, and like the Rajputs they send a cocoanut-core to signify a proposal for marriage. But the fact that they have a special aversion to Dhobis and will not touch them makes it possible that they originated from the Dom caste, who share this prejudice. [448] Reason has been found to suppose that the Kanjars, Kolhatis and other migrant groups of entertainers are sprung from the Doms, and the Kamads may be connected with these. No caste, not even the sweepers, will accept food from the Kamads. They employ a Brahman, however, to officiate at their marriage and death ceremonies. Like the Gosains the Kamads bury their dead in a sitting posture, a niche being hollowed out at the side of the grave in which the corpse is placed. Crushed bread (_malida_) and a gourd full of water are laid beside the corpse. The caste worship the footprints of Ramdeo, a saint of Marwar, and pay special reverence to the goddess Hinglaj, who is a deity of several castes in Rajputana.

_Kamalbansi_.--(Stock of the lotus.) Subcaste of Kawar.

_Kamal Kul_.--(Lotus.) A section of Komti. They do not use lotus roots nor yams.

_Kamari, Kailwa_.--One of the thirty-six royal races of Rajputs.

_Kamaria_.--(From _kambal_, blanket.) A subcaste of Ahir. A section of Dhimar and Sonkar.

_Kamathi, Kamati_.--A term applied in the Maratha Districts to immigrants from Madras. It is doubtful whether the Kamathis have become a caste, but about 150 persons returned this name as their caste in the Central Provinces and Berar in 1911, and there are about 7000 in India, none, however, being recorded from the Madras Presidency. It is stated that the word Kamathi means 'fool' in Tamil, and that in Bombay all Telugus are called Kamathis, to whatever caste they may belong. Similarly, Maratha immigrants into Madras are known by the generic name of Arya, [449] and those coming from Hindustan into the Nerbudda valley as Pardeshi, while in the same locality the Brahmans and Rajputs of Central India are designated by the Marathas as Rangra. This term has the signification of rustic or boorish, and is therefore a fairly close parallel to Kamathi, if the latter word has the meaning given above. In the Thana District of Bombay [450] people of many classes are included under the name of Kamathi. Though they do not marry or even eat together, the different classes of Kamathis have a strong feeling of fellowship, and generally live in the same quarter of the town. In the Central Provinces the Kamathis are usually masons and house-builders or labourers. They speak Telugu in their houses and Marathi to outsiders. In Sholapur [451] the Kamathis dress like Kunbis. They are bound together by a strong caste feeling, and appear to have become a regular caste. Their priests are Telugu Brahmans, and their ceremonies resemble those of Kunbis. On the third day after a child is born the midwife lifts it up for the first time, and it is given a few light blows on the back. For three days the child sucks one end of a rag the other end of which rests in a saucer of honey, and the mother is fed on rice and clarified butter. On the fourth day the mother begins to suckle the child. Until the mother is pregnant a second time, no _choti_ or scalp-lock is allowed to grow on the child's head. When she becomes pregnant, she is taken with the child before the village god, and a tuft of hair is thereafter left to grow on the crown of its head.

_Kamma._--A large cultivating caste of the Madras Presidency, of which a few representatives were returned from the Chanda District in 1911. They are derived from the same Dravidian stock as the other great cultivating castes of Madras, and, originally soldiers by profession, have now settled down to agriculture. No description of the caste need be given here, but the following interesting particulars may be recorded. The word Kamma means an ear ornament, and according to tradition a valuable jewel of this kind belonging to a Raja of Warangal fell into the hands of his enemies. One section of the great Kapu caste, boldly attacking the foe and recovering the jewel, were hence called Kamma, while another section, which ran away, received the derogatory title of Velama (_veli_, away). Another story says that the Kammas and Velamas were originally one caste, and had adopted the Muhammadan system of _gosha_ or _purda_. But finding that they were thus handicapped in competition with the other cultivating castes, it was proposed that the new custom should be abandoned. Those who agreed to this signed a bond, which was written on a palm-leaf (_kamma_), and hence received their new name. In the Central Provinces the Kammas are divided into three subcastes, the Illuvellani or those who do not go out of the house, the Tadakchatu or those who live within _tadaks_ or mat screens, and the Polumtir or those who go into the fields. These names are derived from the degrees in which the different subdivisions seclude their women, the Illuvellani observing strict _purda_ and the Polumtir none whatever, while the Tadakchatu follow a middle course. On this account some social difference exists between the three subcastes, and when the Illuvellani dine with either of the other two they will not eat from the plates of their hosts, but take their food separately on a leaf. And the Tadakchatu practise a similar distinction with the Polumtir, but the two latter divisions do not decline to eat from plates or vessels belonging to an Illuvellani. The Kammas forbid a man to marry in the _gotra_ or family group to which he belongs, but a wife from the same _gotra_ as his mother's is considered a most desirable match, and if his maternal uncle has a daughter he should always take her in marriage. A man is even permitted to marry his own sister's daughter, but he may not wed his mother's sister's daughter, who is regarded as his own sister. Among the Kammas of the Tamil country Mr. (Sir H.) Stuart [452] states that a bride is often much older than her husband, and a case is cited in which a wife of twenty-two years of age used to carry her boy-husband on her hip as a mother carries her child. One other curious custom recorded of the caste may be noticed. A woman dying within the lifetime of her husband is worshipped by her daughters, granddaughters or daughters-in-law, and in their absence by her husband's second wife if he has one. The ceremony is performed on some festival such as Dasahra or Til-Sankrant, when a Brahman lady, who must not be a widow, is invited and considered to represent the deceased ancestor. She is anointed and washed with turmeric and saffron, and decorated with sandal-paste and flowers; a new cloth and breast-cloth are then presented to her which she puts on; sweets, fruit and betel-leaf are offered to her, and the women of the family bow down before her and receive her benediction, believing that it comes from their dead relative.

_Kammala._--A small Telugu caste in the Chanda District. The name Kammala is really a generic term applied to the five artisan castes of Kamsala or goldsmith, Kanchara or brazier, Kammara or blacksmith, Vadra or carpenter, and Silpi or stone-mason. These are in reality distinct castes, but they are all known as Kammalas. The Kammalas assert that they are descended from Visva Karma, the architect of the gods, and in the Telugu country they claim equality with Brahmans, calling themselves Visva Brahmans. But inscriptions show that as late as the year A.D. 1033 they were considered a very inferior caste and confined to the village site. [453] Mr. (Sir H.) Stuart writes in the _Madras Census Report_ that it is not difficult to account for the low position formerly held by the Kammalas, for it must be remembered that in early times the military castes in India as elsewhere looked down upon all engaged in labour, whether skilled or otherwise. With the decline of military power, however, it was natural that a useful caste like the Kammalas should gradually improve its position, and the reaction from this long oppression has led them to make the exaggerated claims described above, which are ridiculed by every other caste, high or low. The five main subdivisions of the caste do not intermarry. They have priests of their own and do not allow even Brahmans to officiate for them, but they invite Brahmans to their ceremonies. Girls must be married before puberty. The binding ceremony of the marriage consists in the tying of a circular piece of gold on a thread of black beads round the bride's neck by the bridegroom. Widow-marriage is prohibited.

_Kammari._--Telugu Lohars or blacksmiths.

_Kamsala._--(A goldsmith.) Subcaste of Kammala.

_Kanalsia._--(_Kanelu_, a tile.) A section of Ahir in Nimar who do not live in tiled huts.

_Kanare._--(A resident of Canara.) A subcaste of Dhangar.

_Kanaujia, Kankubja._--A very common subcaste name, indicating persons whose ancestors are supposed to have come from the town of Kanauj in northern India, into the Central Provinces. A subcaste of Ahir, Bahna, Bharbhunja, Bhat, Brahman, Dahait, Darzi, Dhobi, Halwai, Lohar, Mali, Nai, Patwa, Sunar and Teli.

_Kanbajia_ or _Ahirwar._--Same as Kanaujia. Subcaste of Chamar.

_Kanchara._--(A brassworker.) Subcaste of Kammala.

_Kand._--(Roots or tubers of wild plants.) A section of Raghuvansi Rajputs in Hoshangabad.

_Kanda Potel_.--(One who grows roots.) A section of Mali.

_Kande_.--Subcaste of Bedar.

_Kandera_.--Synonym for Kadera. Subcaste of Bahna.

_Kandh_.--Synonym of Khond. A subcaste of Taonla in Sambalpur.

_Kandhana_.--Subcaste of Khond.

_Kandhia_.--(A big-beaked vulture.) A sept of Dhanwar.

_Kandia_.--(_Kandi_, a shell, also a snake.) A section of Teli in Betul.

_Kandol_.--A subcaste of Brahmans, who take their name from the village Kandol, in Kathiawar.

_Kandra_.--A small caste of bamboo-workers in the Uriya country, akin to the Basors elsewhere. Members of the caste are found in small numbers in the Raipur and Balaghat Districts. The word Kandra may be derived from _kand_, an arrow, just as Dhanuk, often a synonym for Basor, has the meaning of an archer. It is not improbable that among the first articles made of bamboo were the bow and arrow of the forest tribes, and that the bow-maker was the parent of the modern Basor or basket-maker, bows being a requisite of an earlier stage of civilisation than baskets. In Bhandara the Kandras are an offshoot of Gonds. Their women do not wear their cloths over the head, and knot their hair behind without plaiting it. They talk a Gondi dialect and are considered an impure caste.

_Kandu_.--(A grain-parcher.) A synonym and subcaste of Bharbhunja. A subcaste of Halwai.

_Kandua_.--(From _kand_, onion, as they eat onions.) A subcaste of Bharbhunja.

_Kanera_.--(From the _kaner_ tree.) A totemistic section of Ganda and Khangar.

_Kangali_.--(Poor.) A common sept of Gonds.

_Kanhejin_.--Subcaste of Banjara.

_Kanhpuria_.--(From Cawnpore, which was founded by their eponymous hero Kanh.) A clan of Rajputs.

_Kanjar_.--A caste of gipsies. A subcaste of Banjara.

_Kankubja_.--See Kanaujia.

_Kannow_.--A sectarian division of Brahmans.

_Kanphata_.--(One who has his ears bored or pierced.) A class of Jogi mendicants.

_Kansari_.--Synonym of Kasar.

_Kanwar_.--Synonym of Kawar.

_Kanwarbansi_.--A subtribe of Khairwar.

_Kaonra_ or _Kora_.--A caste. A subcaste of Ahir.

_Kaore_.--A sept of Gonds. A surname of Maratha Brahmans.

_Kapalia_.--(Covered with skulls.) A section of Telis in Betul.

_Kaparia_.--(From _kapra_ cloth, owing to their wearing several dresses, which they change rapidly like the Bahrupia.) Synonym of Basdewa.

_Kapasia_.--(From _kapas_, cotton.) A section of Mahar.

_Kapdi_.--Synonym of Basdewa.

_Kapur_.--(Camphor.) A section of Khatri.

_Kapuria_.--A subdivision of Arhaighar Saraswat Brahmans in Hoshangabad, probably deriving their title from being the priests of the Kapur section of Khatris.

_Karai Nor_.--A section of Basor. They perform the Meher ceremony of eating the marriage cakes near a well and not in the house.

_Karait_.--(A poisonous snake.) A section of Ahir, Halba and Panka.

_Karan_ (Mahanti).--A caste. A subcaste of Kayasth. An eponymous section of Binjhwar and Tanti.

_Karaola_.--(One who pours sesamum oil on his clothes and begs.) Synonym for Jasondhi and Bhat.

_Karbal_.--Subcaste of Khangar.

_Karchuli_.--A clan of Rajputs, formerly a ruling race in the Jubbulpore country. See Rajput-Haihaya. A section of Joshi and Mochi.

_Kare, Karia_.--(Black.) A subcaste of Marar. A section of Binjhwar, Ahir, Chhipa and Lodhi.

_Karela_.--(Bitter gourd.) A section of Sonkar.

_Karhada_.--A subcaste of Maharashtra Brahmans deriving their name from Karhad, near the junction of the Krishna and Koyana rivers, about fifteen miles from Satara.

_Karhaiya_.--(Frying-pan.) A section of Raghuvansi.

_Karigar_.--(A workman.) An honorific title of Barhai and Lohar. A subcaste and synonym of Beldar.

_Karijat_.--Subcaste of Pardhi. The members of this subcaste only kill birds of a black colour.

_Karkarkadhe_.--(Stone-diggers.) Subcaste of Mang.

_Karnam_.--Synonym of Karan, a palm-leaf writer.

_Karnata, Karnataka_.--One of the five orders of Panch Dravida or southern Brahmans, inhabiting the Canarese country.

_Karnati_.--(From the Carnatic.) Synonym for a class of Nats or acrobats.

_Karohla_.--A religious mendicant who wanders about singing praises of Devi. See Jasondhi.

_Karpachor_.--(Stealer of straw.) A sept of the Uika clan of Gonds in Betul.

_Karsayal_.--(A deer.) A sept of the Kawar tribe. Also a sept of Ahir, Bhaina, Dhobi in Chhattisgarh, Kewat, Lohar and Turi.

_Karsi_.--(From _kalas_, a pitcher.) A totemistic sept of Kawar. They do not drink water from a red jar on the Akti festival.

_Karwa_.--Subcaste of Kunbi.

_Karwar_.--(An oar.) A section of Dangi in Damoh. A section of Kawar.

_Kasai_.--A caste of butchers. Name applied to Banjaras.

_Kasar_.--A caste. A subdivision of Audhia Sunar. A section of Kewat.

_Kasarwani_.--A subcaste of Bania.

_Kasaundhan_.--A subcaste of Bania.

_Kasda_.--(One who hides himself in the bed of the river.) A sept of Korku; a man of this sept has the privilege of directing the ceremony for the readmission of an outcaste.

_Kasdhonia_.--A subcaste of Dhimar. They wash the sand in the sacred rivers for coins thrown there by pilgrims, and dive into water to find lost ornaments or gold.

_Kasera_.--Synonym of Kasar.

_Kashi_.--(Benares.) A section of Agharia, Ahir, Dhuri, Kewat, Kurmi and Mali.

_Kashyap_.--Name of a famous Rishi or saint. The name may perhaps be really derived from _kachhap_, a tortoise. One of the common eponymous sections of Brahmans. Also a section of Barai, Bari, Beldar, Bharbhunja, Bhulia, Binjhwar, Chandnahu Kurmi, Gond, Jangam, Joshi, Kalar, Kasar, Kasarwani Bania, Khangar, Nai, Rajput, Sunar. Some castes say that they are all of the Kashyap _gotra_ or section, the tortoise being considered a common ancestor of mankind, because it supports the world.

_Kasia_.--(Kansa, or bell-metal.) A section of Chamar. They draw a picture of a bell-metal dish at their weddings.

_Kasondhi_.--A subcaste of Bania.

_Kassab, Kassia_.--(A butcher.) Synonym of Kasai.

_Kast_.--A small caste found in the Maratha Districts and Bombay, who appear to be a separate or inferior group of the Kayasths. In Chanda they work as patwaris and clerks to moneylenders, while some are merchants and landholders. Like the Kayasths, they wash their pens and inkstands on the Dasahra festival and worship them. Their principal deity is the god Venkatesh, a Maratha incarnation of Vishnu. In Bombay the Kasts claim to be Yajur-Vedi Brahmans, dress like them and keep the regular Brahman ceremonies. [454] But they are considered to be half Marathas and half Brahmans, and strict Deshasth and Kokanasth Brahmans hold their touch unclean. [455]

_Katare_.--(_Katar_, dagger.) A surname of Sanadhya Brahmans in Saugor. A section of Agarwal and Oswal Bania, Chhattisgarhi Ahir or Rawat, Chadar and Basor. The Katare sept of Basors worship a dagger.

_Katharia_.--(From Kathibar, the old name of eastern Rohilkhand.) A section of Gadaria and Kasar.

_Kathbhaina_;--Subcaste of Baiga in Bilaspur.

_Kathi_.--A Rajput clan included in the thirty-six royal races of Rajputs. Originally an indigenous tribe of Gujarat, who gave their name to Kathiawar.

_Kathia_.--Name of an Akhara or school of Bairagi religious mendicants. See Bairagi.

_Kathotia_.--(_Kathotia_, a wooden bowl.) A section of Darzi.

_Kati_ or _Khatti_.--Subcaste of Bhuiya.

_Katia_.--A cast of spinners. A subcaste of Balahi and Mahar.

_Kattri_.--Subcaste of Are.

_Katwa_.--(From _Katna_, to cut.) Synonym of Katia and Chamar.

_Kaur_.--Synonym of Kawar.

_Kaushalya_.--(From Koshal, the name of a famous Rishi or saint.) A section of Agarwal Bania, Darzi, Lodhi and Khatri Sunar.

_Kaushik_.--The name of a Rishi or saint. An eponymous section of Brahmans. A section of Ahir, Dhobi, Rajput, Sunar and other castes.

_Kaviraj_.--Title of a Bhat who has the qualification of literacy, and can therefore read the old Sanskrit medical works. A physician.

_Kayasth Patwa_.--A subcaste of Patwa in Hoshangabad and Saugor.

_Kekre_.--Subcaste of Gujar.

_Kesaria_.--(From _kesar_, saffron.) A section of Ahir and Gadaria.

_Kewat_.--A caste. A subcaste of Dhimar and Mallah.

_Khad_.--Subcaste of Mana.

_Khadal_.--A caste of palanquin-carriers.

_Khadal_ [456] (honorific titles _Nayak_ and _Behera_).--A small Dravidian caste of labourers in the Uriya country. In 1901 they numbered 1200 persons and resided principally in the Patna and Sonpur States now transferred to Bengal. The Khadals are probably an offshoot of the great Bauri caste of Bengal, with which the members of the caste in Patna admitted their identity, though elsewhere they deny it. Their traditional occupations of palanquin-bearing and field labour are identical with those of the Bauris, as stated by Sir H. Risley. [457] The name Khadal is a functional one, denoting persons who work with a hoe. The Khadals have totemistic exogamous groups, the Kilasi sept worshipping a tree, the Julsi and Kandualsi sept a snake-hole, and Balunasi a stone and others the sun. Each sept salutes the revered object or totem on seeing it, and those who worship trees will not burn them or stand in their shade. When a marriage takes place they worship the totem and offer to it flowers, sandalwood, vermilion, uncooked rice, and the new clothes and ornaments intended for the bride, which she may not wear until this ceremony has been performed. Another curious custom adopted by the Khadals in imitation of the Hindus is that of marrying adult boys and girls, for whom a partner has not been found, to a tree. But this does not occur when they arrive at puberty as among Hindu castes, but when a boy still unmarried becomes thirty years old and a girl twenty. In such a case he or she is married to a mango, cotton or _jamun_ tree, and after this no second ceremony need be performed on subsequent union with a wife or husband. A widower must pay Rs. 10, or double the usual price, for a second wife, owing to the risk of her death being caused by the machinations of the first wife's spirit. When a corpse has been buried or burnt the mourners each take a twig of mango and beat about in the grass to start a grasshopper. Having captured one they wrap it in a piece of new cloth, and coming home place it beside the family god. This they call bringing back the life of the soul, and consider that the ceremony procures salvation for the dead. The Khadals are usually considered as impure, but those of Sonpur have attained a somewhat higher status.

_Khadia_.--(A kind of snake.) A section of Ahir and Raghuvansi. A sept of Nahal.

_Khadra_, [458] _Khadura_ or _Kharura_.--A small Uriya caste whose occupation is to make brass ornaments. They are immigrants from Cuttack and say that they are called there Sankhari, so that the Khadras may not improbably be an offshoot of the Sankhari caste of shell-cutters of Bengal. According to their traditions their original ancestor was created by Viswakarma, the celestial architect, for the business of making a pinnacle for the temple of Jagannath at Puri, in which eight metals had to be combined. He left two sons, one of whom became the ancestor of the Khadras, and the other of the Kasars, with whom the Khadras thus claim affinity. They have no subcastes but four _gotras_ or clans called after the Nag or cobra, the Singh or lion, and Kasyap and Kachchap, both derived from the tortoise. They also have four _bargas_ or family names, which are Patra (a term of respect), Das (slave), Sao (banker) and Maharana (artificer). The groups are supposed to be descended from four families who migrated from Curtack. Neither _bargas_ nor _gotras_ are now considered in the arrangement of marriages, which are prohibited between blood relatives for three generations. Marriage is infant, and a girl arriving at puberty while still unwed is permanently expelled from the caste. The Khadras still follow the old rule of writing the _lagun_ or date of the marriage on a palm-leaf, with which they send Rs. 10-4 as a bride-price to the girl's father, the acceptance of this constituting a confirmation of the betrothal. The marriage ceremony resembles that of the other Uriya castes, and the Khadras have the rite called _badapani_ or breaking the bachelorhood. A little water brought from seven houses is sprinkled over the bridegroom and his loin-cloth is then snatched away, leaving him naked. In this state he runs towards his own house, but some boys are posted at a little distance who give him a new cloth. Widow-marriage and divorce are permitted, but the hand of a widow must not be sought so long as she remains in her late husband's house, and does not return to her father. When a bachelor marries a widow he must first perform the regular ceremony with a leaf-cup filled with flowers, after which he can take the widow as his second wife. All important agreements are confirmed by a peculiar custom called _heskani_. A deer-skin is spread on the ground before the caste committee, and the person making the agreement bows before it a number of times. To break an agreement made by the _heskani_ rite is believed to involve terrible calamities. The Khadras eat the flesh of animals and fish but not that of birds, and they do not drink country liquor. When an estate is to be partitioned the eldest son first takes a tenth of the whole in right of primogeniture and the remainder is then divided equally. The Khadras rank as an artisan caste of somewhat low status.

_Khadura_.--Synonym of Khadra.

_Khaijraha_.--(A resident of Khaira, a town in Central India.) Subcaste of Chamar.

_Khair, Khaira_.--(From _khair_, catechu or the catechu tree. A maker of catechu.) Synonym for Khairwar.

_Khairchura_.--(Carechu preparer.) A subcaste of Khairwar.

_Khaire_.--A subcaste of Are (Gondhali), Kanbi and Oraon.

_Khairwar_.--A catechu-making caste. A section of Chamar.

_Khaiyaware_.--(_Khai_, ditch; owing to their houses having been originally built on the ditch of Hatta fort.) A section of Beldar Sonkars in Damoh.

_Khaki_.--(From _khak_, ashes.) A class of Bairagi, or religious mendicants.

_Khalifa_.--(Lord.) An honorific title for Darzis or tailors, and Muhammadan barbers.

_Khaltaha_.--Subcaste of Ghasia.

_Khaltati_.--(Illegitimate.) Subcaste of Andh.

_Khaltia_.--Subcaste of Basdewa.

_Khamari_.--(Farmservant.) A section of Kolta.

_Khambi_.--(One who hides behind the graveyard.) A sept of Korku.

_Khanda_.--(A sword.) A section of Panka and Mahar.

_Khandait_.--(A swordsman.) An Uriya caste. A subcaste of Sansia, Taonla and Chasa. Also a name of Koltas in Cuttack.

_Khandapatra_.--(One who cleans swords.) A section of Khandwal.

_Khandapi_.--(_Khanda_, a sword.) A sept of the Dhurwa clan of Sahdeve or six-god Gonds in Betul, named after the sword of Raja Durga Shah by which a victory was gained over the Muhammadans.

_Khandele_.--(From _khanda_, sword.) A section of Raghuvansi Rajputs in Hoshangabad.

_Khandelwal_.--A subcaste of Bania.

_Khandeshi_.--(A resident of Khandesh.) A territorial subcaste of Darzi, Joshi, Mahar and Mang.

_Khanne, Khanna_.--A subdivision of Chargarh Saraswat Brahmans in Hoshangabad, probably deriving their name from being priests of the Khanna section of Khatris. A section of Khatri.

_Khanonkha_.--(A kind of basket to catch birds with.) A totemistic sept of Rautia Kawars in Bilaspur.

_Kharadi_.--(A turner, one who turns woodwork on a lathe.) A synonym of Kundera and Barhai.

_Kharchi_.--Bastard Marathas forming a separate division as distinguished from the Khasi or pure Marathas.

_Khare_.--A subdivision of Srivastab, Gaur and Saksena Kayasths, meaning those of pure descent.

_Khari Bind Kewat_.--Title of the Murha caste.

_Kharodia_.--(A resident of Kharod in Bilaspur.) A subcaste of Nunia.

_Kharsisjha_.--(Maker of cowdung cakes.) A section of Mali.

_Kharwade_.--(Refuse.) A subcaste of Simpi or Maratha Darzi (tailor) originally formed of excommunicated members of the caste, but now occupying a position equal to other subcastes in Nagpur.

_Kharwar_.--Synonym of the Khairwar tribe. Subcaste of Chero and Kol.

_Khasi_.--A subdivision of Marathas, meaning those born in wedlock.

_Khasua_.--(A eunuch.) Synonym of Hijra.

_Khati_.--(From the Sanskrit _kskatri_, one who cuts.) A subcaste of Barhai and Lohar.

_Khatik_.--A caste. Synonym of Chikwa. A subcaste of Pasi in Saugor, said to have originated in a cross between a Bauri and a Khatik woman.

_Khatkudia_.--(Illegitimate.) A section of Teli in Betul.

_Khatri_.--A caste. A subcaste of Chhipa and of Sunar in Narsinghpur.

_Khatua_.--(Having a cot.) A section of the Hatwa caste.

_Khatulha_ or _Khatola_.--A subtribe of Gond.

_Khatulwar_.--A subtribe of Gonds in Chanda, the same as the Khatulha of the northern Districts.

_Khawas_.--A title of Nai or barber. A subcaste of Dhuri. A section of Halba.

_Khedawal_.--A subcaste of Gujarati Brahmans. They take their name from Kheda or Kaira, a town in Gujarat.

_Khedule_.--From _kheda_, a village. Subcaste of Kunbi.

_Khendro_.--Subcaste of Oraon.

_Kheralawala_.--An immigrant from Kherala in Malwa. Subcaste of Rangrez.

_Kherawal_.--See Khedawal.

_Kheti_.--(Cultivation.) A section of Dumal.

_Khewat_.--Synonym of Kewat.

_Khichi_.--A clan of Rajputs, a branch of the Sesodia clan.

_Khoba_.--(Sticks for fencing the grain-store.) A sept of Kawar; they abstain from using these sticks.

_Khoksa_.--(A kind of fish.) A totemistic sept of Rautia Kawar in Bilaspur.

_Khuntia_.--A subcaste of Agaria. One who uses a _khunti_ or peg to fix the bellows in the ground for smelting iron. A sept of Savars. (Those who bury their dead on a high place.)

_Khursam_.--A sept of Pardhan and Dhur Gond.

_Khutha_.--(Impure.) A section of Tamera in Mandla.

_Khyaurokar_.--(One who shaves, from _kshaur_, to shave.) A synonym of Nai or Bhandari.

_Kilanaya_.--(_Kilna,_ a dog-house.) A nickname section of Ahir.

_Kilkila_.--(The kingfisher.) A sept of Khairwar.

_Killibusum_.--(One who eats dead animals.) A sept of Korku.

_Kindra_.--(One who hides behind a tree.) A sept of Korku.

_Kirachi_ or _Karachi_.--A sept of Gonds of Raipur and Betul.

_Kirad_.--Synonym of Kirar.

_Kirahiboijir_.--(A kind of fruit.) A section of Teli in Nandgaon.

_Kirar_.--A caste. Synonym Dhakar. A subcaste of Kachhi. A section of Khatik.

_Kirnakha_.--A sept of Gonds in Chanda.

_Kirvant_ or _Kilvant_.--A subdivision of Maharashtra Brahmans in Khairagarh. The name is said to be derived from _kira_, an insect, because they kill insects in working their betel-vine gardens. Another explanation is that the name is really Kriyavant, and that they are so called because they conducted _kriya_ or funeral services, an occupation which degraded them. A third form of the name is _Kramwant_ or reciters of the Veda.

_Kisan_.--(A cultivator.) Oraons are commonly known by this name in Chota Nagpur and Gonds in Mandla and other Districts. A section of Marar, Rawat or Ahir, and Savar.

_Koathia_.--A section of Bais Rajputs.

_Kochia_.--Perhaps a name for Bahnas or cotton cleaners.

_Kodjet_.--(A conqueror of crores of people.) A section of Bhulia.

_Kohistani_.--(A dweller on mountains.) A section of Pathan.

_Kohkatta_.--A sept of Gonds in Khairagarh.

_Kohri_.--A synonym for the Kohli caste.

_Koi_.--A class of Gonds.

_Koikopal_.--A subcaste of Gond.

_Koilabhut_ or _Koilabhuti_.--A subtribe of Gonds. Their women are prostitutes.

_Koiri_.--A synonym of the Murao caste.

_Koitur_.--A synonym for Gond. The name by which the Gonds call themselves in many Districts.

_Kokonasth_ or _Chitpavan_.--A subcaste of Maharashtra Brahmans inhabiting the Konkan country. Chitpavan means the pure in heart.

_Koksinghia_.--_(Koka,_ the Brahmani duck.) A subsection of the Pardhan section of Koltas.

_Kol_.--A tribe. Subcaste of Dahait.

_Kolabhut_.--A name for Gonds.

_Kolam_.--A tribe. A subtribe of Gonds in Chanda.

_Kolchar_.--A clan of Maratha.

_Kolia_.--(From _kolu_, oil-press.) A section of Teli in Betul.

_Koliha_.--(Jackal.) A section of Panwar Rajput, Chamar and Kawar.

_Kolita_, _Kulta_.--Synonyms of Kolta.

_Kolta_.--A caste. A subcaste of Chasa.

_Kolya_.--(One who hides behind a jackal-hole.) A sept of Korku.

_Komalwar_.--(_Komal_, soft.) A section of Kurumwar.

_Komati_.--Synonym of Komti.

_Kommu_.--(A story-teller.) Subcaste of Madgi.

_Kondawar_.--(_Konda_, a mountain.) A section of Palewar Dhimar and Koshti in Chanda.

_Kondwan_ or _Kundi_.--A name of a tract south of the Mahanadi which is called after the Khond tribe, and was formerly owned by them. Subcaste of Baiga.

_Korai_.--A subcaste of Ahir or Rawat in Bilaspur.

_Koraku_.--(Young men.) Subcaste of Korwa.

_Koratkul_.--A section of Komti; they do not eat the _kumhra_ or pumpkin.

_Korava_.--Synonym of Yerukala.

_Korchamar_.--A descendant of alliances between Chamars and Koris or weavers. Subcaste of Chamar.

_Kori_.--A caste. A subcaste of Balahi, Jaiswara Chamar and Katia.

_Korku_.--A tribe. A subtribe of Nahal.

_Korre_.--(Residents of the Korai hill-tract in Seoni.) Subcaste of Injhwar.

_Kosaria_.--A subcaste of Rawat or Ahir, Barai, Dhobi, Kalar, Mali, Panka and Teli; a section of Chamar and Gond.

_Koshti_, _Koshta_.--A caste of weavers. See article. A subcaste of Katia and Bhulia.

_Koskati_.--A subcaste of Koshti.

_Kothari_--(A store-keeper, from _kotha_, a store-room.) A section of Oswal and Maheshri Banias.

_Kotharya_.--(A store-keeper.) Subcaste of Chitrakathi.

_Kotwal_.--(Keeper of a castle, or a village watchman.) Honorific title of the Khangar caste. A surname of Yajurvedi Brahmans in Saugor. A section of Halba.

_Kotwar_.--A person holding the office of village watchman. This post is usually assigned to members of the lowest or impure castes derived from the aboriginal tribes, such as the Mahars, Ramosis, Gandas, Pankas, Minas and Khangars. Some of these were or still are much addicted to crime. The name _kotwar_ appears to be a corruption of _kotwal_, the keeper or guardian of a _kot_ or castle. Under native rule the kotwal was the chief of police in important towns, and the central police office in some towns is still called the kotwali after him. In some villages there are still to be found both a kotwal and a kotwar; in this case the former performs the duties of watch and ward of the village, and the latter has the menial work of carrying messages, collecting supplies and so on. Both are paid by fixed annual contributions of grain from the cultivators. In Hoshangabad the kotwar is allowed to glean for a day in the fields of each tenant after the crop has been removed. It would appear that the kotwar was chosen from the criminal castes as a method of insurance. The kotwar was held responsible for the good behaviour of his caste-fellows, and was often under the obligation of making good any property stolen by them. And if a theft occurred in another village and the thief was traced into the borders of the kotwar's village he was bound to take up the pursuit and show that the thief had passed beyond his village, or to pay for the stolen property. Thieves were sometimes tracked by the kotwar, and sometimes in Gujarat and Central India by a special official called Paggal, [459] who measured their footprints with a string, and in this way often followed them successfully from village to village. [460] The rule that the kotwar had to make good all thefts occurring in his village or perpetrated by criminals belonging to it, can only have been enforced to a very partial extent, as unless he could trace the property he would be unable to pay any substantial sum out of his own means. Still, it apparently had a considerable effect in the protection of property in the rural area, for which the regular police probably did very little. It was similarly the custom to employ a _chaukidar_ or night-watchman to guard private houses when the owners could afford it, and this man was taken from a criminal caste on the same principle.

The kotwar was also the guardian of the village boundaries, and his opinion was often taken as authoritative in all cases of disputes about land. This position he perhaps occupied as a representative of the pre-Aryan tribes, the oldest residents of the country, and his appointment may have also been partly based on the idea that it was proper to employ one of them as the guardian of the village lands, just as the priest of the village gods of the earth and fields was usually taken from these tribes.

In some localities those members of an impure caste such as the Mahars, who hold the office of village watchman, obtain a certain rise in status on account of the office, and show a tendency to marry among themselves. Similarly persons of the impure Ganda caste, who joined the Kabirpanthi sect and now form a separate and somewhat higher caste under the name of Panka, usually work as village watchmen in preference to the Gandas. Under British rule the kotwar has been retained as a village policeman, and his pay increased and generally fixed in cash. Besides patrolling the village, he has to report all cognisable crime at the nearest police post as well as births and deaths occurring in the village, and must give general assistance to the regular police in the detection of crime. Kotwar is used in Saugor as a synonym for the Chadar caste. It is also a subcaste of the Kori caste.

_Kowa_.--(A crow.) A section of Tamera and of Gond in Chanda.

_Koya_ A subtribe of Gond in Bastar.

_Koyudu_.--A synonym of Gond in Chanda used by Telugus.

_Kramikul_.--A section of Komti. They do not use the black radish.

_Kshatriya_.--Name of the second Hindu classical caste or the warrior caste. Synonym for Rajput.

_Kshirsagar_.--(Ocean of Milk.) A section of Panwar Rajput, and a proper name of Maratha Brahmans.

_Kuch_.--(A weaver's brush.) A section of Raghuvansi Rajputs in Hoshangabad.

_Kuchbandhia_, _Kunchbandhia_.--(A maker of weavers' brushes.) Synonym and subcaste of Beldar in Chhattisgarh.

_Kudaiya_.--(_Kodon_, a small millet.) A section of Ahir.

_Kudappa_.--A sept of Gonds in Raipur and Khairagarh.

_Kudarbohna_.--A Hindu Bhana.

_Kudaria_.--(_Kudali_, a pickaxe.) A section of the Bharia tribe.

_Kukra_.--(A dog.) A totemistic sept of Bhatra Gonds. A section of Kumhar.

_Kukuta_.--(Cock.) A sept of Gonds in Raipur.

_Kulatia_.--A section of Basor. From _kulara_, a somersault, because they perform somersaults at the time of the _maihir_ ceremony, or eating the marriage cakes.

_Kuldip_.--(The lamp of the family.) A section of Panka in Raipur.

_Kuldiya_.--(Those who stop eating if the lamp goes out at supper.) A section of Ghasia.

_Kulin_.--(Of high caste.) A well-known class of Bengali Brahmans. A subdivision of Uriya Mahantis. A section of Panka.

_Kulshreshta_.--(Of good family.) A subcaste of Kayasth.

_Kuman_.--Subcaste of Barai.

_Kumarrha_ or _Kumarra_.--(A bird.) A sept of Sahdeve or six-god Gonds. In Betul the members of this sept do not eat or kill a goat or sheep, and throw away any article smelt by one.

_Kumarshishta_.--A section of Komti. They do not use _mehndi_ or henna leaves.

_Kumbhar_.--(Potter.) Marathi synonym for Kumhar. A section of Ganda and Bhulia.

_Kumbhoj_.--(Born of a pitcher, a Rishi or saint.) An eponymous section of Agharia.

_Kumbhira_.--(Crocodile.) A totemistic sept of Bhulia.

_Kumbhwar_.--(_Kumbh_, a pot.) A surname of Gandli in Chanda.

_Kumharbans_.--(Descended from a potter.) A section of Ghasia.

_Kumrayete_.--(_Yete_, a goat.) A sept of the Uika clan of Sahdeve or six-god Gonds in Betul. They do not eat goats, and are said to have offered human sacrifices in ancient times.

_Kunbi_.--A caste. Subcaste of Dangri, Gondhali and Maratha.

_Kumrawat, [461] Patbina, Dangur_.--A small caste of _san_-hemp growers and weavers of sacking. They are called Kumrawat in the northern Districts and Patbina (_pat patti_, sacking, and _binna_, to weave) in Chhattisgarh. A small colony of hemp-growers in the Betul District are known as Dangur, probably from the _dang_ or wooden steelyard which they use for weighing hemp. Both the Kumrawats and Dangurs claim Rajput origin, and may be classed together. The caste of Barais or betel-vine growers have a subcaste called Kumrawat, and the Kumrawats may be an offshoot of the Barais, who split off from the parent body on taking to the cultivation of hemp. As most Hindu castes have until recently refused to grow hemp, the Kumrawats are often found concentrated in single villages. Thus a number of Patbinas reside in Darri, a village in the Khujji zamindari of Raipur, while the Dangurs are almost all found in the village of Masod in Betul; in Jubbulpore Khapa is their principal centre, and in Seoni the village of Deori. The three divisions of the caste known by the names given above marry, as a rule, among themselves. For their exogamous groups the Dangurs have usually the names of different Rajput septs, the Kumrawats have territorial names, and those of the Patbinas are derived from inanimate objects, though they have no totemistic practices.

The number of girls in the caste is usually insufficient, and hence they are married at a very early age. The boy's father, accompanied by a few friends, goes to the girl's father and addresses a proposal for marriage to him in the following terms: "You have planted a tamarind tree which has borne fruit. I don't know whether you will catch the fruit before it falls to the ground if I strike it with my stick." The girl's father, if he approves of the match, says in reply, 'Why should I not catch it?' and the proposal for the marriage is then made. The ceremony follows the customary ritual in the northern Districts. When the family gods are worshipped, the women sit round a grinding-stone and invite the ancestors of the family by name to attend the wedding, at the same time placing a little cowdung in one of the interstices of the stone. When they have invited all the names they can remember they plaster up the remaining holes, saying, 'We can't recollect any more names.' This appears to be a precaution intended to imprison any spirits which may have been forgotten, and to prevent them from exercising an evil influence on the marriage in revenge for not having been invited. Among the Dangurs the bride and bridegroom go to worship at Hanuman's shrine after the ceremony, and all along the way the bride beats the bridegroom with a tamarind twig. The dead are both buried and burnt, and mourning is observed during a period of ten days for adults and of three days for children. But if another child has been born to the mother after the one who has died, the full period of mourning must be observed for the latter; because it is said that in this case the mother does not tear off her _sari_ or body-cloth to make a winding-sheet for the child as she does when her latest baby dies. The Kumrawats both grow and weave hemp, though they have no longer anything like a monopoly of its cultivation. They make the _gons_ or double bags used for carrying grain on bullocks. In Chhattisgarh the status of the Patbinas is low, and no castes except the most debased will take food or water from them. The Kumrawats of Jubbulpore occupy a somewhat more respectable position and take rank with Kachhis, though below the good cultivating castes. The Dangurs of Betul will take food from the hands of the Kunbis.

_Kumrayete_.--(_Yete_, a goat.) A sept of the Uika clan of Sahdeve or six-god Gonds in Betul. They do not eat goats, and are said to have offered human sacrifices in ancient times.

_Kunbi_.--A caste. Subcaste of Dangri, Gondhali and Maratha.

_Kundera_.--A caste. A subcaste of the Larhia Beldars.

_Kundera_, _Kharadi_.--A small caste of wood-turners akin to the Barhais or carpenters. In 1911 the caste numbered 120 persons, principally in Saugor. When asked for the name of their caste they not infrequently say that they are Rajputs; but they allow widows to remarry, and their social customs and position are generally the same as those of the Barhais. Both names of the caste are functional, being derived from the Hindi _kund_, and the Arabic _kharat_, a lathe. Some of them abstain from flesh and liquor, and wear the sacred thread, merely with a view to improve their social position. The Kunderas make toys from the _dudhi_ (_Holarrhena antidysenterica_) and huqqa stems from the wood of the _khair_ or catechu tree. The toys are commonly lacquered, and the surface is smoothed with a dried leaf of the _kevara_ tree. [462] They also make chessmen, wooden flutes and other articles.

_Kundgolakar_.--A subdivision of degraded Maratha Brahmans, the offspring of adulterous connections.

_Kunjam_.--A sept of Solaha in Raipur. A section of Basor and Bhunjia. A sept of Gond and Pardhan.

_Kunnatya_--(Rope-dancer.) A name applied to Nats.

_Kunti_ or _Kunte_.--(_Kunti_, lame.) A subcaste of Kapewar, synonym Bhiksha Kunti or lame beggars.

_Kunwar_.--(Prince.) A title of Rajput ruling families. A section of Rajput and Kawar.

_Kura Sasura_.--Husband's elder brother. Title of Kharia.

_Kurathiya_, _Kuratia_.--(From _kur_, a fowl, which they have given up eating.) A subtribe of Gonds in Khairagarh.

_Kurha_ or _Sethia_.--Title of the Sonkar caste headman.

_Kurkere_.--One who moulds his vessels on a stone slab revolving on a stick and not on a wheel. Subcaste of Kumhar.

_Kurmeta_.--A sept of Gonds in Chanda.

_Kurmgutia_.--(From _kurm_, tortoise.) A section of Mahar.

_Kurmi_.--A caste. A subcaste of Agharia in the Uriya country. A subcaste of Barai. A sept of Pardhan. A section of Mahar.

_Kurochi_.--(_Kur_, hen.) A sept of the Uika clan of Sahdeve or six-god Gonds in Betul, so named because their priest once stole a hen.

_Kurpachi_.--(_Kur_, hen.) A sept of the Uika clan of Gonds in Betul, so named because their priest offered the contents of a hen's intestines to the gods.

_Kurru_ or _Kura_.--Title of Yerukala.

_Kusangia_.--(Of bad company.) A section of Lohar.

_Kushbansi_.--A subcaste of Ahir. (Descendants of Kush, one of the two sons of Rama.)

_Kush Ranjan_.--A section of Brahman, Barai, Chamar, Chandnahu Kurmi, Rawat (Ahir), Marar and Rajbhar.

_Kushta_, _Koshta_.--Subcaste of Kori.

_Kuslia_.--(_Kusli_, boat.) A subcaste of Mali.

_Kusram_.--_(Kusri_, pulse.) A sept of the Uika Gonds in Betul and Chanda.

_Labhana_.--Synonym and subcaste of Banjara.

_Lad_.--The old name for the territory of Gujarat. A subcaste of Bania, Kalar, Koshti and Sunar.

_Ladaimar_.--One who hunts jackals and sells and eats their flesh. Subcaste of Jogi.

_Ladele_.--(Quarrelsome.) A section of Shribathri Teli.

_Ladjin_.--Subcaste of Banjara.

_Ladse_ or _Ladvi_.--Subcaste of Chamar and Dhangar.

_Ladwan_, _Ladvan_.--A subcaste of Mahar. Perhaps from Lad, the old name of Gujarat.

_Laheri_.--Synonym of Lakhera.

_Laheria_.--Subcaste of Brahman.

_Lahgera_ or _Lahugera_.--(_Lahanga_, weaver.) A subcaste of Kori.

_Lahuri Sen_.--A subcaste of Barai in the northern Districts who are formed of excommunicated members of the caste.

_Lahuria_.--(From Lahore.) A section of Rathor and Chauhan Banjaras.

_Lajjhar_.--Synonym of Rajjhar.

_Lakariha_.--A subdivision of Pardhan in Kawardha. While begging they play a musical instrument, hence the name from _lakri_, a stick.

_Lala_.--(A term of endearment.) Synonym for Kayasth. A subcaste of Chamar.

_Lalbegi_.--A follower of Lalbeg, patron saint of the sweepers. Synonym of Mehtar.

_Lal Padri_.--Red priests, because they rub _geru_ or red ochre on their bodies. Title of Jogi.

_Lamechu_.--A subcaste of Bania.

_Langoti_.--Subcaste of Pardhi. They wear only a narrow strip of cloth called _langoti_ round the loins.

_Lanjia_.--A subcaste of Lohar and Nai, from Lanji in Balaghat. A subtribe of Gonds in Khairagarh.

_Lanjiwar_.--(One living round Lanji in Balaghat.) Subcaste of Injhwar.

_Laphangia_.--(Upstart.) A section of Kolta.

_Laria_, _Larhia_.--(Belonging to Chhattisgarh.) A synonym of Beldar. A subcaste of Bhaina, Binjhwar, Chamar, Ganda, Ghasia, Gond, Gosain, Kalar, Kewat, Koshti, Mahar, Marar, Mowar, Panka, Savar, Sunar and Teli.

_Lasgaria_.--A class of Bairagi mendicants.

_Lasukar_.--A subcaste of Gondhalis who sell books and calendars.

_Lat_.--Subcaste of Chamar.

_Lave_.--Subcaste of Kunbi.

_Laya_.--(Bird.) A section of Binjhwar, Mahar, and Panka.

_Lekha_.--Subcaste of Gujar.

_Lemuan_, _Limuan_.--(Tortoise.) A totemistic sept of Audhelia, Munda and Oraon.

_Lidha_.--(Excrement of swine.) Subcaste of Khatik in Jubbulpore.

_Lilia_.--(From _lil_ or _nil_, the indigo plant.) Subcaste of Kachhi.

_Lilorhia_.--Subcaste of Gujar.

_Limba_.--_(Nim_ tree.) A totemistic section of Dumals.

_Lingayat_.--A religious order which has become a caste. See article and subordinate article to Bania. A subcaste of Bania and Kumhar.

_Lodha_.--Synonym of Lodhi. Subcaste of Lodhi.

_Lohar_.--A caste of blacksmiths, synonym Luhura. A section of Binjhwar and Ganda.

_Lohar Barhai_.--A subcaste of Barhai in Bundelkhand.

_Loharia_.--A subcaste of Ahir.

_Lonaria_.--A salt-maker. Subcaste of Mahar.

_Lonchatia_.--(Salt-licker.) A sept of the Uika clan of Gonds. The members of this sept lick salt on the death of their relatives. Another account from Betul says that they spread salt on a platform raised in honour of the dead and make cattle lick it up.

_Londhari_.--A small caste of cultivators found in the Bhandara District. They appear to be immigrants from northern India, as their women wear the Hindustani dress and they speak Hindi at home. At their weddings the bridal couple walk round the sacred post according to the northern custom. When a widow marries again the couple worship a sword before the ceremony. If a man is convicted of an intrigue with a low-caste woman, he has to submit to a symbolical purification by fire. A heap of juari-stalks is piled all round him and set alight, but as soon as the fire begins to burn he is permitted to escape from it. This rite is known as Agnikasht. The Londharis appear to be distinct from the Lonhare Kunbis of Betul, with whom I was formerly inclined to connect them. These latter derive their name from the Lonar Mehkar salt lake in the Buldana District, and are probably so called because they once collected the salt evaporated from the lake. They thus belong to the Maratha country, whereas the Londharis probably came from northern India. The name Lonhare is also found as a subdivision of one or two other castes living in the neighbourhood of the Lonar Mehkar lake.

_Londhe_, _Londe_.--(One who hides himself behind cloth.) A section of Kohli. A sept of Korku.

_Londibacha_.--A subcaste of Kasar, including persons of illegitimate descent.

_Lonhare_, _Lonare_.--(From Lonar-Mehkar, the well-known salt lake of the Buldana District.) A subcaste of Kunbi. A section of Arakh and Ahir.

_Ludhela_.--A section of Basor who worship the _ludhia_, a round stone for pounding food, at the Maihar ceremony.

_Luhura_.--(One who works in iron.) Synonym of Lohar. Subcaste of Sidhira.

_Lunia_.--Synonym of Murha, Nunia.

_Machhandar_.--(One who catches fish.) Synonym of Dhimar.

_Machhandra Nath_.--A subdivision of Jogi.

_Machhia_.--(From _machhi_, fish.) A section of Dhimar and Lodhi.

_Machhri_.--(Fish.) A sept of Oraon.

_Mada Kukuria_.--(Dead dog.) A subsection of the Viswal section of Koltas.

_Madankul_.--A section of Komti. They do not use red clothes, nor the wood of the swallow-wort tree.

_Madari_.--A class of Fakirs or Muhammadan beggars.

_Made_.--A resident of the Mad country in Chanda and Bastar. Subcaste of Pardhan.

_Madgi_, _Madiga_. [463]--The Telugu caste of workers in leather corresponding to the Chamars, which numbers nearly 1 1/2 millions in Madras, Mysore and Hyderabad. In 1911 there were nearly 6000 Madgis in the Central Provinces and 3000 in Berar. According to tradition, the Madigas derive their name from that of a sage called Matanga Muni, and it is said that a dynasty belonging to the caste once ruled in the Canarese country. The following legend of their origin comes from Mysore: [464] In former times the sage Jambava Rishi was habitually late in attending at Siva's court. Siva asked him why this happened, and he replied that he was occupied in tending his children. On this Siva took pity on him and gave him the sacred cow, Kamdhenu, from which all the needs of the children could be satisfied. But one day while Jambava was absent at Siva's court, another sage, Sankhya, visited his hermitage and was hospitably entertained by his son, Yugamuni. The cream which Sankhya was given was so good that he desired to kill the cow, Kamdhenu, thinking that her flesh would taste even better. In spite of Yugamuni's objections Sankhya killed the cow and distributed the meat to various persons. While this was in progress Jambava returned, and, on hearing what had been done, dragged Sankhya and Yugamuni before Siva's judgment seat. The two offenders did not enter the court but stood outside the doorway, Sankhya on the right side and Yugamuni on the left. Siva condemned them to become Chandalas or outcastes, and the descendants of Sankhya have become the right-hand Holias, while those of Yugamuni and his wife Matangi are the left-hand caste of Madigas. The latter were set to make shoes to expiate the sin committed by their ancestor in killing a cow. Another story given in the Central Provinces is that the Golla caste of cowherds, corresponding to the Ahirs and the Madgis, are the descendants of two brothers. The brothers had a large herd of cattle and wanted to divide them. At this time, however, cattle disease was prevalent, and many of the herd were affected. The younger brother did not know of this, and seeing that most of the herd were lying on the ground, he proposed to the elder brother that he himself should take all the cattle lying on the ground, and the elder brother all those which were standing up, as a suitable method of division. The elder brother agreed, but when the younger came to take his cattle which were on the ground he found that they were all dead, and hence he had no alternative but to take off the hides and cure and sell them. His descendants continued his degraded profession and became the Madgi caste. In Chanda the following six subcastes of Madgis are reported: The Nulka Chandriah or caste priests; the Anapa or leather dealers; the Sindhi who are supposed to have been performers of dramas; the Masti or dancers; the Kommu or tellers of stories; and the Dekkala or genealogists of the caste. It is said that Kommu really means a horn and Dekka a hoof. These last two are the lowest subdivisions, and occupy a most degraded position. In theory they should not sleep on cots, pluck the leaves of trees, carry loads on any animal other than a donkey, or even cook food for themselves, but should obtain their subsistence by eating the leavings of other Madgis or members of different castes. The Nulka Chandriah or priests are the highest subdivision and will not take food or water from any of the others, while the four remaining subcastes eat and drink together, but do not intermarry. There are also a number of exogamous groups, most of which have territorial names; but a few are titular or totemistic, as--Mukkidi, noseless; Kumawar, a potter; Nagarwar, a citizen; Dobbulwar, one who possesses a _dobbulu_ or copper coin; Ippawar, from the mahua tree; Itkalwar from _itkal_ a brick, and so on. The caste customs of the Madigas need not be recorded in detail. They are an impure caste and eat all kinds of food, and the leavings of others, though the higher subdivisions refuse to accept these. They live outside the village, and their touch is considered to convey pollution.

_Madhavacharya_.--A Vishnuite sect and order of religious mendicants. See Bairagi.

_Madhyanjan, Madhyandina_.--A class of Brahmans, the same as the Yajur-Vedis, or a section of them.

_Madia_.--A class of Gonds in Bastar.

_Madpotwa_.--(One who distils liquor.) Subcaste of Teli.

_Madrasi_.--Subcaste of Dhobi.

_Magadha_.--A subcaste of Ahir or Rawat in Chhattisgarh, who ask for food from others and do not cook for themselves.

_Magar, Magra_.--A sept of Khangar, Ahir or Rawat, Gond and Chadar.

_Magida_.--Synonym of Madgi.

_Mahabrahman_.--A degraded class of Brahmans who accept gifts for the dead.

_Mahadeva Thakur_.--(Lord Mahadeo.) A section of Mali.

_Mahajalia_.--(Deceitful.) A section of Lohar.

_Mahajan_.--A banker. Title of the Bania caste.

_Mahakul_.--Synonym for Ahir.

_Mahalodhi_.--(Great Lodhi.) Subcaste of Lodhi.

_Mahanadiya_.--(Those who came from the Mahanadi river.) A subcaste of Lodhi. A section of Ganda, Ghasia and Panka.

_Mahant_.--Chief of a _math_ or monastery. A superior class of priest. A section of Ahir, Panka, Chamar and Koshta.

_Mahanti_.--A synonym for the Karan or writer caste of Orissa. A section of Chasa.

_Mahapatra_.--A subdivision of degraded Brahmans who take funeral gifts. An honorific title of Thanapati and of Uriya Brahmans. A subcaste of Bhat.

_Mahar_.--A caste. A subcaste of Balahi and Gondhali. A section of Rawat in Raigarh.

_Maharaj_.--(Great king.) A title of Brahmans.

_Mahurana_.--Synonym of Chitari.

_Maharashtra_ or _Marathe_.--One of the five orders of Panch Dravida Brahmans inhabiting the Maratha country. They are also called Dakshini Brahmans. A subcaste of Kumhar, Kasar and Lohar.

_Mahedia_.--A section of Basors who worship pounded rice mixed with curds.

_Mahenga_.--(An elephant.) A totemistic sept of Rautia and Kawar in Bilaspur.

_Maheshri_.--Subcaste of Baina.

_Mahili_.--Synonym for Mahli.

_Mahipia_.--(A drinker of curds.) A subsection of the Viswal section of Koltas.

_Mahisur_.--(Lord of the earth.) A synonym of Brahmans.

_Mahli-Munda._--Subcaste of Mahli.

_Mahobia_.--(From the town of Mahoba in Central India.) A subcaste of Barai, Chamar, Dangi, Ghasia, Khangar and Mahar. A section of Dangi, Kumhar and Kori.

_Mahoda_.--A subdivision of Brahmans in Jubbulpore.

_Mahore, Mahure_.--A subcaste of Bania, Kori, Kumhar and Kalar.

_Mahratta_.--Synonym of Maratha.

_Mahto, Mahton_.--A chief or village headman. Subcaste and title of Teli and Khairwar; title of the leader of the Bhuiya caste. A section of Ganda and Rawat (Ahir).

_Mahur_.--(Poison.) A subcaste of Sunars in Chhindwara.

_Mahure, Mahuria_.--(From Mahur, a town in Hyderabad.) Subcaste of Barhai and Dhangar.

_Mai_.--(Mother.) A division of the Kabirpanthi sect.

_Maichhor_.--A small clan of Rajputs. Perhaps from Maichuri in Jaipur.

_Mailwar_.--(Dirty.) A group of Sunars in Raipur.

_Maina_.--Synonym of Mina.

_Mair_.--A subcaste of Sunar named after Mair, their original ancestor, who melted down a golden demon.

_Maithil_.--One of the five divisions of Panch Gaur Brahmans inhabiting the province of Maithil or Bihar and Tirhut.

_Majarewar_.--A territorial section of Binjhwar (from Majare in Balaghat).

_Majhi_.--(A village headman.) Title of Bhatra.

_Majhia_.--Synonym of Majhwar.

_Majhli_.--(Middle.) Subcaste of Rautia.

_Makaria_.--(From _makad_, monkey.) A subcaste of Kamar, so called because they eat monkeys.

_Makhia_.--Subcaste of Mehtar.

_Malaiya_.--An immigrant from Malwa. Subcaste of Chhipa.

_Male_, _Maler_.--Synonyms of Mal.

_Malha_.--A boatman. Synonym of Mallah.

_Malhar_.--Subcaste of Koli.

_Mali_.--(A caste.) A section of Kalar.

_Mal-Paharia_.--Synonym of Mal.

_Malvi_, _Malwi_.--(From _Malwa_.) A subdivision of Brahmans in Hoshangabad and Betul. A subcaste of Ahir, Barhai, Darzi, Dhobi, Gadaria, Kalar, Koshti, Kumhar, Nai and Sunar.

_Malyar._ [465]--A small and curious caste of workers in gold and silver in Bastar State. They are known alternatively as Marhatia Sunar or Panchal, and outsiders call them Adhali. The name Malyar is said to be derived from _mal_, dirt, and _jar_ or _jalna_, to burn, the Malyars having originally been employed by Sunars or goldsmiths to clean and polish their ornaments. No doubt can be entertained that the Malyars are in reality Gonds, as they have a set of exogamous septs all of which belong to the Gonds, and have Gondi names. So far as possible, however, they try to disguise this fact and perform their marriages by walking round the sacred post like the Hindustani castes. They will take food cooked without water from Brahmans, Rajputs and Banias, but will not eat _katcha_ (or food cooked with water) from anybody, and not even from members of their own caste unless they are relatives. This custom is common to some other castes of mixed descent, and indicates that illicit connections are frequent among the Malyars, as indeed would necessarily be the case owing to the paucity of their numbers. But their memories are short, and the offspring of such irregular unions are recognised as belonging to the caste after one or two generations. An outsider belonging to any higher caste may be admitted to the community. The caste worship Mata Devi or the goddess of smallpox, and revere the spirit of a Malyar woman who became a Sati. They have learned as servants of the Sunars the rudiments of their art, and manufacture rough ornaments for the primitive people of Bastar.

_Mana Ojha_.--Subcaste of Ojha.

_Mandal_.--(A name for a prosperous cultivator in Chhattisgarh.) A section of Chamar and Panka. See article Kurmi.

_Mandilwar_.--Name derived from Mandla. Subcaste of Katia.

_Mandkul_.--A section of Komti who do not eat mangoes.

_Mandlaha_.--(From Mandla town.) Subtribe of Gond.

_Mane Kunbi_.--Subcaste of Gondhali.

_Mang_ or _Mangia_.--A caste. Subcaste of Ganda, Gondhali, Bahrupia.

_Mangan_.--(From _Manghunia_, beggar.) A caste.

_Mangan_. [466]--A small caste found in Chhattisgarh and Sambalpur who are the musicians and genealogists of the Ghasias. The term is considered opprobrious, as it means 'beggar,' and many Mangans probably return themselves as Ghasias. They are despised by the Ghasias, who will not take food or water from them. At the marriages of the former the Mangans play on a drum called _ghunghru_, which they consider as the badge of the caste, their cattle being branded with a representation of it. The only point worth notice about the caste is that they are admittedly of mixed descent from the unions of members of other castes with Ghasia prostitutes. They have five totemistic exogamous sections, about each of which a song is sung relating its origin. The Sunani sept, which worships gold as its totem and occupies the highest position, is said to be descended from a Brahman father and a Ghasia mother; the Sendaria sept, worshipping vermilion, from a Kewat ancestor and a Ghasia woman; the Bhainsa sept, worshipping a buffalo, from a Gaur or Ahir and a Ghasia; the Mahanadia sept, having the Mahanadi for their totem, from a Gond and a Ghasia woman; while the Bagh sept, who revere the tiger, say that a cow once gave birth to two young, one in the form of a tiger and the other of a human being; the latter on growing up took a Ghasia woman to himself and became the ancestor of the sept. As might be expected from their ancestry, the Mangan women are generally of loose character. The Mangans sometimes act as sweepers.

_Mangta._--(A beggar.) A subcaste of Pasi in Sangor, who beg from their caste-fellows.

_Maniara._--(A Pedlar.) Subcaste of Jogi.

_Manihar._--A caste. The Manihars are also known as Bisati. An occupational name of Jogis.

_Manikpuria._--(A resident Manikpur.) Subcaste of Panka.

_Manjhi._--(Headman.) A synonym of Santal and Kewat. A section of Chasa, Dhanuhar and Kolta. A title of Chasa.

_Manjur._--(Peacock.) A totemistic sept of Munda.

_Manjmar._--Term for a boatman. Included in Kewat.

_Mankar._--Name of a superior class of village watchmen in Nimar District. See article Bhil. A subcaste of Mana and Halba.

_Mannepuwar._--A subcaste of Mala. Synonym, Teluga Bhoi.

_Manwa._--Subcaste of Kunbi.

_Marabi._--A common sept of Gond. A section of Nat.

_Marai._--(A name for the goddess of cholera, who is called Marai Mata.) A common sept of Gond. Also a sept of Baiga, Pasor and Bhunjia. A subcaste of Majhwar.

_Maral._--Synonym of Mali.

_Marapa._--A sept of Gonds in Betul, who abstain from killing or eating a goat or sheep and throw away any article smelt by them.

_Marar._--Synonym for Mali, a gardener. Also a subcaste of Kachhi.

_Maratha, Marathe._--A caste. A subcaste of Barhai, Bedar, Chamar, Dhimar, Gadaria, Kumhar, Mahar, Mali, Mang, Nai and Teli.

_Marathi, Maratha, Marthe, Marathe._--(A resident of the Maratha country.) Subcaste of Bahrupia, Chamar, Dhargar, Gundhali, Gopal, Injhwar, Kaikari, Kasar, Koshti, Nahal, Otari.

_Marathia._--Resident of Bhandara or another Maratha District. Subcaste of Halba.

_Maria._--A well-known tribe of Gonds in Bastar and Chanda. See article Gond. A subcaste of Gowari. A section of Ahir, Chamar and Kumhar.

_Markam._--(_Marka,_ mango.) One of the principal septs of Gonds. Also a sept of Baiga, Basor, Bhumjia, Pardhan and Solaha.

_Marori._ [467]--A small caste of degraded Rajputs from Marwar found in the Bhandara and Chhindwara Districts and also in Berar. The name is a local corruption of Marwari, and is applied to them by their neighbours, though many of the caste do not accept it and call themselves Rajputs. In Chhindwara they go by the name of Chhatri, and in the Tirora Tahsil they are known as Alkari, because they formerly grew the _al_ or Indian madder for a dye, though it has now been driven out of the market. They have been in the Central Provinces for some generations, and though retaining certain peculiarities of dress, which show their northern origin, have abandoned in many respects the caste usages of Rajputs. Their women wear the Hindustani _angia_ tied with string behind in place of the Maratha _choli_ or breast-cloth, and drape their _saris_ after the northern fashion. They wear ornaments of the Rajputans shape on their arms, and at their weddings they sing Marwari songs. They have Rajput sept names, as Parihar, Rathor, Solanki, Sesodia and others, which constitute exogamous groups and are called _kulis._ Some of these have split up into two or three subdivisions, as, for instance, the Pathar (stone) Panwars, the Pandhre or white Panwars and the Dhatura or thorn-apple Panwars; and members of these different groups may intermarry. The reason seems to be that it was recognised that people belonged to the same Panwar sept who were not blood kin to each other, and the prohibition of marriage between them was a serious inconvenience in a small community. They also have eponymous _gotras_, as Vasishtha, Batsa and others of the Brahmanical type, but these do not influence exogamy. The paucity of their numbers and the influence of local usage have caused them to relax the marriage rules adhered to by Rajputs. Women are very scarce, and a price varying from forty to a hundred rupees is commonly paid for a bride, though they feel keenly the degradation attaching to the acceptance of a bride-price. Widow-marriage is permitted, no doubt for the same reasons, and a girl going wrong with a man of another caste may be readmitted to the community. Divorce is not permitted, and an unfaithful wife may be abandoned; she cannot then marry again in the caste. Formerly, on the arrival of the marriage procession, the bride's and bridegroom's parties let off fireworks, aiming them against each other, but this practice is now discontinued. When the bridegroom approaches the marriage-shed the bride comes out and strikes him on the breast or forehead with a ball of dough, a sheet being held between them; the bridegroom throws a handful of rice over her and strikes the festoons of the shed with a naked sword. A bachelor espousing a widow must first be married to a ring, which he thereafter carries in his ear, and if it is lost funeral ceremonies must be performed as for a real wife. Women are tattooed on the arms only. Children have as many as five names, one for ordinary use, and the others for ceremonial purposes and the arrangement of marriages. If a man kills a cow or a cat he must have a miniature figure of the animal made of gold and give it to a Brahman in expiation of his sin.

_Marskola_.--(From _markets_, an axe.) A common sept of Gonds and Pardhans.

_Maru_.--Subcaste of Charan Bhats.

_Marwari_.--A resident of Marwar or the desert tract of Rajputana; Marwar is also used as a name for Jodhpur State. See subordinate article Rajput-Rathor. The name Marwari is commonly applied to Banias coming from Marwar. See article Bania. A subcaste of Bahna, Gurao, Kumhar, Nai, Sunar and Teli.

_Masania_.--(From _masin_, straw or grass mats, or _masina_, thatched roof.) A section of Lohar. A synonym for San Bhatras in Bastar.

_Mashki_.--(A water-bearer.) Synonym of Bhishti.

_Masram_.--A common sept of Gonds.

_Masti_.--(Dancer.) Subcaste of Madgi.

_Mastram_.--(Mastra, brass bangles.) A sept of Gonds in Betul. The women of this sept wear brass bangles.

_Masuria_.--A subcaste of Kurmi. From _masur_, lentil. A section of Rajput.

_Mathadhari_.--(Living in a monastery.) A celibate clan of Manbhao mendicants.

_Mathpati_.--(Lord of the hermitage.) A subcaste of Jangam.

_Mathur, Mathuria_.--(From Mathura or Muttra.) A subcaste of Kayasth. A subdivision of Brahman. A subcaste of Banjara, Darzi and Nai.

_Matkuda_, _Matkora_.--(Earth-digger.) A subcaste and synonym of Beldar. A name for Gonds and Pardhans who take to earthwork.

_Mattha_.--Corruption of Maratha. A subcaste of Koshti, Mahar and Teli, and a title of Teli.

_Matti_.--A subdivision of low-class Brahmans returned from Khairagarh. Also a class of Kashmiri Brahmans.

_Matwala_.--(A drinker of country liquor.) Subcaste of Kadera.

_Mawasi_, _Mirdhan_.--Subcaste of Dahait. Title of the headman of the Dahait caste committee.

_Mayaluar_.--(Chief man of the caste.) A subcaste of Turi.

_Mayur_.--(Peacock.) A totemistic section of the Ahir, Hatwa, Gond, Sonjhara and Sundi castes.

_Mayurmara_.--(Killer of peacock.) A section of Bahelia.

_Meda Gantia_.--(Counter of posts.) Title of Bhatra. Official who fixes date and hour for wedding.

_Medara, Medari_.--The Telugu caste of bamboo-workers and mat-makers, corresponding to the Basors. They have the same story as the Basors of the first bamboo having been grown from the snake worn by Siva round his neck, which was planted head downwards in the ground. The customs of the Medaras, Mr. Francis says, [468] differ from place to place. In one they will employ Brahman _purohits_ (priests), and prohibit widow-marriage, while in the next they will do neither, and will even eat rats and vermin. The better classes among them are taking to calling themselves Balijas or Baljis, and affixing the title of Chetti to their names.

_Medari_.--Synonym of Medara.

_Mehar_.--Synonym of Bhulia.

_Meher_.--A section of Malwi Ahir, a synonym for Bhulia. A title of Chamar.

_Mehra_.--Synonym for Mahar. A subcaste of Katia and Kori.

_Mehta_.--A group of Brahmans. A section of Oswal Bania.

_Mehtar_.--(A prince or leader.) Common name for the sweeper caste. Title of the president of the Dhobi caste committee.

_Meman_.--Synonym of Cutchi.

_Meshbansi_.--(Descendant of a sheep.) A clan of Rajputs.

_Mewada, Mewari_.--(From _Mewar_.) A division of Gujarati or Khedawal Brahmans. A subcaste of Chhipa, Darzi, Mali and Sunar.

_Mewati_.--Synonym of Meo. See article. A class of Fakirs or Muhammadan beggars.

_Mhali_.--Synonym of Nai.

_Mhasia, Mhashi_.--(_Mhas_, buffalo.) A sept of Halba. A section of Kohli.

_Mihir_.--Synonym of Bhulia.

_Mina_.--A caste. A section of Raghuvansis.

_Mirdaha_.--A subcaste of Dahait, Khangar, and Nat. A section of Raghuvansi. Name used for the mate of a gang of coolies.

_Mir-Dahait._--Title of the Mirdha caste.

_Mirdha_.--A small caste found only in the Narsinghpur District. They are a branch of the Khangar or Dahait caste of Saugor and Damoh. The names of their exogamous sections tally with those of the Khangars, and they have the same story of their ancestors having been massacred at a fort in Orchha State and of one pregnant woman escaping and hiding under a _kusum_ tree (_Schleichera trijuga_), which consequently they revere. Like Khangars they regard Muhammadan eunuchs and Fakirs (beggars) with special friendship, on the ground that it was a Fakir who sheltered their ancestress when the rest of the caste were massacred by Rajputs, and Fakirs do not beg at their weddings. One explanation of the name is that this section of the caste were born from a Muhammadan father and a Dahait woman, and hence were called Mir-Dahaits or Mirdaha, Mir being a Muhammadan title. Mirdha is, however, as noted by Mr. Hira Lal, the name of the head of the caste committee among the Dahaits; and in Hoshangabad he is a servant of the village proprietor and acts as assistant to the Kotwar or village watchman; he realises the rents from the tenants, and sometimes works as a night guard. In Gujarat the name is said to be a corruption of _mir-deh_ or 'mason of the village.' [469] Here it is said that the Mirdhas are held to be of part foreign, part Rajput origin, and were originally official spies of the Gujarat sultans. They are now employed as messengers and constables, and therefore seem to be analogous to the same class of persons in the Central Provinces.

_Mirshikar_.--Synonym of Pardhi.

_Misra_ or _Misar_.--A surname of Kanaujia, Jijhotia, Sarwaria and Uriya Brahmans.

_Mistri_.--(Corruption of the English Mister.) A master carpenter or mate of a gang. Title of Barhai, Beldar and Lohar.

_Mithia_.--(A preparer of sweets.) Synonym of Halwai.

_Mochi_.--(A shoemaker.) A caste. Subcaste of Chamar.

_Modh_.--A subdivision of Khedawal or Gujarati Brahmans who take their name from Modhera, an ancient place in Gujarat. A subcaste of Gujarati Bania.

_Modh-Ghaneli_.--Subcaste of Teli in Gujarat.

_Moghia_.--Synonym of Pardhi.

_Mohania_.--(Captivator.) A section of Rajjhar and Kirar.

_Mohtaria_.--Title of the headman of the Andh caste committee.

_Mohtera_.--One who fixes the auspicious moment, hence the headman of the caste. A titular section of Basor.

_Monas_.--A subdivision of Brahmans.

_Mongre_, _Mongri_, _Mongrekair_.--(A club or mallet.) A section of Ahir or Rawat in Chhattisgarh, and of Chamar, Ganda, and Panka.

_Mori_.--A branch of the Panwar Rajputs.

_Mor Kachhi_.--One who prepares the _maur_ or marriage-crown for weddings. Subcaste of Kachhi.

_Morkul_.--A section of Komti. They do not use asafoetida (_hing_) nor the fruit of the _umar_ fig-tree.

_Motate_.--(From _mot_, water-bag.) A subcaste of Kapewar.

_Moujikul_.--A section of Komti. They do not use pepper.

_Mowar_.--Subcaste of Rajwar.

_Mowasi_.--A resident of the forests of Kalibhit and Melghat known as the Mowas. Subcaste of Korku.

_Muamin_.--Synonym of Cutchi.

_Muasi_.--Title of Korku; subcaste of Korwa.

_Muchi_.--Synonym of Mochi.

_Mudara_.--Subcaste of Parja.

_Mudgalia_.--(From _mudgal_, Indian club--an athlete.) A surname of Adi Gaur Brahmans in Saugor.

_Mudha_.--Synonym for Munda.

_Mudotia_.--(From _mudha_, a cheat.) A surname of Sanadhia Brahmans in Saugor.

_Mughal_.--A tribal division of Muhammadans. See article Muhammadan Religion.

_Muhammadan_.--Subcaste of Koli.

_Muhjaria_.--(Burnt mouth.) A section of Lodhi.

_Mukeri_.--Or Kasai, a small Muhammadan caste of traders in cattle and butchers. In 1891 more than 900 were returned from the Saugor District. Their former occupation was to trade in cattle like the Banjaras, but they have now adopted the more profitable trade of slaughtering them for the export of meat; and as this occupation is not considered very reputable, they have perhaps thought it desirable to abandon their caste name. The derivation of the term Mukeri is uncertain. According to one account they are a class of Banjaras, and derive their name from Mecca, on the ground that one of their Naiks or headmen was camping in the neighbourhood of this town, at the time when Abraham was building it, and assisted him in the work. When they emigrated from Mecca their illustrious name of Makkai was corrupted into Mukeri. [470] A variant of this story is that their ancestor was one Makka Banjara, who also assisted in the building of Mecca, and that they came to India with the early Muhammadan invaders. [471] The Mukeris form a caste and marry among themselves. In their marriage ceremony they have adopted some Hindu observances, such as the anointing of the bride and bridegroom with turmeric and the erection of a marriage-shed. They take food from the higher Hindu castes, but will not eat with a Kayasth, though there is no objection to this on the score of their religion. They will admit an outsider, if he becomes a Muhammadan, but will not give their daughters to him in marriage, at any rate until he has been for some years a member of the caste. In other matters they follow Muhammadan law.

_Mullaji_.--Title of the priests of the Bohra caste.

_Multani_.--Subcaste and synonym of Banjara.

_Munda_.--(A village headman, from _munda_, the head.) Title and synonym of Kol. A subcaste of Kharia and Oraon.

_Mundela_.--(Bald-headed.) A surname of Jijhotia Brahmans in Saugor.

_Mundle_.--(Shaven ones.) Subcaste of Gujar.

_Munikul_.--A section of Komti. They do not use _munga_ beans.

_Munjia_.--Name of an Akhara or school of Bairagi religious mendicants. See Bairagi.

_Munurwar_.--Synonym of Kapewar.

_Murai, Murao_.--(From _muli_, or radish.) Subcaste of Kachhi.

_Murchulia_.--(One who puts rings on the fingers of the caste.) A section of Ganda and Panka in Raipur.

_Muria_.--A well-known subtribe of Gonds in Bastar and Chanda.

_Murli_.--Synonym of Waghya.

_Musabir_.--Synonym of Mochi.

_Musahar_.--(A rat-eater.) Subcaste and title of Bhuiya.

_Musare_.--(_Musar_, a pestle.) A section of Mali.

_Mussali_.--Title of Mehtar.

_Mutracha_.--Synonym of Mutrasi.

_Mutrasa_.--Synonym of Mutrasi.

_Mutrasi_, _Mutrasa_, _Muthrasi_, _Mutracha_.--(From the Dravidian roots _mudi_, old, and _racha_, a king, or from Mutu Raja, a sovereign of some part of the Telugu country.) [472] A caste which is numerous in Hyderabad and Madras, and of which a few persons are found in the Chanda District of the Central Provinces. The Mutrasis are the village watchmen proper of Telingana or the Telugu country. [473] They were employed by the Vijayanagar kings to defend the frontier of their country, and were honoured with the title of Paligar. Their usual honorific titles at present are Dora (Sahib or Lord) and Naidu. As servants they are considered very faithful and courageous. Some of them have taken to masonry in Chanda, and are considered good stone-carvers. They are a comparatively low caste, and eat fowls and drink liquor, but they do not eat beef or pork. It is compulsory among them to marry a girl before she arrives at adolescence, and if this is not done her parents are put out of caste, and only readmitted on payment of a penalty.

_Nabadia_.--(Boatman or sailor.) A synonym for Kewat.

_Naddaf_.--A synonym for Bahna or Pinjara.

_Nadha_.--(Those who live on the banks of streams.) Subcaste of Dhimar.

_Nadia_.--A clan of Dangi.

_Nag, Nagesh_.--(Cobra.) A sept of the Ahir or Rawat, Binjhal, Bhatia, Chasa, Hatwa, Halba, Khadal, Kawar, Khangar, Karan, Katia, Kolta, Lohar, Mahar, Mali, Mowar, Parja, Redka, Sulia, Sundi and Taonla castes. Most of these castes belong to Chhattisgarh and the Uriya country.

_Naga_.--A clan of Gosains or mendicants. See Gosain.

_Nagar_.--A subcaste of Brahmans belonging to Gujarat; a subcaste of Bania; a section of Teli.

_Nagarchi_.--(A drum-beater.) A class of Gonds. A subcaste of Ganda and Ghasia.

_Nagarchi_.--The Nagarchis appear to be a class of Gonds, whose special business was to beat the _nakkara_ or kettledrums at the gates of forts and palaces. In some Districts they now form a special community, marrying among themselves, and numbered about 6000 persons in 1911. The _nagara_ or _nakkara_ is known in Persia as well as in India. Here the drum is made of earthenware, of a tapering shape covered at both ends with camel-hide for the _zir_ or treble, and with cowhide for the _bam_ or bass. It is beaten at the broader end. In Persia the drums were played from the Nakkara-khana or gateway, which still exists as an appanage of royalty in the chief cities of Iran. They were beaten to greet the rising and to usher out the setting sun. During the months of mourning, Safar and Muharram, they were silent. [474] In India the _nagara_ were a pair of large kettledrums bound with iron hoops and twice as large as those used in Europe. They were a mark of royalty and were carried on one of the state elephants, the royal animal, in the prince's _sowari_ or cavalcade, immediately preceding him on the line of march. The right of displaying a banner and beating kettledrums was one of the highest marks of distinction which could be conferred on a Rajput noble. When the titular Maratha Raja had retired to Satara and any of the Maratha princes entered his territory, all marks of royalty were laid aside by the latter and his _nagara_ or great drum of empire ceased to be beaten. [475]

The stick with which the kettledrum was struck was called _danka_, and the king's jurisdiction was metaphorically held to extend so far as his kettledrums were beaten. _Angrezi raj ka danka bajta hai_ or 'Where the English drum is beaten,' means 'So far as the English empire extends.' In Egypt the kettledrums were carried on camels. [476]

_Nagaria_.--(A drum-player.) A section of Jasondhi Bhat and Teli.

_Nagbans_.--(Descended from the cobra.) A totemistic sept of Gadba, Ghasia, and Gond.

_Nagla_.--(Naked.) Subcaste of Khond.

_Nagpure_.--(From Nagpur.) A section of Lodhi and Kohli.

_Nagvansi_.--A clan of Rajputs. See article Rajput-Nagvansi. A subcaste and section of Sunar. A section of Daharia or Daraiha and Gond.

_Nahar_.--(Tiger.) A subtribe of Baiga. A section of Rajputs in Saugor.

_Nahonia_.--A clan of Dangi in Damoh and Saugor. They were formerly Kachhwaha Rajputs from Narwar, but being cut off from their own domicile they married with Dangis. Rajputs accept daughters from them but do not give their daughters to Nahonias.

_Naidu_.--Title of the Balija, Mutrasi and Velama castes. Often used by Balijas as their caste name.

_Naik_.--(Leader.) A subdivision of Gond, also known as Darwe. A title of Banjara headmen. A title of Teli and Kolta. A section of Ahir, Chamar, Chasa, Gadaria, Halba, Kewat, Khond, Mali, Sudh.

_Nakib_.--Mace-bearer or flag-bearer in a procession. Subcaste of Jasondhi Bhat and Khangar.

_Nakshbandia_.--A class of Fakirs or Muhammadan beggars.

_Naksia_.--Synonym of Nagasia.

_Namdeo_.--A religious sect confined to members of the Chhipa and Darzi castes, which has become a subcaste.

_Nanakshahi_.--Synonym of Nanakpanthi.

_Nandia_.--(One who leads about with him a performing bullock). From Nandi, the bull on which Mahadeo rides. Subcaste of Jogi.

_Nandvansi_.--Subcaste of Ahir.

_Nanghana_.--A name given to the Kol tribe in Hoshangabad.

_Napita_.--Sanskrit name for Nai or barber.

_Naqqal_.--Title of Bhand.

_Naraina_.--Subcaste of Patwa.

_Naramdeo_.--A subcaste of Brahmans belonging to the Gaur branch. They take their name from the river Nerbudda.

_Narbadi_, _Narmada_.--(From the river Nerbudda.) A subdivision of Maharashtra Brahmans. A section of Yajur-Vedi Brahmans. A synonym for Naramdeo Brahmans. A section of Agharia, Binjhal and Chamar.

_Narnolia_.--(From a place called Narnol in the Punjab.) Subcaste of Mehtar.

_Narwaria_.--A clan of Dangi. A subcaste of Ahir.

_Nata_.--(A young bullock.) A section of Ahir and Oswal Bania.

_Nathunia_.--(Nose-ring.) A subcaste of Pasi.

_Navadesia_.--(A man of nine districts.) Subcaste of Banjara.

_Nawaria_.--A subcaste of Barhai, Lohar, Kachera or Sisgar, Nai and Tamera.

_Nazir_.--(A cashier or usher.) Subcaste of Jasondhi Bhat.

_Negi_.--A vice-president of the caste committee in the Kharia caste.

_Nema_ or _Nima_.--A subcaste of Bania. See article Bania, Nema.

_Netam_.--(The dog in Gondi.) One of the common septs of Gond. Also a sept of Basor, Bhatra, Bhuiya, Dewar, Kawar and Parja.

_Nawari_.--(From _newar_, thick tape used for webbing of beds.) Subcaste of Bahna.

_Niaria_.--An occupational term applied to persons who take the refuse and sweepings from a Sunar's shop and wash out the particles of gold and silver. See article Sunar.

_Nigam_, _Nigum_.--A subcaste of Kayasth.

_Nihal_.--Synonym of Nahal.

_Nihang_.--A class of Bairagis or religious mendicants, who remain celibate.

_Nikhar_.--A subcaste of Ahir, Bharewa (Kasar), Gadaria. A clan of Rajput. A section of Koshti.

_Nikumbh_.--A clan of Rajputs included in the thirty-six royal races. A section of Joshi.

_Nilgar_.--Synonym of Chhipa.

_Nilkar_.--(From _nil_, indigo.) A subcaste of Darzi or Simpi (tailors) in Naagpur, so named because they took up the work of dyeing in addition to their own and formed a new subcaste.

_Nimanandi_.--A Vishnuite sect and order of religious mendicants. See Bairagi.

_Nimari_, _Nimadi_, _Nimaria_.--(A resident of Nimar.) A subcaste of Balahi, Bania, Dhobi, Mahar and Nai.

_Nimawal_.--A class of Bairagi.

_Nirali_.--Synonym of Chhipa.

_Niranjani_.--Name of an Akhara or school of Bairagis. See Bairagi.

_Nirbani_.--(_Nir_, without; _bani_, speech.) A class of Bairagis who refrain from speech as far as possible.

_Nirmohi_.--A class of Bairagis.

_Nona_ or _Lona_.--Name derived from Nona or Lona Chamarin, a well-known witch. Subcaste of Chamar.

_Nulkachandriah_.--Caste priests. Subcaste of Madgi.

_Nun_.--(Salt.) A sept of Oraon.

_Nunia_, _Nonia_, _Lunia_.--(Saltmaker.) A synonym of Beldar. A section of Binjhwar and Koli.

_Od_.--Synonym of Beldar.

_Odde_, _Ud_.--(From Odra the old name of Orissa.) Term for a digger or navvy. A group of Beldars.

_Odhia_.--Synonym for Audhia Bania.

_Odia_ or _Uriya_.--Subcaste of Beldar in Chhattisgarh.

_Oiku_.--Subtribe of Majhwar.

_Ojha_.--(From _Ojh_, entrails.) A caste of Gond augurs, see article. A title of Maithil Brahmans. A subcaste of Lohar, Nat and Savar.

_Okkilyan_.--Synonym of Wakkaliga.

_Omre_, _Umre_.--A subcaste of Bania. See Bania Umre.--A subcaste of Teli.

_Onkar Nath_.--A subdivision of Jogis.

_Onkule_.--Subcaste of Koshti.

_Orha_.--Subcaste of Chasa.

_Oswal_.--A subcaste of Bania. See subordinate article to Bania.

_Ota_.--(One who recites the Vedas aloud in sacrifices.) An honorific title of Uriya Brahmans.

_Otari, Watkari_.--A low caste of workers in brass in the Maratha country. The name is derived from the Marathi verb _otne_, to pour or smelt. They number about 2600 persons in the Bhandara and Chanda Districts, and in Berar. The caste have two subcastes, Gondadya and Maratha, or the Gond and Maratha Otaris. The latter are no doubt members of other castes who have taken to brass-working. Members of the two subcastes do not eat with each other. Their family names are of different kinds, and some of them are totemistic. They employ Brahmans for their ceremonies, and otherwise their customs are like those of the lower artisan castes. But it is reported that they have a survival of marriage by capture, and if a man refuses to give his daughter in marriage after being asked twice or thrice, they abduct the girl and afterwards pay some compensation to the father. They make and sell ornaments of brass and bell-metal, such as are worn by the lower castes, and travel from village to village, hawking their toe-rings and anklets. There is also an Otari subcaste of Kasars.

_Pabaiya_.--(From Pabai in Bundelkhand.) A clan of Rajputs in Hoshangabad.

_Pabia_.--A small caste in the zamindaris of the Bilaspur District, and some of the Feudatory States, who numbered about 9000 persons in 1911. They appear to be Pans or Gandas, who also bear the name of Pab, and this has been corrupted into Pabia, perhaps with a view to hiding their origin. They are wretchedly poor and ignorant. They say that they have never been to a Government dispensary, and would be afraid that medicine obtained from it would kill them. Their only remedies for diseases are branding the part affected or calling in a magician. They never send their children to school, as they hold that educated children are of no value to their parents, and that the object of Government in opening schools is only to obtain literate persons to carry on its business. One curious custom may be noticed. When any one dies in a family, all the members, as soon as the breath leaves his body, go into another room of the house; and across the door they lay a net opened into the room where the corpse lies. They think that the spirit of the dead man will follow them, and will be caught in the net. Then the net is carried away and burnt or buried with the corpse, and thus they think that the spirit is removed and prevented from remaining about the house and troubling the survivors.

_Pabeha_.--Synonym for Dhimar.

_Pabudia_ or _Madhai_.--A subcaste of Bhuiya.

_Pachadhe_.--(Western.)--A subdivision of Saraswat Brahman.

_Pachbhaiya_.--(Five Brothers.) A section of Ahir and Audhelia.

_Pada_.--(A pig-eater.) A section of Muria Gonds and Pardhans.

_Padhan_.--(An Uriya name for a chief or headman of a village.) A section of Bhuiya, Chasa, Dumal, Hatwa, Kolta, Tiyar and other Uriya castes. A title of Chasa and Kolta.

_Padmasale_.--Subcaste of Koshti.

_Padyal_.--A subtribe of Gond in Chanda. A section of Marori.

_Pahalwan_.--A small community numbering about 600 persons in the Bilaspur District and surrounding tracts of Chhattisgarh. The word Pahalwan means a wrestler, but Sir B. Robertson states [477] that they are a small caste of singing beggars and have no connection with wrestling. They appear, however, to belong to the Gopal caste, who have a branch of Pahalwans in their community. And the men returned from Bilaspur may have abandoned wrestling in favour of singing and begging from trees, which is also a calling of the Gopals. They themselves say that their ancestors were Gopals and lived somewhere towards Berar, and that they came to Bilaspur with the Maratha leader Chimnaji Bhonsla.

_Pahar_.--Subcaste of Mahli.

_Paharia_ or _Benwaria_.--Subcaste of Korwa.

_Paik_.--(A foot-soldier.) See Rajput-Paik.

_Paikaha_.--(One who follows the calling of curing hides.) Synonym for Chamar.

_Paikara_.--(From Paik, a foot-soldier.) Subcaste of Kawar.

_Pailagia_.--(Pailagi or 'I fall at your feet,' is a common term of greeting from an inferior to a superior.) Subcaste of Dahait.

_Paiyam_.--(From _paiya_, a calf.) A sept of Gonds in Betul.

_Pajania_.--(_Paijana_, tinkling anklets.) A section of Kurmi.

_Pakhali_.--(From _pakhali_, a leathern water-bag.) Synonym of Bhishti.

_Pakhawaji_.--(One who plays on the _pakhawaj_ or timbrel.) Title of Mirasi.

_Pakhia_.--(They are so called because they eat the flesh of the _por_ or buffalo.) Subcaste of Khond.

_Palas._--(From the _palas_ tree, _Butea frondosa_.) A totemistic sept of Gonds.

_Palewar_.--A _gotra_ of Binjhwar; a subcaste of Dhimar found in the Telugu country. They are also called Bhoi in Chanda. A name for Telugu Dhimars or watermen. A section of Binjhwar.

_Palgaria_.--(Sleeping on a _palang_ or cot.) A sept of Bhunjia.

_Palliwal_.--A subcaste of Brahmans belonging to the Kanaujia division. They take their name from Pali, a trading town of Marwar. A subcaste of Bania, whose name is derived from the same place.

_Palsa-gacha_.--(_Palas_ tree, _Butea frondosa_.) A totemistic sept of Pans.

_Palshe_.--A subcaste of Maratha Brahmans. They derive their name from Palsaoli village in Kalyan (Bombay Presidency).

_Pampatra_.--(Those who use their hands as pots.) A section of Khandwal.

_Pan_.--(Name of a forest tribe.) Synonym for Ganda.

_Panch, Panchayat_.--(A caste committee, so called because it is supposed to consist of five (_panch_) persons.) A section of Marar.

_Panchal_.--An indeterminate group of artisans engaged in any of the following five trades: Workers in iron, known as Manu; workers in copper or brass called Twashtik; workers in stone or Shilpik; workers in wood or Maya; and workers in gold and silver designated as Daivagnya. [478] The caste appear to be of Telugu origin, and in Madras they are also known as Kammala. In the Central Provinces they were amalgamated with the Sunars in 1901, but in 1891 a total of 7000 were returned, belonging to the southern Districts; while 2700 members of the caste are shown in Berar. The name is variously derived, but the principal root is no doubt _panch_ or five. Captain Glasfurd writes it Panchyanun. [479] In the Central Provinces the Panchals appear generally to work in gold or brass, while in Berar they are blacksmiths. The gold-workers are an intelligent and fairly prosperous class, and devote themselves to engraving, inlaying, and making gold beads. They are usually hired by Sunars and paid by the piece. [480] They are intent on improving their social position and now claim to be Vishwa Brahmans, presumably in virtue of their descent from Viswa Karma, the celestial architect. At the census they submitted a petition begging to be classified as Brahmans, and to support their claim they employ members of their own caste to serve them as priests. But the majority of them permit the remarriage of widows, and do not wear the sacred thread. In other respects their customs resemble those of the Sunars. The Berar Panchals, on the other hand, appear to be a much lower group. Mr. Kitts describes [481] them as a "wandering caste of smiths living in grass-mat huts and using as fuel the roots of thorn bushes, which they batter out of the ground with the back of a short-handled axe peculiar to themselves. The Berari Panchals," he continues, "who differ from the Dakhani division in the custom of shaving their heads and beards on the death of a parent, have been in the Provinces for some generations. They live in small _pals_ or tents, and move from place to place with buffaloes, donkeys, and occasionally ponies to carry their kit. The women of the Berari division may be distinguished from those of the Dakhani Panchals by their wearing their _lugras_ or body-cloths tucked in at the back, in the fashion known as _kasote_." It is no doubt from the desire to dissociate themselves from the wandering blacksmiths of Berar that the Panchals of the Central Provinces desire to drop their caste name.

_Pancham_.--A subcaste of Bania. A subcaste of Barai, the same as Beraria.

_Panchbhai_.--(Five brothers.) A surname of Bhanara Dhimars, a section of Ghasia.

_Panchdeve_.--A subdivision of Gonds, worshipping five gods and paying special reverence to the _saras_ crane.

_Panch Dravid_.--One of the two primary divisions of Brahmans, inhabiting the country south of the Vindhya hills and Nerbudda river, and including the following five orders: viz., Karnata (Carnatic), Dravid (Madras), Tailanga (Telugu country), Maharashtra (Bombay) and Gurjara (Gujarat).

_Panch Gaur_.--One of the two primary divisions of Brahmans inhabiting the country north of the Vindhya hills and Nerbudda river; it includes the following five orders: Saraswat (Punjab), Kanaujia (Hindustan), Gaur (Bengal), Utkal (Orissa) and Maithil (Bihar or Tirhut).

_Panchghar_.--One of the three subdivisions of Kanaujia Brahmans in Hoshangabad.

_Panda_.--(A priest of Devi, a wise man.) A subcaste or title of Mali. A subcaste and surname of Uriya Brahmans. A subcaste of Jasondhi Bhats.

_Pandaram_.--A class of Brahman priests.

_Pande_.--(A wise man.) A surname of Kanaujia and Gaur Brahmans. A section of Agharia, Barhai, Kewat and Marar. A title of Joshi and Kumhar.

_Pandhare_.--(White.) Subcaste of Sunar.

_Pandit_.--(A learned man.) A title of Brahmans.

_Pandki_.--(Dove.) A totemistic sept of Bhatra, Kawar and Parja.

_Pandra_.--A small caste of cultivators in the Uriya country. It is said that one of the Rajas of Patna had an illegitimate son to whom he gave the village of Pandri. His descendants were the Pandras.

_Pandwar_ or _Padwar_.--A section of Panka in Raipur. They are said to be so named because they washed the feet of others.

_Pangal_.--Subcaste of Gopal. They make mats, but in addition to this they are mendicants begging from trees.

_Panhara_.--An occupational term meaning a seller of _pan_ or betel-leaf.

_Panibhar_.--(A waterman.) Subcaste of Dangri.

_Panigrahi_.--(Husband.) An honorific title of Uriya Brahmans.

_Panjha_.--(Paw of an animal.) A sept of Gond.

_Panka_.--A weaver caste derived from the Gandas, being Gandas who follow the Kabirpanthi sect. See article. In Chhattisgarh Pankas sometimes call themselves Das, as servants of Kabir. Panka is also a subcaste of Ganda.

_Pansari_.--(A druggist.) Synonym for Barai.

_Panwar_.--A clan of Rajput. See article Panwar Rajput. A subcaste of Banjara and Bhoyar. A section of Ahir, Bhilala, Koshti, Maratha and Marori.

_Parasar, Parashar_.--(Name of a Brahmanical saint.) An eponymous section of Brahmans. A surname of Sanadhya and Gaur Brahmans. A section of Basdeva, Rangari, Sunar and Vidur.

_Parauha_.--(From _para_, a male buffalo calf.) A subcaste of Basdewa who deal in buffaloes.

_Parbat_.--Name of one of the ten orders of Gosain.

_Parbhu_.--Synonym of Prabhu.

_Pardeshi_.--(A foreigner.) The name is sometimes applied to immigrants from Malwa, and also to those coming from northern India. A subcaste of the Bahna, Barai, Barhai, Chamar, Dhimar, Dhobi, Garpagari, Kimbi, Kasar, Kumhar, Lohar, Nai, Rangari, Sunar and Teli castes.

_Pardhan_.--(A chief.) A caste who are priests of the Gonds. See article. A section of Chhattisgarhi Ahir or Rawat, Halba and Pabia. Title of caste headman of the Kharia tribe.

_Pardhi_.--(A hunter.) A caste. See article. A subcaste of Khatik. A section of Kunbi and Panwar Rajput.

_Parewa_.--(A pigeon.) A section of Chhattisgarhi Ahir or Rawat, and Panka.

_Parganiha_.--A synonym of Pardhan (Gond priests) in Kawardha.

_Parihar_.--An important clan of Rajputs. See Rajput Parihar. A section of Daharia and Daraiha, of Panwar Rajput and Pardhi.

_Parit_.--Synonym for Dhobi in the Maratha districts.

_Parka_. [482]--A small caste of labourers belonging to the Jubbulpore District and adjoining tracts, whose strength was something over 2000 persons in 1901. Sir B. Robertson wrote [483] in 1891 that the Parkas of the three northern Districts had been kept separate from the Panka caste in the census tables, but that they were in all probability the same. Mr. Hira Lal points out that several of the names of septs as Padwar, Sanwani, Gullia and Dharwa are the same in the two castes, and that in the Districts where Parkas are found there are no Pankas. The Panka caste was probably formed in Chhattisgarh by the separation of those Gandas or Pans who had embraced the doctrines of Kabir from their parent caste, and the name is a variant of Pan. In Jubbulpore the name Panka has no understood meaning, and it may have been corrupted into Pandka (a dove) and thence to Parka. Like the Pankas the Parkas often act as village watchmen. Many of the Parkas are also Kabirpanthis and, as with the Pankas, those who are not Kabirpanthis and do not abstain from flesh and liquor are called Saktahas. Intermarriage is not prohibited between the Parka Kabirpanthis and Saktahas. Some of the Parkas play on drums and act as village musicians, which is a regular occupation of the Pankas and Gandas. It may also be noted that the Parkas will take food cooked with water from a Gond and that they worship Bura Deo, the great god of the Gonds. Perhaps the most probable surmise as to their origin is that they are a small mixed group made up of Pankas and Gonds. A proverbial saying about the caste is '_Gond Raja, Parka Pardhan_,' or 'The Gond is the master and the Parka the servant,' and this also points to their connection with the Gonds. Several of their section names indicate their mixed origin, as Kumharia from Kumhar a potter, Gullia From Gaolia or milkman, Bhullia from Bhulia an Uriya weaver, Andwan a subcaste of the Mahar caste, Tilasia a sept of the Kawars, and so on. If a Parka man forms a connection with any woman of higher caste she will be admitted into the community, and the same privilege is accorded to a man of any equal or higher caste who may desire to marry a Parka girl. A girl is only cast out when she is discovered to have been living with a man of lower caste than the Parkas. All these facts indicate their mixed origin. As already seen, the caste are labourers, village watchmen-and musicians, and their customs resemble those of low-caste Hindus, but they rank above the impure castes. They will eat food cooked with water from Lodhis, many of whom are landowners in Jubbulpore, and as such no doubt stand to the Parka in the relation of employer to servant. Every year on the second day of Bhadon (August) they worship a four-sided iron plate and a spear, which latter is perhaps the emblem of the village watchman. Fines imposed for caste offences are sometimes expended in the purchase of vessels which thereafter become common property and are lent to any one who requires them.

_Parnami_.--(A follower of Prannath of Panna.) Subcaste of Dangi.

_Parsai_.--(Village priest.) Synonym for Joshi.

_Parsoli_.--(_parsa_, an axe.) A section of Ahir or Rawat in Chhattisgarh.

_Parwar_.--A subcaste of Bania. See article Bania-Parwar. A subcaste of Kumhar.

_Passi_.--Synonym of Pasi.

_Patadhari_.--(One occupying the seat of instruction.) A section of celibate Manbhaos.

_Patane_.--A subcaste of Prabhu, so called on account of their living near Patan in Gujarat.

_Patbina_.--(From _patti_, sacking, and _binna_, to weave.) Synonym of Kumrawat. Subcaste of Jogi.

_Patel_.--(Headman of a village.) A subcaste and title of Mali. A surname of Gaur Brahmans in Saugor and of Parsis. A surname or section of Agharia, Mahar and Kachhi. A title of the Ahir and Bhoyar castes.

_Pathak_.--(Teacher.) A surname of Kanaujia and other classes of Brahmans.

_Pathan_.--One of the four tribes of Muhammadans. See article Muhammadan Religion.

_Pathari_.--(A hillman.) Synonym of Pardhan. Subcaste of Katia.

_Patharia_.--A subcaste of Katia, Kurmi and Mahar. A section of Halba. A subcaste of Agaria, who place a stone on the mouth of the bellows to fix them in the ground for smelting iron.

_Pathmukh_.--A subsept of the Dhurwa Gonds in Betul. They offer a young goat to their gods and do not kill bears.

_Pathrot_, _Pathrawat_.--(One who makes and sharpens millstones and grindstones.) Synonym of Beldar.

_Pati_.--(Lord.) An honorific title of Uriya Brahmans.

_Patkar_.--(From _pat_, widow-marriage.) A subcaste of Sunar in Wardha. A section of Rangari.

_Patlia_.--(From _patel_.) Title of Panwar Rajput.

_Patnaik_.--A surname of Karan or Mahanti, the Uriya writer caste.

_Patra_.--(An Uriya word meaning councillor.) A subcaste of Kolta and Chasa, and title of several Uriya castes. Also a synonym for the Patwa caste.

_Patti_.--(A thread-seller.) Subcaste of Kaikari.

_Patwa_.--A caste. See article. In Seoni tahsil of Hoshangabad District Patwa and Lakhera appear to be synonymous terms. A section of Oswal Bania.

_Patwari_.--(Name of the village accountant and surveyor, who is now a salaried Government official.) The Kayasth caste were formerly patwaris by profession. See article.

_Patwi_.--(A dyer who colours the silk thread which weavers use to border their cotton cloth.) Synonym of Patwa. Subcaste of Koshti. From _pata_, a woven cloth.

_Pawanbans_.--(The children of the wind.) Synonym for Bhuiya.

_Pendhari_.--Synonym of Pindari.

_Peng_.--Subcaste of Parja.

_Penthi_.--(Sheep.) A totemistic sept of Bhulia.

_Periki_, _Perki_, _Perka_.--The Perikis are really a subcaste of the great Balija or Balji caste, but they have a lower position and are considered as a distinct group. About 4000 Perikis were returned in the Central Provinces in 1911 from the Nagpur, Wardha and Chanda Districts. They derive their names from the _perike_ or panniers in which they carried salt and grain on bullocks and donkeys. They were thus formerly a nomadic group, and like the Banjaras and Bhamtas they also made gunny-bags and sacking. Most of them have now taken to cultivation, and in Madras some Perikis have become large landholders and claim Rajput rank. In the Central Provinces the Balijas and Naidus deny that the Perikis have any connection with the Balija caste.

_Peta_.--(A trading Balija.) Subcaste of Balija.

_Phal Barhai_.--(A carpenter who only works on one side of the wood.) Synonym for Chitari in the Uriya country.

_Phanse_.--(A Pardhi who hunts with traps and snares.) Subcaste of Pardhi.

_Phansigar_.--(A strangler.) Synonym of Thug.

_Pharsi_.--(Axe.) A section of Uriya, Ahir or Gahara.

_Phopatia_.--Title of the officer of the Andh caste who summons the caste committee.

_Phulia_, _Phulmali_.--(A flower-gardener.) Subcaste of Kachhi and Mali.

_Phuljharia_.--(From Phuljhar zamindari in Raipur.) A territorial subcaste of Ahir or Rawat, Ghasia and Panka.

_Phul Kunwar_.--A section of Kawar. They use the _akre_ or swallow-wort flower for their marriage-crown.

_Phulsunga_.--A totemistic section of Gadaria. They abstain from smelling or touching a flower called _gadha_.

_Phurasti_.--(A wanderer.) Subcaste of Kaikari.

_Pindara_.--Synonym of Pindari.

_Pindari_.--A caste. Subcaste of Mang.

_Pinjara_.--(One who cards cotton.) Synonym of Bahna.

_Pipar_.--(A tree.) A section of Khatik and Kalar.

_Pipariya_.--(From the pipal tree, or from Piparia, a common place-name derived from the tree.) A clan of Rajputs in Saugor. A section of Sunars in Saugor.

_Piria_.--Subcaste of Kachhi. From _piria_, the basket in which they carry earth.

_Pit_.--Subcaste of Bhatra.

_Pitariya_.--(From _pital_, brass.) A subdivision of Pardeshi Sunars in Nagpur. They practise hypergamy, taking wives from the Sadihe subcaste, and giving daughters to the Srinagariye, Bangar, Mahuwe and Jadiye subcastes.

_Pohni_.--Subcaste of Jhadi Telenga.

_Poiya_,--Subcaste of Majhwar.

_Polya_.--(One who did not take off his turban at the feast.) Title of Hatkar.

_Pondro_.--(A tree.) One of the six subsepts of the Marai clan of Pathari Gonds in Khairagarh.

_Ponwar_.--Synonym of Panwar Rajput.

_Portai_.--(Basket.) A subsept of the Uika clan of Gonds in Betul. They do not kill the tiger or crocodile. A sept of Dhur Gonds.

_Potdar_.--(A money-tester.) Synonym and title of Sunar. A surname of Karhara Brahmans in Saugor.

_Potdukh_.--(Stomach-ache.) A section of Teli in Chanda.

_Potharia_.--(One to whom a certain dirty habit is imputed.) Subcaste of Korku.

_Potwa_.--(A worker in tasar silk.) Synonym for Darzi; a subcaste of Darzi.

_Poyam_.--(Worshipper of eight gods.) A sept of Pardhan and of Maria Gonds.

_Prajapati_.--Title of Kumhar.

_Pramara_.--Synonym for Panwar Rajput.

_Prannathi_.--A follower of Prannath of Panna. Synonym for Dhami.

_Pravar_.--A term for the ancestors sharing in a sacrificial invocation, particularly that of the Horn or fire-sacrifice.

_Prayagwal_.--(From Prayag-Allahabad.) A subcaste of Brahmans who preside at the ceremonial bathing in the Ganges at Allahabad.

_Puar_.--Synonym of Panwar Rajput.

_Pujari_.--(A worshipper.) Name for the priest in charge of a temple. A title of Bhatra.

_Purad_.--A small mixed caste in Nagpur. They say that their ancestor was a Brahman, who was crossing a river and lost his sacred thread, on being carried down in a flood (_pur_). Therefore he was put out of caste because the sacred thread must be changed before swallowing the spittle, and he had no other thread ready. At the census the Purads were amalgamated with Vidurs. They are shopkeepers by profession.

_Purait_.--(One who is of pure blood.) A subdivision of Jharia Rawat (Ahir) in Chhattisgarh. A subcaste of Dhakar, Halba and Marar.

_Purania_.--(Old.) A subcaste of Kachera or Sisgar in Saugor. The Puranias are the Muhammadan bangle-makers who originally practised this calling. A subcaste of Barai, Basor, Nai and Sunar. A section of Chamar and Darzi.

_Purbia_.--This term, which means eastern or coming from the east, is used in Hoshangabad and other Districts to designate Rajputs from Oudh and the adjoining tracts, especially retired sepoys from the Bengal army. They appear to belong to different clans, but many of them are Bais Rajputs. Some of the Purbias say that their king, somewhere in northern India, heard that cows were being killed in the Central Provinces, so he sent them to stop the practice and they came and stopped it and settled there. In Gujarat this name appears to be applied to Brahmans. A subcaste of Barhai and Gadaria. A section of Nat and Sunar.

_Purkam_.--(_Purka_-pumpkin.) A sept of the Uika clan of Gonds in Betul.

_Purohit_.--(Family priest.) A common title of Brahmans.

_Purouti_ or _Pudoti_.--(Bowels.) A sept of Gonds in Khairagarh.

_Pusam_.--(Worshipper of five gods.) A sept of Raj-Gond and Dhur Gond, and of Baiga and Pardhan.

_Putka_.--A subcaste of Sudh, being the illegitimate issue of the Dehri Sudhs.

_Qawwal_.--(One who speaks fluently.) Title of Mirasi.

_Rachhbandia_.--(Comb-makers.) A subcaste of Kuchhbandia (Kanjar).

_Raghunathia_.--A small group of Brahmans, so called because their ancestors are said to have received a grant of five villages from Raghunath Deo of Hindoli.

_Raghuvansi_.--A caste formed from a Rajput clan. See article. A subcaste of Ahir; a section of Mali and Gond.

_Raghvi_.--Synonym of Raghuvansi.

_Rahmat_.--(Compassion.) A section of Panwar Rajput. A Muhammadan proper name.

_Rai_ or _Raj_.--Subcaste of Darzi, Kalar, Khangar.

_Rai-bhaina_.--Subcaste of Baiga in Balaghat.

_Raipuria_.--(From Raipur.) A subcaste of Dhimars who do not wear gold ornaments. A subcaste of Dewar in Bilaspur.

_Raj_ or _Rai_.--From Raja, a king. This term designates the landholding division of certain tribes, as the Raj-Gonds, the Raj-Korkus, the Raj-Khonds and the Rajbhars. The Raj-Bhats, Raj-Dhuris and Rai-Darzis are similarly subcastes of good position in their respective castes. Raj is also used as a synonym for Beldar, meaning a mason.

_Raja_.--(A king.) Title of a ruling chief, and occasionally conferred on prominent Indian gentlemen.

_Rajak_.--(A washerman.) Synonym for Dhobi.

_Rajbhar_.--(A landowning Bhar.) Synonym for Rajjhar.

_Raj-Bhat._--Subcaste of Bhat.

_Raj-Dhuri._--A subcaste of Dhuri, said to be descendants of personal servants in Rajput families.

_Raj-Gond_.--The landholding subdivision of the Gond tribe; a section of Chamar and Kachhi.

_Raj-Khond_.--Subcaste of Khond.

_Raj-Kunwar, Raj-Pardhan_.--A subcaste of Pardhan in Balaghat.

_Rajoria_.--(Kingly.) A section of Barhai, Dangi, Khatik and Sanadhya Brahman.

_Raj-Pardhan_.--A subcaste of Pardhan. They are said to be also known as Kunwar Pardhan or Gond Bhat and to be beggars and bards of the Gonds.

_Raj-Pasi_.--Subcaste of Pasi.

_Rajput_.--(Son of a king.) A caste, representing the ancient Kshatriya caste. See article. A subcaste of Banjara, Kadera, Kumhar and Patwa.

_Rajwaria_.--From the Rajwar caste. Subcaste of Dahait. Subdivision of Kol in Mirzapur.

_Rakaseya_.--(From Rakas, a devil.) A section of Katia.

_Rakhotia_.--An illegitimate section of Kumhar.

_Rakhwaldar_.--(Village watchman.) Title of Ramosi.

_Raksa_.--(Demoniac.) A section of Kumhar and Kawar.

_Ramanandi_.--A class of Bairagis or religious mendicants. See article Bairagi.

_Ramanuja_.--A class of Bairagis or religious mendicants. See article Bairagi.

_Ramgarhia_.--(A resident of Ramgarh in Mandla.) Subcaste of Ghasia.

_Ramoshi_.--Synonym of Ramosi.

_Rana_.--A title of Sesodia Rajputs. A section of Halba and Panwar.

_Randgolak_.--A subdivision of degraded Maharashtra Brahmans, the offspring of illicit unions or remarried widows.

_Rangari_.--(One who works in indigo (_nil_).) Synonym for Chhipa.

_Rao_.--Synonym for Bhat. A section of Chamar and Lohar. A title of the Bhilala caste.

_Ratanpuria_.--(A resident of Ratanpur in Bilaspur.) Subcaste of Nunia and Dewar.

_Ratha_.--(A car for carrying a god.) Honorific title of Uriya Brahmans.

_Rathia_.--Subcaste of Kawar.

_Rathor_, _Rathaur_.--A famous Rajput clan. See article Rajput-Rathor. A subcaste of Banjara, Bari and of Teli in Mandla, Betul, Nimar and other Districts. A section of Ahir, Bhilala, Mochi, Nahal and Pardhi.

_Ratna Banik_.--(Dealer in jewels.) A synonym of Sunar in Sambalpur.

_Rautadi_.--Subcaste of Bhuiya.

_Rautele_.--A subcaste of Kol. A section of Barai, Bhat, Gadaria and of Sunar in Saugor.

_Rautia_.--A subcaste of Kol in several Districts. A subcaste of Dahait. A subcaste of Kawar. A section of Chamar and Rawat (Ahir).

_Rawal_.--Title borne by some Rajput chieftains in Western India. Probably a diminutive of Rao, the Marathi form of Raj or Raja. A section of Chasa, Mali and Garpagari.

_Rawanbansi_.--Descendants of Rawan, the demon king of Ceylon. A name applied to the Gonds generally, and now used as a subtribal designation to distinguish them from Raj-Gonds.

_Rawanvansi_.--Name of a clan of Gosain mendicants.

_Rawat_.--A title borne by some minor Rajput chiefs. Probably a diminutive of Rajputra, the original form of the term Rajput. An honorific title of Gonds and Savars in Saugor and Damoh. The name by which the Ahir caste is generally known in Chhattisgarh. A subcaste and title of Khairwar. A title sometimes used by Sunars and Brahmans in Bundelkhand and by Lodhis. A subcaste of Mehtar and Mali. A section of Arakh, Banjara, Binjhwar, Dhanwar, Kawar, Khairwar, Kunbi, Nat, Patwa, Panwar Rajput, and Sudh.

_Reddi_.--A synonym for the Kapewar or Kapu caste; a subcaste of Kapewar and Gandli.

_Redka_.--A small labouring caste of Sambalpur. They are apparently the result of intermarriages between some members of the Reddi or Kapu cultivating caste of Telingana, who came to Sambalpur during the Orissa famine of 1866, with low-class Uriya women. They still speak Telugu among themselves, using Uriya to outsiders. Only one curious feature of the marriage ceremony of the Redkas need be noticed here. This is that the officiating Brahman actually places a red-hot copper seal on the arms of the bride and bridegroom as a symbol of sealing the marriage bond. In other respects their customs resemble those of low-caste Uriyas.

_Rekwar_.--Subcaste of Dhimar.

_Rig-Vedi_.--Sectarian division of Brahmans.

_Rikhiasan Mahatwar_.--Subcaste of Bhuiya.

_Ritha Biknath_.--One who prepares and sells soap-nuts for washing clothes. Subcaste of Jogi.

_Rohidasi_.--Honorific term for a Chamar. It signifies a follower of the sect of Rohidas in Northern India. The Chamars often describe themselves by this name instead of their caste name.

_Rohilla_.--A Pathan tribe who have settled in Rohilkhand or the Bareilly tract of the United Provinces. They derive their name from Roh, the designation given to the country where the Pushto language is spoken by residents of Hindustan. The word Roh, like Koh, means a mountain, and Rohilla therefore signifies a highlander. [484] The Rohilla Pathans occupied Rohilkhand in the eighteenth century. Their name first attracted attention when Warren Hastings was charged with hiring out British troops for their suppression. The Rohillas say that they are of Coptic origin, and that driven out of Egypt by one of the Pharaohs they wandered westward till they arrived under that part of the mountains of Afghanistan known as Sulaimani Koh. [485] Parties of Rohillas visit the Central Provinces bringing woollen cloths and dried fruits for sale. Here they formerly bore a bad character, being accustomed to press the sale of their merchandise on the villagers on credit at exorbitant interest; and when the time for realisation came, to extort their money by threats of violence, or actual assault, or, if this was not practicable, by defiling the graves of their debtors' ancestors. These practices have now, however, been largely suppressed.

_Romya_ or _Haralya._--Subcaste of Chamar.

_Ror_.--Subcaste of Khatri.

_Rora_.--Synonym of Arora.

_Ruma_.--A resident of Basim and Gangra in Amraoti District. Subcaste of Korku.

_Ruthia_.--A name formed from the noise _rut, rut_ made by the oil-mill in turning. Subcaste of Teli.

_Sabara_.--Synonym for the Savar tribe. A section of Kawar and Teli.

_Sabat_.--(From _saot_, co-wife.) An honorific title of Uriya Brahmans.

_Sadaphal_.--(A fruit.) A section of Chandnahu Kurmi and Sonkar.

_Sada-Sohagal_.--A class of Fakirs or Muhammadan beggars.

_Sadhu_.--(A religious mendicant.) Synonym for Bairagis or Gosains.

_Sagar_.--Name of one of the ten orders of Gosains.

_Sagunsale_.--A group of illegitimate descent. Subcaste of Koshti.

_Sahadeve_.--A clan of Gonds worshipping six gods and paying special reverence to the tiger.

_Sahani_.--(From _siahi_, ink.) An honorific title of Karan or Mahanti. A subcaste of Paik.

_Sahara_.--Synonym for the Savar tribe.

_Sahasra Audichya_.--(A thousand men of the north.) A subdivision of Gujarati Brahmans who are said to have accepted presents from Raja Mulraj of Anhalwara Patan at a sacrifice, and hence to have suffered some degradation in rank. Audichya probably signifies coming from Oudh.

_Sahra_.--Synonym of Savar.

_Sahu_.--(A trader.) An honorific title of Bania. A synonym for Sunar in Sambalpur. A subdivision of Uriya Brahmans. A section of Khadra, Kolta, Sundi and Teli.

_Sahukar_.--Title of Bania. See Sahu.

_Sain_.--Synonym for Fakir.

_Saiqalgar_.--From Arabic _saiqal_, a polisher. Synonym for Sikligar.

_Sais_.--The title by which grooms or horse-keepers are usually known. The word Sais, Colonel Temple states, [486] is Arabic and signifies a nobleman; it is applied to grooms as an honorific title, in accordance with the common method of address among the lower castes. Other honorific designations for grooms, as given by Colonel Temple, are Bhagat or 'Saint,' and Panch, 'Arbitrator,' but neither of these is generally used in the Central Provinces. Another name for Saises is Thanwar, which means a person in charge of a stable or place where a horse is kept. Grooms from Northern India are usually of the Jaiswara division of Chamars, who take their name from the old town of Jais in Oudh; but they drop the Chamar and give Jaiswara as their caste. These men are thin and wiry and can run behind their horses for long distances. The grooms indigenous to the Central Provinces are as a rule promoted grass-cutters and are either of the Ghasia (grass-cutter) or the Kori and Mahar (weaver) castes. They cannot usually run at all well. It is believed that both the Jaiswaras and Mahars who work as grooms have taken to marrying among themselves and tend to form separate endogamous groups, because they consider themselves superior to the remainder of the caste. A Sais will frequently refuse to tie up a dog with a rope or lead him with one because he uses a rope for leading his horses. This taboo is noticed by Sir B. Fuller as follows: "Horses in India are led not by the bridle but by a thick cotton leading-rope which is passed over the headstall, and such a rope is carried by every Indian groom. I asked my groom one day to tie up with his leading rope a dog that would not follow. He absolutely refused, and I discovered that the rope was the fetish of his caste and was formerly adored and propitiated in the course of an annual caste festival. To touch a dog with it would have been sacrilege." [487]

_Saitwal_.--A subcaste of Jain Banias.

_Saiyad_.--One of the four Muhammadan tribes, which is supposed to comprise the descendants of the Prophet.

_Sakadwipi_.--A tribe of Brahmans taking their name from Sakadwipa, the country of the Sakas. The Sakas were a Central Asian tribe who invaded India before the commencement of the Christian era, and Sakadwipa is said to be the valley of the Kabul river.

_Sakarwal, Sikarwar_.--A clan of Rajputs whose name is said to be derived from Fatehpur Sikri.

_Saksena_.--A subcaste of Kayasth, also called Sukhsena. A subcaste of Bharbhunja and Kachhi.

_Saktaha_.--A synonym for Shakta, a worshipper of Devi in Chhattisgarh. Saktaha practically means a person who eats flesh, as opposed to a Kabirpanthi who abstains from it. A subcaste of Panka, who are not Kabirpanthis.

_Sakum_.--A sept of Korku. (One who hides behind a teak tree.)

_Salam_.--(Worshipper of six gods.) A clan of Gond. A section of Dewar.

_Salewar_.--A name for Telugu Koshtis. A subcaste of Koshti.

_Samaiya_.--A sect of Jains.

_San_.--A subcaste of Bhatra.

_Sanadhya_.--A subcaste of Brahmans belonging to the Gaur division.

_Sanak-kul._--A section of Komti. They do not use _jaiphal_ or nutmeg.

_Sanaurhia_.--Subcaste of Brahman. Synonym for Sanadhya.

_Sanbagh_.--(A little tiger.) A section of Bhulia.

_Sand_.--(The bull.) A totemistic sept of Kawar. They do not use bullocks for ploughing, or are supposed not to. A section of Khangar. They do not give a present of a bull at weddings. A section of Mali.

_Sania_.--(A grower of _san_-hemp.) Subcaste of Kachhi.

_Saniasi_.--Name for a religious mendicant. Synonym for Gosain.

_Sanjogi_.--A class of Bairagis or mendicants who marry, also called Grihastha.

_Sankrita_.--An eponymous section of Kanaujia Brahmans.

_Sanp_.--(Snake.) A sept of Gond and Kawar.

_Santal, Saonta, Sonthal._--An important tribe of Bengal, belonging to the Munda family. The transfer of five of the Chota Nagpur States has brought more than 10,000 Santals into the Central Provinces. They belong principally to the Sarguja State and a few are returned from Udaipur State and from the Bilaspur District, but in all those tracts they are known as Saonta and appear to have been cut off from the main tribe for a considerable period. According to Mr. Skrefsrud the name Santal is a corruption of Saontar and was given to the tribe by the Bengalis because they lived in the country about Saont in Midnapur. Sir H. Risley held that the tribe might equally well have given its name to the locality, and there was no means of ascertaining which theory was correct. The forms Santal and Sonthal are only used by natives who have come into contact with Europeans. Santals call themselves '_harko_,' men, or '_harhapan_,' man-child. [488] At the present day when a Santal is asked to what caste he belongs he will almost invariably reply Manjhi, which means a village headman, and is the common title of the tribe; if further explanation is demanded, he will add Santal Manjhi. Whether the term Santal was derived from the Saont pargana or not, it is therefore at any rate a name conferred by the Hindus and affords no evidence in favour of a separate origin of the tribe.

There seems good reason to hold that the Santals are only a branch of the Kols or Mundas, who have been given a distinct designation by their Hindu neighbours, while their customs and traditions have been modified either by long separation from the Mundas of Chota Nagpur or by contact with Hindu influences. Sir G. Grierson's account of the two dialects Santali and Mundari shows that they closely resemble each other and differ only in minor particulars. The difference is mainly to be found in the vocabulary borrowed from Aryan neighbours, and in the grammatical modifications occasioned by the neighbouring Aryan forms of speech. [489] Of Mundari he says: "Aspirated letters are used as in Santali, the semi-consonants are apparently pronounced in the same way as in Santali; genders and numbers are the same, the personal pronouns are the same, the inflexion of verbs is mainly the same." [490] Some points of difference are mentioned by Sir G. Grierson, but they appear to be of minor importance. The Mundas, like the Santals, call themselves _hara-ko_ or men. In the vocabulary of common words of Mundari and Santali given by Colonel Dalton [491] a large proportion of the words are the same. Similarly in the list of sept-names of the tribes given by Sir H. Risley [492] several coincide. Among the 15 names of main septs of the Santals, Besra, a hawk, Murmu nilgai, or stag, and Aind, eel, are also the names of Munda septs. The Santal sept Hansda, a wild goose, is nearly identical with the Munda sept Hansa, a swan; the Santal septs Kisku and Tudu are sept-names of the Hos, a branch of the Mundas; and in one or two other names there is a great resemblance. The principal deity of the Santals, Marang Buru, is a Munda god. In the inheritance of property both tribes have the same rule of the exclusion of daughters. In his article on Ho, Sir H. Risley indeed states that the Santals, Hos and Mundas are local branches of the same tribe.

The Saontas of Sarguja and Bilaspur appear to have been separated from the parent tribe for some generations and to have assimilated some of the customs of the Gonds. They have some Gond sept-names, as Markam and Dhurwa. Those of Pendra zamindari have no traditions of their origin beyond saying that the adjoining Kenda zamindari was their original home. They profess to revere only the sun, fire and water. In order to worship the Jal-deota or water-god they pour water round the fire and then throw a little butter on the fire in his name. Mr. C.U. Wills, Settlement Officer, records of them the following curious custom: When a man is at the point of death or actually dead, they sometimes set fire to the hut in which his body is lying and run away, no doubt to save themselves from being haunted and troubled by his spirit, to the attainment of which end so large a part of funeral ritual is everywhere directed.

The following short account of them by Colonel Dalton may be reproduced for reference: [493]

"The name Saont or Saonta directs us to the Santal branch of the Kols, and, as I have already noticed, there is in Sarguja a small tribe so called. They are the sole inhabitants of the magnificent tableland forming the southern barrier of Sarguja, called the Mainpat or more correctly perhaps the Manipat. They are a small tribe living scattered over the vast area of the plateau in about a dozen hamlets, and they are strong in the belief that they were especially created to dwell there, or that they and the plateau somehow sprang into existence together, and cannot be separated. I saw a number of them when I was last in Sarguja, and from their features I should be inclined to class them as Kols, but they have some customs and notions which they must have derived from the Dravidian Gonds. They acknowledge Dulha Deo as a household god, and follow the customs of the Gonds and other southerners in their marriage ceremonies.

"They worship the sun as Bhagwan, and like the Kharias offer sacrifices to that luminary in an open place with an ant-hill for an altar. The Mainpat is their Marang Buru, and as it is 16 miles long, 12 miles broad, and rises 3850 feet above the sea-level, it is not unworthy of the name, but they do not use that or any other Kol term. The great Mainpat is their fatherland and their god. They have it all to themselves except during the summer months, when it becomes a vast grazing field for the cattle of Mirzapur and Bihar.

"The Saonts are armed like the Korwas with bows and arrows, and the peculiar battle-axe of the country, but it is against the beasts of the forest that these weapons are used. Formerly the Mainpat was a magnificent hunting field, especially noted for its herds of antelope and gaur. The late Maharaja of Sarguja strictly preserved it, but on his death it fell into the hands of his widow, a very money-loving old lady, who allowed it to become one of the great grazing tracts, and the pasturage alone gives her an income of £250 a year; but the wild animals have in consequence withdrawn from it.

"The position of the Saonts is altogether very curious, and though they now speak no language but a rude Hindi, the evidence is, on the whole, favourable to their being a remnant of the ancient Kol aborigines of Sarguja, cut off from connection with those people by successive inroads of other races or tribes. Their substitution of a Hindi dialect for their own language seems to indicate that they were first subjugated by Aryans. The Gond chiefs only count about twenty-four generations in Sarguja, and they have all adopted the Hindi language."

_Sanyasi_.--(A religious recluse.) Synonym for Gosain.

_Sao_.--(For _sahu_, a banker, a rich man.) A subcaste of Kalar and Teli. An honorific title of Chhipa or Rangari. A sept of Gond.

_Saojin_.--(From _sao_, a banker.) Subcaste of Banjara.

_Saonr_.--Synonym of Savar.

_Saonta_.--Name by which the Santal tribe is known in Bilaspur. A subcaste of Dhanwar.

_Sapera_.--(A snake-charmer.) Name of a clan of Nats, who exhibit snakes. A section of Basor and Khatik.

_Saraf_.--(A money-changer and tester.) A synonym of Sunar.

_Saraia_ (Angler.) From _sarai_, a bamboo fishing-rod. Subcaste of Dhimar.

_Sarangarhia_.--(From Sarangarh.) A subtribe of Gonds in Khairagarh. A subcaste of Dewar.

_Saraogi_.--A name by which Jain laymen are known. Subcaste of Bania.

_Saras_.--(A large crane.) A section of Chamar.

_Saraswat_.--One of the five orders of Panch Gaur Brahmans inhabiting the country of the river Saraswati. One of the ten orders of Gosains.

_Sarati_.--A sept of Gond and Pardhan.

_Sariyam_.--A subsept of the Dhurwa clan of Gonds in Betul, said to be so called because the road to the place of the gods was swept by their priests.

_Sarolia_ or _Sarwaria_.--(Inferior or mixed.) Subcaste of Agharia.

_Saroti_.--A sept of Pardhans said to be named after _sarra_, a whip, because their priest once struck a man with a whip.

_Sarsatia_.--(From the Saraswati river.) Subcaste of Bahna.

_Satani_. [494]--A Telugu caste of priests and mendicants of which 900 persons were returned, principally from the Chanda District, in 1911. In the Central Provinces, Ayawar, Satani and Dasari have been taken as one caste, but elsewhere they are considered as distinct. Ayawar is a term of respect analogous to the Hindustani Maharaj, and is applied to the Satanis and other religious orders. The Satanis and Dasaris are distinguished in Madras; Satani is stated [495] to be a corruption of Sattadavan, which means 'One who does not wear' (_e.g._ the sacred thread and scalp-lock). It is a mixed religious order recruited from any caste except the Pariahs, leather-workers and Muhammadans. The Dasaris [496] are said to be the reputed descendants of a wealthy Sudra of one of the northern Districts, who, being childless, vowed that if offspring should be granted to him he would devote a son to the service of the god. After this he had several children, one of whom he consecrated to the deity, calling him Dasan (the obedient servant). Dasan and his offspring made their livelihood by begging. This order, like that of the Satanis, is reinforced by idle members of the lower Sudra castes, who become Dasaris by being branded by the Guru of Tirupatti and other shrines. In the Central Provinces the Dasaris are stated to be recruited from the impure Mala caste of the Telugu country, and hence to rank below the Satanis. Many of the Madrasi servants in European households call themselves Dasaris. Members of the agricultural castes are usually admitted into the Satani order and its status is almost equal to theirs. The caste, in spite of its small numbers, has several subdivisions, as the Sale Satanis, who are weavers, the Bukkas, who are sellers of _kunku_ or red powder, and five other subdivisions who are all beggars. Some of these eat together but do not intermarry. They have exogamous family groups, usually named after sacred places in Madras or celebrated Gurus (spiritual preceptors) or deities, as Tirupatti, Ramanujamwar, Shaligramwar and so on. The caste marry in the ordinary way and do not observe celibacy. Widow-marriage is allowed, but a widow must marry a widower, and the officiating priest at the ceremony must also be a widower. The Satanis principally revere Vishnu, whom they worship on Fridays. Their priests are taken from their own order and form a separate subcaste under the name of Parmastwar. A novice, on being initiated to the order, is branded with the figures of a Sankha (conch-shell) and Chakra (discus). They both burn and bury the dead, and the spirits of female as well as of male ancestors are propitiated. This is done by calling a married woman by the name of the dead female, putting red powder on her forehead and worshipping her. Among the Satanis a widow accompanies the corpse of her husband to the grave. They officiate at funerals, and a Satani priest applies the caste-mark to the body of the corpse and also to that of the four persons who are to carry it. He receives presents in the name of the dead man, and takes the red cloth with which the corpse is covered. At the funeral feast the Satani offers cooked food, including flesh and also liquor, to the god, and the assembled guests then partake of them. The Satani drinks liquor only and does not eat the food, and since he must stay to the end of the feast he sometimes becomes intoxicated. The Satanis are priests and mendicants. Though they do not wear the sacred thread themselves, the manufacture of it is one of their hereditary occupations. They collect alms in a _lota_ or brass vessel, on which representations of the conch and discus are drawn. The Dasaris wander about, singing hymns to a monotonous accompaniment upon a leather instrument called _tappai_ (perhaps a tabor). They are engaged by some Sudra castes to sing their chants in front of the corpse at funerals. Others exhibit what is called the _Panda sewai_, that is, they become possessed by the deity and beat themselves over the body with a flaming torch. A few train young bulls to perform tricks and travel about exhibiting them. Some have become masons and goldsmiths. Men have the mark of the trident on the forehead, the two outer lines being white and the middle one red or yellow. They shave the head and face clean, not retaining the scalp-lock. Women have a vertical streak on the forehead and do not wear glass bangles nor the necklace of black beads. Neither men nor women are tattooed. The Satanis have a fairly good social position and the lower castes will take food from them.

_Satbhuiyan_ or _Utar_.--Subcaste of Khond.

_Satdeve_.--A clan of Gonds worshipping seven gods and paying special reverence to the porcupine.

_Satghare_.--(Seven houses.) A division of the Maratha caste, consisting of seven of the highest clans who marry among themselves and sometimes take daughters from the other ninety-six clans.

_Satnami_.--A religious sect, which now practically forms a subcaste of Chamar.

_Satputia_.--(Having seven sons.) A section of Lonare Mali.

_Satyanath_. A subcaste of Jogi or Nath.

_Savar_, _Savara_.--A tribe.

_Sawalakh_.--(1 1/4 lakhs.) A section of Dhobi.

_Sawara_.--Synonym for Savar. Subcaste of Kol.

_Segidi_, [497] _Shegadi_.--The Telugu caste of toddy-drawers and distillers, of which a few representatives were returned from the Nagpur District in 1901. They will draw _tari_ or palm-juice only from the _sindi_ palm (_Phoenix sylvestris_) and not from the palmyra palm (_Borassics flabelliformis_). This is the occupation of a separate caste, the Yatas, from whom the Segidis will not even take water. At a Segidi marriage the bride is shown the polar star, which is believed to be the wife of Rishi Vasishtha, the model of conjugal excellence. She is then made to step on to a stone slab to remind her how Ahalya, the beautiful wife of Rishi Gautama, was turned to a stone for committing adultery. Widow-marriage is permitted, and, by a very curious exception to the ordinary rule, a widow may marry her deceased husband's elder brother but not his younger one. The usual prohibition on a widow marrying her husband's elder brother is based on the ground that he is looked on as her father; the Segidis say, on the other hand, that his younger brother is as her son. If an unmarried adult male dies, the ceremony of marriage is performed between the corpse and a plantain tree; and if an unmarried woman dies she is married to a sword. A corpse is always buried with the head to the east and the feet to the west. This peculiar practice may be a reminiscence of Vedic times, when the west was considered to be the abode of the departed, the sun being the first mortal who died and went to the west as recorded in the Rig-Veda. The Segidis are also cultivators, traders or soldiers. They have a method of divining a boy's proper calling in his infancy. When his mouth is touched with grain as food for the first time, they put a sword, a pen, a book, food and other articles, being the symbols of different professions, on the ground and place the child in front of them. And his vocation in life is held to be determined by the article which he touches first.

_Senapati_.--(General.) Honorific title of Sundi.

_Sendia_.--Title of caste headman of Panwar Rajput.

_Sendur_.--A section of Ahir or Rawat.

_Senduria_.--Subcaste of Nagasia. They mark the forehead of the bride with vermilion (_sendur_).

_Sengar._--A clan of Rajputs belonging to Saugor and Jubbulpore.

_Sesodia_.--A famous clan of Rajputs.

_Seth_.--(Banker or moneylender.) A title of Bania.

_Setti_.--A corruption of the Sanskrit Shreshta, good. Title of Komti caste.

_Sewak_.--(Servant.) The name given to an inferior class of Brahmans who serve in Vaishnava temples.

_Shaikh, Sheikh_.--One of the four tribes of Muhammadans. A subcaste of Mehtar.

_Shaiva, Saiva_.--(A worshipper of Siva.) The term Shaiva Brahman is applied to Guraos.

_Shandilya, Sandilya_.--An eponymous _gotra_ or section of Brahmans. A section of Darzi, Raj-Gond, Rawat (Ahir) and Sunar.

_Shegudi_.--See Segidi.

_Shendia_.--A section of Teli and Otari (Kasar).

_Shenvi_.--A subcaste of Maratha Brahmans in Hoshangabad.

_Sheohare_ or _Sivahare_.--Subcaste of Kalar.

_Shiah_.--One of the two great sects of Muhammadans.

_Shikari_.--(A hunter.) A synonym for Pardhi or Bahelia.

_Shimpi_.--(A tailor.) Synonym for Darzi in the Maratha country.

_Shishi ke Telwale_.--Subcaste of Pardhi. They sell oil obtained from the bodies of crocodiles.

_Siddi, Sidi, Habshi._--The name given to Africans, whether Abyssinians or Negroes. Habshi means one coming from El Habish, the Arabic name for North-East Africa. Siddi is a corruption of Saiyad, the designation of a descendant of the Prophet, and is commonly used as a term of respectful address in North Africa, like Sahib in India. The _Bombay Gazetteer_ states [498] that about the middle of the fifteenth century, when the Bahmani dynasty became independent of Delhi and intercourse with Northern India ceased, the fashion arose of bringing to Western India large numbers of Abyssinians and other East Africans. Though most of the Habshis came to India as slaves, their faithfulness, courage and energy often raised them to positions of high trust in the Bahmani court. According to Orme, the successful Abyssinians gathered round them all of their countrymen whom they could procure either by purchase or invitation, including negroes from other parts of Africa, as well as Abyssinians. From their marriages, first with natives of India and afterwards among their own families, there arose a separate community, distinct from other Muhammadans in figure, colour and character. As soon as they were strong enough they formed themselves into an aristocratic republic and produced some of the most skilful and daring soldiers and sailors of Western India. The rulers of Janjira and Sachin States in Bombay are Siddis by descent.

They are now employed as stokers and firemen on steamers and as fitters and mechanics in the dockyards of Bombay, and are described [499] as "A hardy race with muscular frames, thick lips and crisp black hair--the very last men whom you would wish to meet in a rough-and-tumble, and yet withal a jovial people, well-disposed and hospitable to any one whom they regard as a friend." In other parts of India the Siddis are usually beggars and are described as 'Fond of intoxicating drinks, quarrelsome, dirty, unthrifty and pleasure-loving, obstinacy being their leading trait.' They worship Baba Ghor, an Abyssinian saint. [500]

It is recorded that the medicine called Silajit, a nervine tonic for the generative power, was formerly believed to be prepared from the flesh of Abyssinian boys. Mr. Hooper writes: "Silajit is allied to another ancient drug named Momiayi which has long been employed in the East. The original drug is said to have been made from Egyptian mummies, and subsequently to have been prepared by boiling down and extracting the essence of Abyssinian boys. Since the last source of supply has become scarce, several bituminous exudations are reported to have been substituted." [501] The drug is now said to be made from the gum of some stone in Hardwar, and this must be the bitumen referred to by Mr. Hooper. The virtue ascribed to the flesh of Abyssinian boys was no doubt based on their superior bodily strength and perhaps partly on the prolificacy of the negroes. In the case of mummies, as the body of the mummy was believed to have retained life or the capacity of life for many ages, its material would naturally possess extraordinary vitality and should be capable of imparting this quality to others when assimilated into their bodies.

_Sidhira_, _Sithira_.--A small occupational caste of Sambalpur and the Uriya States. The caste is not found elsewhere in India. They are braziers by trade, and in spite of their small numbers say they have three subcastes, one of which, the Luhura, works in iron. They are an impure caste, whose touch conveys pollution in Sambalpur. They accept alms from a Munda or Oraon on the occasion of a death in the latter's family, and have totemistic septs. They eat fowls and rats and consume much liquor. They also admit outsiders into the caste. It may be concluded, therefore, that they are an occupational caste formed from the tribes above mentioned or others, through adopting the calling of brass-workers. The adultery of a Sidhira woman with a man of any higher caste is looked upon as an absolutely trifling offence, and this is a common feature of low castes of mixed origin. As among many primitive tribes, one particular sept performs the ceremony of readmitting offenders to caste intercourse by sprinkling a little Ganges water over them. The man fulfilling this office is known as the Baikar, and after a wedding the bridal pair go to the Baikar's house and he pours two jars full of water over their heads and bodies. They go inside the house, and the bridegroom then comes out and gives the wet clothes to the Baikar with a small present. This appears to be a sort of purificatory ceremony at marriage.

_Sidi_.--Synonym of Siddi.

_Silpi_.--(A stone-mason.) Subcaste of Kammala.

_Sindhi_.--(Performers of dramas.) Subcaste of Madgi.

_Sindhupushkar_.--A subcaste of Brahmans in Khairagarh State, perhaps the same as the Marwari Pushkama Brahmans. It is said that Sindhu has the meaning of a lake.

_Singade_.--(From _singh_, horn, and _gadna_, to bury.) Subcaste of Koli. The members of this group, when their buffaloes die, bury the horns in their compound.

_Singar_.--(A fish.) A totemistic sept of Kawar. A section of Agharia.

_Singaria_.--Those who cultivate the _Singara_ nut. Subcaste of Dhimar.

_Singh_.--(A lion.) The usual suffix to the names of Rajputs, Sikhs and castes which claim Rajput rank, such as Lodhis.

_Singh, Singhi_.--(Horn.) A totemistic sept of Dhanwar. A section of Kurmi, and of Oswal and Maheshri Bania.

_Singhal_.--(Ceylon.) A section of Brahmans in Damoh.

_Singrore_.--Subcaste of Kunbi and Lodhi.

_Sikligar_, _Bardhia_, _Saiqalgar_. [502]--A small caste of armourers and knife-grinders. The name Saiqalgar comes from the Arabic _saiqal_, a polisher, and Bardhia is from _bardh_, the term for the edge of a weapon. They number only about 450 persons in the Central Provinces and Berar, and reside mainly in the large towns, as Jubbulpore and Nagpur. The caste is partly Hindu and partly Muhammadan, but very few members of it in the Central Provinces profess the latter religion. In Bombay [503] the Muhammadan Sikligars are said to be Ghisaris or tinkers who were forcibly converted by Aurangzeb. The writer of the Belgaum Gazetteer [504] says that they are scarcely more than Muhammadans in name, as they practically never go to the mosque, keep Hindu gods in their houses, eschew beef, and observe no special Muhammadan rites other than circumcision. The Hindu Sikligars claim to be Rajputs and have Rajput sept names, and it is not unlikely that in old times the armourer's calling should have been adopted by the lower classes of Rajputs. The headquarters of the caste is in Gwalior, where there is probably still some scope for their ancient trade. But in British territory the Sikligar has degenerated into a needy knife-grinder. Mr. Crooke [505] describes him as "A trader of no worth. His whole stock-in-trade is a circular whetstone worked by a strap between two posts fixed in the ground. He sharpens knives, razors, scissors and sometimes swords."

_Sirdar_.--Title of the Kawar caste.

_Siriswar_.--(From _siris_, a tree.) A section of Gadaria.

_Sirnet_.--A clan of Rajputs.

_Sirwa_.--(A resident of the ancient city of Sravasti in Gonda district.) Subcaste of Teli.

_Sita Padri_.--Title of Vaishnava mendicants.

_Sithira_.--Synonym of _Sidhira_.

_Solaha_. [506]--A very small caste numbering less than a hundred persons in the Raipur District. The caste only deserves mention as affording an instance of an attempt to rise in the social scale. The Solahas are certainly of Gond origin. Their name appears to be a corruption of Tolaha, from _tol_, which means leather in Gondi or Telugu. Their exogamous sections, as Markam, Warai, Wika, Sori, Kunjam, are also Gond names, and like the Agarias they are an occupational offshoot of that great tribe, who have taken to the special profession of leather-curing and primitive carpentry. But they claim to belong to the Barhai caste and say that their ancestors immigrated from Benares at the time of a great famine there. In pursuance of the claim some of them employ inferior Brahmans as their priests. They also say that they accept food only from Brahmans and Rajputs, though they eat fowls, pork and even rats. Women of any other caste can be admitted into the community, but not men. The fact that they are not Barhais is sufficiently shown by their ignorance of carpentering tools. They do not even know the use of a rope for turning the drill and do it by hand with a pointed nail. They have no planes, and smooth wood with a chisel. Their business is to make musical instruments for the Gonds, which consist of hollow pieces of wood covered with skin to act as single or double drums. They use sheep and goat-skins, and after letting them dry scrape off the hair and rub them with a paste of boiled rice and powdered iron filings and glass.

_Solanki, Solankhi_.--A well-known clan of Rajputs, also called Chalukya. The name is perhaps derived from _Sulakshana_, one bearing an auspicious mark. A section of Pardhi and Gujar.

_Sompura_.--A subdivision of Gujarati Brahmans in Jubbulpore. They take their name from Somnath in Kathiawar.

_Somvansi_.--(Children of the Moon.) Subcaste of Mahar. A clan of Rajputs.

_Sonar_.--Synonym for Sunar in the Maratha country.

_Sonbarha_.--(Gold pig.) A section of Teli in Khairagarh, so named as they presented a golden pig to their king Bharam Deo.

_Sonboyir_.--(Gold plum.) A section of Teli in Nandgaon, so called because their ancestor presented a gold plum to their Raja.

_Sonbukra_.--(Yellow goat.) A totemistic sept of Kawar.

_Sondi_.--(_Sondi_, tiger.) A sept of Gonds in Raipur. It is said to be of mixed descent from all the septs, and can intermarry with any other.

_Sondhi_.--Synonym for Sundi.

_Songainda_.--(Gold unicorn.) A section of Teli in Khairagarh, so named because they presented a golden unicorn to their king Bharam Deo.

_Sonha_; _Sonkutta_.--(Wild dog.) A sept of Dhanwar, Kawar, Saonta or Santal, and Chero.

_Soni_.--Synonym for Sunar.

_Sonjhara, Sonjharia_.--(One who washes for gold in the beds of streams.) A caste. Subcaste of Binjhwar, Injhwar and Dhimar.

_Sonkar_.--A small caste found in the Chhattisgarh country, and also in Saugor and Damoh. The name Sonkar is said to be a corruption of Chunkar or lime-dealer, and the Sonkars of Saugor make their living by carrying clay and lime on donkeys for building and whitewashing walls. In Saugor they are also known as Beldar (navvy) and Gadhera (donkey-driver), and occupy a despised position. Possibly on this account a few of them in the northern Districts and the whole community in Chhattisgarh have abandoned their traditional calling, and have taken to growing vegetables like the Malis and Marars. Here their status is better, and they rank as a gardening caste. Their customs resemble those of the lower castes of Chhattisgarh. They obtain auspicious dates for their marriages and different ceremonies from Brahmans, but otherwise these are not employed, and the caste headman, known as Kurha or Sethia, officiates as priest. At their weddings the sacred post round which the couple walk must consist of a forked bough of the mahua tree divided in a V shape, and they take much trouble to find and cut a suitable bough. They will not take cooked food from the hands of any other caste, even from Brahmans.

_Sonkarasaria_.--(Impure gold.) A section of Bhona or Bhulia.

_Sonkutri_.--(Bitch of the wild dog.) A totemistic sept of Kawar.

_Sonpakar_.--(A tree.) A totemistic sept of Kawar and Chero.

_Sonratan_.--(Gold jewel.) A section of Chandnahu Kurmi.

_Sonthaga_.--(Gold-cheat.) A subdivision of Pardhans in Kawardha. They cheated people by passing false gold, and hence were so named.

_Sonthal_.--Synonym for Santal.

_Sonwani_.--(_Sona-pani_, gold-water.) This is a common sept among the primitive tribes and castes derived from them. The members of this sept occupy a quasi-priestly position, and readmit offenders into caste by giving them water to drink in which gold has been dipped. They also purify those who have got vermin in a wound by sprinkling this water over them. A section of Ahir and of Rawat or Chhattisgarhi Ahir; a sept of Dhoba, Dhanwar, Gond and Kawar; a section of Kalanga, Kumhar, Panka and Teli.

_Sori_.--A sept of Gond and Pardhan. Sori and Khusro are the two subsepts of the Markam sept.

_Soyam_.--(Worshipper of seven gods.) A division of Gond in Chanda.

_Sravaka_.--A Jain layman.

_Sri Gaur Mala_.--(A resident of Malwa.) Subcaste of Barhai.

_Srimali_.--(From the old city of Srimal in Rajputana.) A subcaste of Gujarati Brahman and Bania.

_Srivastab, Sriwastab_.--(From the old city of Sravasti in the north of Oudh.) A well-known subcaste of Kayasth. A subcaste of Bharbhunja, Darzi and Teli.

_Sua_.--(Parrot.) A section of Chadar, Khangar and Kasar. A sept of Bhatra and Kawar.

_Suda_.--Synonym of Sudh.

_Sudh_.--A caste. A subcaste of Kolta and Lohar.

_Sudha_.--Synonym of Sudh.

_Sudho_.--Synonym of Sudh.

_Sudra_.--The lowest of the four traditional castes. See Introduction. There is no Sudra caste at present in the Central Provinces. A subcaste of Barai.

_Suibadiwa_.--(_Sui_, porcupine.) A totemistic sept of the Dhurwa Gonds in Betul.

_Suji_.--(From _sui_, a needle.) Synonym for Darzi.

_Sukul, Shukul_.--(White.) A surname of Kanaujia Brahmans.

_Sulankhi_.--Subcaste of Mahli.

_Sunar_.--A caste of goldsmiths. Subcaste of Bishnoi.

_Sundhi_.--Synonym of Sundi.

_Sungaria_.--(One who keeps pigs.) Subcaste of Kumhar.

_Sunni_.--One of the two principal sects of Muhammadans who follow the orthodox traditions, Sunni meaning traditionist.

_Sunri_.--Synonym of Sundi.

_Surait_.--A name signifying persons of impure or mixed descent. A subcaste of Dhakar and Halba. A subcaste of Jharia Rawat (Ahir) in Bastar, being the offspring of Jharia Rawat fathers by women of other Rawat subcastes. A subcaste of Sonkar in Kanker, consisting of the offspring of illegitimate unions. A subcaste of Jhadi Telenga, Kumhar and Marar (Mali).

_Suraj, Surya_.--(The sun.) A section of Binjhwar, Gond, Khangar, Marar, Mowar, Rawat (Ahir) and Sansia (in Sambalpur).

_Surajdhwaja_.--A subcaste of Kayasth.

_Surajvansi_.--(Descendants of the Sun.) Name of one of the two great divisions of Rajputs. A clan of Rajputs. A subcaste of Barai, Khairwar and Kalar. A section of Chamar, Dhanwar, Gond and Koli.

_Suratha_.--A subdivision of Valmiki Kayasth.

_Sureyam_.--A Gond sept named after the _sui_ or porcupine, because, it is said, a porcupine passed by when they were worshipping their god.

_Surkhi_.--(Red.) A clan of Surajvansi Rajputs.

_Sutar_.--The name of a carpenter in the Maratha Districts. Synonym of Barhai.

_Suthra Shahi_.--Synonym for Nanakpanthi.

_Sutsale_.--(A thread-weaver.) Subcaste of Koshti.

_Suvarha_.--Named after the _suar_ or pig. Subcaste of Dhimar.

_Swami_ or _Aiya (Iyer)_.--(Master.) A title given to leaders of the religious orders. A title of Sanadhya Brahmans in Saugor. A subcaste of Jangam.

_Swetambari_.--A sect of Jains who put clothes on their images.

_Tadvi_.--A name for Muhammadan Bhils.

_Tak, Takshac_.--A clan of Rajputs, now extinct.

_Takankar, Takari_.--(From _takna_, to tap, to roughen the face of a mill-stone.) A synonym or subcaste of Pardbi. A synonym for the Pathrot or Pathrawat stone-workers in Berar, who are classed with Beldars.

_Takle_.--(Fallen.) A subcaste of Kasar, said to consist of the descendants of persons excommunicated for sexual offences.

_Tamashawala_.--(Showman.) A name given to Nats.

_Tambatkar_.--(A coppersmith.) Synonym for Tamera.

_Tamboli, Tamoli_.--(A seller of the prepared betel-leaves.) Synonym for Barai.

_Tandan_.--A subdivision of Saraswat Brahmans in Hoshangabad, perhaps so called from their being priests of the Tandan Khatris.

_Tankiwala_.--(A sharpener of grindstones.) Subcaste of Dhimar.

_Tanti_.--(_Tanta_, weaver's loom.) A caste. A subcaste of Bhulia and Mahli.

_Tanti, Tatwa_ (from Sanskrit _tantu_, a fibre).--The great weaver caste of Bengal and Bihar. A few Tantis were enumerated in Raipur District in 1911. Sir H. Risley is of opinion that the Tantis are probably a functional group developed under the pressure of the natural demand for fine woven cloth. [507] One tradition of their origin is that the first ancestor of the caste was begotten by the celestial architect Viswakarma on a low Sudra woman. Viswakarma is regarded as the tutelary deity of the caste, and is worshipped twice a year with offerings of flowers, rice and sugar. Images are sometimes made of him, but more commonly the weaver's loom or some of the tools of the craft are regarded as the dwelling-place or symbol of the god. In past times the Tantis made the famous fine cotton cloth, known as _abrawan_ or 'running water,' which was supplied only to the imperial zenana at Delhi. Sir H. Risley relates the following stories illustrating its gossamer texture. On one occasion a daughter of Aurangzeb was reproached on entering the room for her immodest attire, through which her limbs could be seen, and excused herself by the plea that she had on seven folds of cloth over her body. Again in the reign of Alivardi Khan (1742-56), a Dacca Tanti was flogged and banished from the city for not preventing his cow from eating up a piece of _abrawan_ cloth which had been laid out to bleach on the grass. The famous female spinners who used to wind the fine native thread were still to be found in 1873, but their art has now died out. In illustration of their delicate touch it is told that one of them wound 88 yards of thread on a reel, and the whole weight of the thread was only one _rati_ or two grains. Nowadays the finest thread spun weighs 70 yards to the _rati_. The best cloths were woven by the Dacca Tantis, to whom the Koshtis of Burhanpur in the Central Provinces stood second. The Bamanmara tank in the old village of Dhanpur in Pendra zamindari of Bilaspur is so named from the fact that about a century ago some Brahman traders were murdered on its bank for the sake of the fine cloths they were carrying rolled up in hollow bamboo sticks. In Bengal the Tantis are included among the castes from whom a Brahman can take water. Sir H. Risley is of opinion that they have to some extent raised themselves to this position by their own influence, their trade being prosperous and lucrative, and having long ago attained to the development of an urban industry. The ordinary status of the weaving castes being at the bottom of the social scale, the superior position of the Bengal Tantis is an interesting exception. It is analogous to that of the Koshtis in the Central Provinces, also a class of urban weavers, who rank above the impure castes, though they have not attained to the position of the Tantis, as Brahmans will not take water from them.

_Tanwar_.--A subcaste of Kawar, to which zamindars belong.

_Tanwat, Tanwatkari_.--A synonym for Panchal Sunar.

_Tarane_.--Synonym of Dobaile Teli.

_Tasa_.--Synonym of Chasa.

_Tatwa_.--Synonym for Tanti. (From Sanskrit _tantu_, a fibre.)

_Tawaif_.--(A prostitute.) Synonym for Kasbi.

_Tekam_.--(The teak tree.) One of the commonest clans of Gonds. A sept of Baiga, Bharewa, Binjhwar and Pardhan. A subdivision of Majhwar.

_Telenga Dora_.--(Telugu Lord.) A designation used by the Velama caste.

_Telenge_.--A Telugu name used by Balijas and other Telugu castes. Subcaste of Nai.

_Telha_.--Subcaste of Nagasia. The members of this subcaste mark the forehead of the bride with _tel_ or oil at the marriage ceremony.

_Teli_.--A caste of oil-pressers. Subcaste of Barhai, Dangri and Gondhali.

_Teli-Bania._--A group of the Teli caste who have taken to shopkeeping. Subcaste of Teli.

_Teli-Kalar._--A mixed group of the Kalar and Teli castes. Subcaste of Teli.

_Teli-Marar._--A subcaste of Marar.

_Telkala_.--Subcaste of Gandli.

_Terah-hazar_ or _Birbandhi_.--(Thirteen thousand.) Subcaste of Chero.

_Thakur_.--(Lord.) The common title of Rajputs. This title is also used by Lodhis, Raj-Gonds and other landowning castes. A surname of Karhara Brahmans in Saugor. A section of Ahir, Marar (Mali), Panwar Rajput and Sudh.

_Thakuria_.--(Lordling.) A subcaste of Murao. A subcaste of Kol and Parja. A section of Darzi and Katia.

_Thanapati_.--(Master of the sacred place.) Synonym for Gandhmali.

_Thapak_.--A surname of Sanadhia Brahmans in Saugor. (From Sthapak, the consecrator of idols.)

_Thapatkari_.--Synonym of Beldar.

_Thathari_.--A caste of coppersmiths in Sambalpur.

_Thatia_.--A subtribe of Gonds, also called Gaiki or Mahato in Betul.

_Thethwar_.--(One who follows the straight path.) A subcaste of Rawat (Ahir) in Chhattisgarh.

_Thotia, Thothia_.--(Maimed.) A subdivision of Gonds and Pardhans, who live by begging from the Gonds.

_Thuria_.--Subcaste of Banjara in Sambalpur.

_Tilokchandi_.--(Bais.) A subdivision of the Bais clan of Rajputs.

_Tirelle_.--(Tirole.) Subcaste of Are.

_Tirgam_.--A subsept of the Uika clan of Gonds in Betul. A sept of Pardhan.

_Tirmale, Tirmalle_.--A small caste of wandering Telugu beggars. Nearly 400 were returned in the Central Provinces and Berar in 1911. Tirmales take about performing bulls. The animal is decorated with brass ornaments and bells, and his back is covered with a patched quilt of different colours. The Tirmale has a red turban with a scarf round his neck, and a follower carries a drum. The bull is cleverly trained and performs various tricks. The caste do this in the mornings, but in the afternoon they appear as Bairagis or ordinary beggars, and in the evening as sellers of various sacred articles, such as sandalwood, Ganges water and rudraksha beads. They take water from the Ganges in small phials and go down to the south of India selling it. On this account they are known in Poona as Kashi Kawadi or those who carry banghys from Kashi (Benares). In Telugu they are called Gangeddulu and in Tamil Endandi, both words meaning people who beg with bulls. They may properly be considered as a subcaste of Dasaris. [508] The Tirmales travel with their families like the Banjaras, and live in tents or sheds outside the village. Their marriages are generally celebrated in the month of Shrawan in the rains, when they return from their wanderings. They speak a corrupt Telugu among themselves, but Marathi to outsiders. They eat flesh and drink liquor. The dead are buried.

_Tirmalle_.--Synonym of Tirmale.

_Tirtha_.--Name of one of the ten orders of Gosains.

_Titha_.--(From _titahri_, a sandpiper.) A section of Basor.

_Tiwari_.--(Learned in three Vedas.) A family name of Kanaujia and Gaur Brahmans.

_Tiyar_.--A boating and fishing caste of Sambalpur and Bengal. In the Central Provinces they numbered 700 in 1911. The caste is a numerous one in Bengal and has been fully described by Sir H. Risley, [509] so that no detailed notice of it is necessary here. The name is derived from the Sanskrit _tivara_, a hunter, the Tiyars styling themselves the hunters of the sea. They came to the Central Provinces from Angul in Orissa, and they offer to the goddess Durga in Angul an oblation of 60 to 100 _jian_ fish and a headload of lotus flowers on her special festival. In honour of Durga they observe a fast on the four Tuesdays of the months of Chait and Kunwar (March and September). In Chait they also worship their hooks and nets. At their marriages when a father has selected a bride for his son he consults an astrologer to compare their horoscopes. If the conjunction is unsatisfactory he will change the boy's name to suit the astrological calculations. The wedding is celebrated in the common fashion of the Uriya castes. If a bachelor marries a widow he first goes through the form of wedlock with a bunch of flowers. Among their caste penalties, that imposed for the killing of a cow may be mentioned. It is called the Gocharan Brit, and the offender is required to consort with cows for twenty-one days. He must mix and take his meals in the cowshed, and must copy the behaviour of the cows, lying down when they lie down, standing up when they stand up, following them when they walk about, and so on. At the expiration of this period he makes a pilgrimage to a certain village, and on his return partakes of the five products of the sacred cow and gives a feast to the caste. The Tiyars are a low caste, and eat fowls and drink liquor. They will admit a member of any higher caste on his giving a feast to the community. In the Central Provinces they have exogamous sections within which marriage is prohibited; these generally have titular names, as Padhan chief, Das slave, Guru preceptor, and so on. They catch fish with the _ghani benda_, a large bamboo basket covered with palm-tree bark, which is sunk under water and secured in the bed of the stream.

_Todasai_.--(Worshipper of six gods.) A section of Raj-Gond.

_Tomara, Tuar, Tawar_.--(_Tomar_, a club.) A well-known clan of Rajputs. A sept of Gond.

_Toriya_.--A name given to Gonds who worship twelve gods in Chanda.

_Tumram_.--(_Tumria_, a pumpkin.) A clan of Gond, said to be those who worship six gods.

_Turi_.--A caste. A synonym for Basors or bamboo-workers. A section of Kalanga.

_Turk_.--(Muhammadan.) A section of Panwa Rajput in Balaghat.

_Turkan_.--A subcaste of Bahna, so called because their forefathers are said to have been soldiers in the army of the king of Delhi.

_Turkia, Kurkanya_.--A Muhammadan group. Subcaste of Banjara, Chamar.

_Uchla_.--(A lifter.) Title for Bharota.

_Uchle_.--(Pickpocket.) Subcaste of Mang.

_Uchodia_.--A subcaste of Bhand.

_Ud_.--Subcaste of Chasa. See Odde.

_Udainath_.--A subdivision of Jogi.

_Udaiputria_.--(One belonging to Udaipur.) Subcaste of Dhobi.

_Udasi_.--A class of religious mendicants. See Nanakpanthi.

_Uika, Oika_.--A very common clan of Gonds, who are said to be worshippers of six gods.

_Ukas_.--A subcaste of Barhai.

_Ulluka_.--(An owl.) A totemistic sept of Sudh and Dumal.

_Umre_.--A subcaste of Bania. See subordinate article to Bania. A subcaste of Kalar, Nai and Teli.

_Unayo, Unnaya_.--(From Unan in Oudh.) A subdivision of Nigam Kayasth. It is also sometimes considered as a half subcaste, in addition to the twelve proper subcastes.

_Unewal_.--A subdivision of Rhedawal Brahmans found in Jubbulpore. They take their name from Una, a village in Kathiawar.

_Upadhya_.--(A teacher.) A surname of Kananjia and Sanadhya Brahmans. A title of Manbhao.

_Upmanyu_.--An eponymous section of Brahmans.

_Uraon_.--Synonym of Oraon.

_Uriya_,--(A native of Orissa.) A synonym for the Sansia caste of masons in Sambalpur. A subcaste of Ganda, Ghasia, Gond, Karan, Kewat, Koshti, Savar, Sundi and Sunar.

_Urkara, Urkare_.--(From Warkora, a wild cat in Gondi.) A section of Sunar and Gond.

_Usrete_.--A subcaste of Kurmi and Nai.

_Uthaigira_.--(A picker-up of that which has fallen.) Synonym of Sanaurhia.

_Utkala_.--(A resident of Orissa.) One of the five orders of Panch Gaur Brahmans inhabiting Orissa.

_Vadar or Wadewar_.--(A stone-cutter.) Synonym of Beldar.

_Vade, Wade_.--(A carpenter.) A sept of Maria Gonds.

_Vadra_.--(A carpenter.) Subcaste of Kammala.

_Vaghe_.--(From _vagh_, a tiger.) See Waghya.

_Vaidika_.--(Reciter of the Vedas.) A title of Brahmans.

_Vaishnava_.--(A worshipper of Vishnu.) A name for the mendicant orders of Vishnuite devotees and Bairagis.

_Vaishnava Sunar_.--A group of Sunars who claim to be Brahmans. See Panchal.

_Vaishya_.--Name of the third of the four classical castes. See Introduction. There is no Vaishya caste at present, but the Bania caste are considered, perhaps incorrectly, to be descended from the Vaishyas.

_Vajantri, Wajantri_.--(Musician.) A subcaste of Gurao. A synonym and section of Mang.

_Vallabkacharya_.--A Vishnuite sect and order of religious mendicants. See article Bairagi.

_Valmika, Valmiki_.--A subdivision of Khedawal Brahmans who take their name from the sage Valmika. A subcaste of Kayasths.

_Vamachari Sect_.--Synonym for Vam-Margi.

_Vani_.--Synonym for Bania.

_Varade, Warade_.--(A resident of Berar, a variant of Berari, _q.v._) A subcaste of Simpi or Maratha Darzi. A subcaste of Dhangar and Nai.

_Varendra or Barendra_.--A subcaste of Bengali Brahmans.

_Vartati_.--(Pure.) Subcaste of Andh.

_Vasishta or Vashishta_.--Name of a famous saint in classical literature. An eponymous section of Brahmans.

_Vellala_.--The great cultivating caste of the Tamil country, to whom by general consent the first place in social esteem among the Tamil Sudra castes is awarded. They have a strength of more than 2 1/2 millions in India; in the Central Provinces there were in 1911 about 700 in Chanda, Nagpur and other Districts. In the _Madras Census Report_ of 1901, Mr. Francis gives an interesting description of the structure of the caste and its numerous territorial, occupational and other subdivisions. He shows also how groups from lower castes continually succeed in obtaining admission into the Vellala community in the following passage: "Instances of members of other castes who have assumed the name and position of Vellalas are the Vettuva Vellalas, who are really Vettuvans; the Puluva Vellalas, who are only Puluvans; the Illam Vellalas, who are Panikkans; the Karaiturai (lord of the shore) Vellalas, who are Karaiyans; the Karukamattai (palmyra leaf stem) Vellalas, who are Balijas; the Guha (Rama's boatman) Vellalas, who are Sembadavans; and the Irkuli Vellalas, who are Vannans. The children of dancing girls also often call themselves Mudali, and claim in time to be Vellalas, and even Paraiyans assume the title of Pillai, and trust to its eventually enabling them to pass themselves off as members of the caste." The Vellalas will not touch the plough with their own hands. Some of them abstain from flesh and liquor, and prohibit the remarriage of widows with a view to raising their social status.

_Vidur_.--A caste. A subcaste of Gondhali, Kasar, Komti, Kunbi, and Lohar, comprising persons of illegitimate descent.

_Vir_.--Subcaste of Gopal.

_Virmushti_.--A class of Bairagis or religious mendicants.

_Vishnu Swami_.--A class of Bairagis or religious mendicants.

_Vishwamitra_.--Name of a famous saint in classical literature. An eponymous section of Brahmans.

_Vyas_.--A section of Brahmans and of Agharia.

_Waddar_.--A name for Telugu Oddes or navvies in Chanda. A subcaste of Beldar.

_Wadewar_.--Synonym of Odde or Beldar in Chanda.

_Waghe_.--(_Wagh_ or _bagh_, a tiger.) A section of Koshti and Mana, a clan of Maratha.

_Waghmare_.--(Tiger-killer.) A clan of Arakh, Gopal and Mahar.

_Wakkaliga, Okkiliyan_.--A Canarese caste of cultivators, of which a few representatives were returned from Nagpur. They reside mainly in the Madura and Coimbatore Districts. The name is derived from the Canarese _okkalu_, [510] which means cultivation or agriculture.

_Wakmar_.--(One who left the _pangat_ or caste feast while his fellows were eating.) Title of Hatkar.

_Wandhekar_.--Subcaste of Kunbi.

_Wanjari_.--Synonym for Banjara. Subcaste of Kunbi.

_Warade_.--(A resident of Berar.) Subcaste of Gurao.

_Wartki_.--(A washerman.) Synonym for Dhobi in the Maratha country.

_Wasudeo, Wasdeo_.--The name of the father of Krishna, the Hindu god. Synonym of Basdewa. A subcaste of Joshi.

_Watkari_. See Otari.

_Wika_.--Synonym for Uika, a well-known clan of Gonds.

_Yadu, Yadava_.--A well-known clan of Rajputs.

_Yadubansi_.--(Of the Yadu race.) A subcaste of Ahir.

_Yadu-Bhatti._--Clan of Rajputs. Synonym for Yadu.

_Yajur-Vedi._--A subcaste of Brahmans who follow the Yajur-Veda. They are also known as Madhyandan and Apastambha.

_Yarande_.--(One who presses the _erandi_ or castor-oil seed.) Subcaste of Teli.

_Yati_.--(For Jati). A Jain ascetic.

_Yelama_.--Synonym of Velama.

_Yogi_.--Synonym of Jogi.

_Yojna_.--Subcaste of Komti.

SUBJECT INDEX

This Index contains references to general ethnological and other subjects referred to in the articles, either those on main castes and tribes in Part II., or those on religions and sects in Part I. These latter are usually distinguished by the letters R. for religion or S. for sect. Very occasionally a reference is made to one of the minor articles in the Glossary. The reference numbers are to the paragraphs of the articles. In the few cases where no reference number is given the subject is either treated generally in the article referred to, or the article itself is so short that further indication is unnecessary.

Abhiras, the--Ahir, 2

Aboriginal tribes, position of, in Hindu society--Bhuiya, 3

Acrobatic performances--Nat, 4, 5

Address, methods of--Bairagi 11, Brahman, 18, Gond, 72, Gosain, 5, Lodhi, 10, Muhammadan R., 32

Admission of outsiders--Arya Samaj R., 3, Bhaina, 6, Bhamta, 3, Bhil, 11, Dahait, 3, Dhanwar, 11, Gond, 70, Injhwar, 4, Jhadi Telenga, 3, Kaikari, 4, Kanjar, 8, Khond, 9, Mahli, 2, Mehtar, 5, Panka, 5, Turi, 6, Vellala,

Adoption--Bhamta, 3

Agricultural rites--Gond' 48, Kohli, 4, Kurmi, 32, Oraon, 21, 22

Agricultural superstitions--Kurmi, 33

Akali sect, the--Sikh R., 6

Akti or Akshit tritiya festival--Chitari, 6, Chitrakathi

Alcohol, prohibition of--Kalar 6

Ambagarhia Deo, worship of--Koshti, 3

Amulets--Bhil, 9, Sunar, 12

Ancestors, reincarnation of--Chamar, 7, Dhakar, 2, Gond, 37, 39, Khond, 5. Oraon, 10

Ancestors, worship of--Badhak, 9, Gond, 38, 42, Gowari, 5, Koshti, 4, Oraon, 14, Sansia, 3, Sundi, Thug, 17, Turi, 4

Angad Guru--Sikh R., 2

Animal hospitals--Jain R., 14

Animal sacrifices, in Greece--Kasai, 17 sacrifice of buffalo--Mahar, 2

Animals, kindness to--Bishnoi, 3, Dohor

Animals, veneration for--Bhil, 8, Gowari, 5, Jain R., 14, Kasai, Oraon, 20

Animism--Kasai, 4

Anniversaries of the dead--Kurmi, 28

Appearance and mode of life--Baiga, 7, 8, Beria, 1, Bhil, 12, Bhishti, Bhuiya, 14, Chamar, 1, Khatri, 1, Kirar, 4, Kohli, 5, Kol, 16, Korku, 10, Korwa, 2, Oraon, 23, Panwar Rajput, 13, Velama, 1

Arjun Guru--Sikh R., 2

Arts, origin of the--Mochi, 3

Arya Samaj R., prospects of--Arya Samaj R., 6

Assassination, methods of--Thug, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8

Astronomical beliefs and stories--Bhatra, 4, Dhuri, 3, Dumal, 4, Jadua Brahman, Joshi, 1-16, Mahar, 11, Turi, 4

Baigas, a branch of the Bhuiyas--Bhuiya, 6

Balak Das--Satnami S., 4

Banda, worship of--Kharia, 8

Banjari Devi, worship of--Banjara, 10

Bankrupt, going (or Diwala Nikalna)--Bhat, 16

Barber. See article Nai

Barber-surgeon--Nai, 6

Bathing--Gond, 64, Kurmi, 39

Beard, the--Nai, 11

Beggars or religious mendicants. See articles Bairagi, Fakir, Gosain, etc.

Begging, mode of--Aghori, 1, Basdewa, Gopal, Jogi, 11, Waghya

Bell-metal--Kasar, 4

Betel-vine, account of--Barai, 5

Betrothal--_Passim_. See especially Banjara, 6, Gadaria, 3, Gond, Kawar, 4, Kolta, 3, Korku, 4, Kunbi, 7, Kurmi, 5, Prabhu, 1, Rajput, Turi, 3

Bhang--Kalar, 10

Bhanwar ceremony (walking round the sacred post at marriage)--Kirar, 2, Kurmi, 9

Bhats and Charans--Bhat 2

Birth ceremonies--_Passim_, See especially Ahir 10, Chamur 8, Gond 28, 29, Halba 15, Jat 11, Kawar 6, Kunbi 10, 11, Kurmi 15-17, Mehtar 8-11, Muhammadan R. 7-9, Sonjhara 4; ceremony of second birth--Korku 10

Birthdays--Muhammadan R. 12

Blacksmiths--Lohar 5

Blanket-weaving--Gadaria 7

Blood, smeared on images of gods--Lakhera 5

Blood-covenant--Kewat 2, Khairwar 5

Brahmo Samaj R., veneration of, foundation of, progress of--Brahmo Samaj Religion 2, 3, 9

Branding the body--Gond 67, Oraon 11

Bride, purchase of--Agaria 2, Audhelia 2, Banjara 6, Dahait 3, Dangi 3, Kawar 4, Khadra, Kharia 5, Khond 4, Kir 2, Kohli 2, Kol 10, Panwar Rajput 7, Pardhi 3, Rajjhar 3

Bridegroom, dress of a--Daharia 3, Khangar 3, Sansia (Uria) 2

Buddhism compared with Jainism--Jain R. 2

Buffalo, as a corn god--Kumhar 9, Mahar 2

Bullocks, veneration for--Kunbi 24

Buradeo, worship of--Bhunjia 1, Gond 38, 45, Pardhan 4

Burial--Kurmi 23

Calendar, the Hindu--Joshi 1-15

Camel, sacrifice of the--Kasai 15

Cannibalism--Aghori 2, Birhor, Gond 52

Car Festival--Jain R. 11

Carpentering and woodwork--Barhai 6

Caste customs--Badhak 8, Balahi 3, Banjara 19, Chasa 3, Kabirpanthi S. 9, Panwar Rajput 13, Satnami S. 8. See also _Admission of Outsiders._

Caste feasts--Kurmi 41, Intro. 82, 84

Caste Panchayat or committee--Alur 17, Brahman 20, Dhoba 5, Gond 73, Gowari 7, Halba 18, Kadera 3, Kawar 12, Kol 19, Oraon 27, Pardhan 6, Intro. 93

Caste rules and penalties--_Passim_. See especially Bharia 7, Brahman 20, Dhanwar 11, Dhimar 12, Dohor, Gond 73, 74, Gowari 7, Jat 13, Kamar 9, Kawar 12, Kol 18, Kurmi 44, Mahar 12, Mehtar 4, Panwar Rajput 12, Pardhi 4, Teli 11

Caste structure--Mehtar 3; origin of--Intro. 3, 4

Cattle, castration of--Chamar 15; slaughter of--Kasai 2; worship of--Banjara 13, Hatkar 2

Character. See _Moral Character_

Charans--Banjara 2, Bhat 9, 12

Children, devices for procuring--Kunbi 12, Mehtar 8, Muhammadan R. 7; superstitions about--Gond 31; traffic in--Ganda 2

Choti or scalp-lock--Nai 9

Circumcision--Muhammadan R. 13

Civil marriage act--Brahmo Samaj Religion 6

Clothes. See _Dress_

Cocoanut, legends about--Kabirpanthi S. 5

Conception, miraculous, of children--Dhanwar 1

Coppersmiths--Tamera

Counting, official counter or Medha Gantia--Bhatra 4, Parja 7, Intro. 60

Courtesans, education of--Kasbi 4

Couvade, practice of--Oraon 9, Sonjhara 4, Verukala, Intro. 60

Cow-killing, penalty for--Tiyar

Cradle songs--Chitari 5

Criminal practices--Badhak 17, Banjara 21, Beldar 6, Beria 2, Bharota 1, Chamar 16, Kanjar 5, Pardhan 6, Pasi 7. See also _Theft_

Crows, beliefs about--Kunbi 15

Cultivating status--Jat 5, Kunbi 4, Kurmi 45, Intro. 21

Cultivation--Gond 79; patch cultivation 80

Dacoity--Badhak 2, 3, 4, Korwa 10, Mang Garori, Mina 3, Pardhi 12, Pindari 4, 5, 6, Ramosi 2, Sansia 4, 5

Daily life--Maratha 8

Dancing--Gond 76, Gondhali, Kashi 3, 8, Kharia 12, Kol 17, Korwa 8, Majhwar 7, Oraon 25, 26, Parja 4

Dasahra festival--Kumhar 10, Mahar 2, Sunar 4

Dauwa or wet-nurse--Ahir 7

Dayanand Saraswati--Arya Samaj R. 1, 2

Days--Joshi 9, 16; omens from--Kawar 10, Parja 7

Dead, beliefs about the--Kurmi 29

Death ceremonies--_Passim_. See especially Bedar 3, Binjhwar 6, Bishnoi 8, Brahman 14, Chamar 7, Dhakar 3, Gond 32-38, Gosain 10, Gujar 6, Gurao 6, Halba 12, Kabirpanthi S. 7, Katia 4, Kawar 7, 8, Kharia 9, Khatri 4, Khojah, Khond 6, Kirar 3, Kol 14, Koli 6, Korku 9, Kunbi 14, Kunjra, Kurmi 20, 21, 22, 26, Lingayat, Mahar 6, Muhammadan R. 14, Panwar Rajput 11, Parsi R. 16, 17, Rajput 6, Sonjhara 5, Intro. 89

Dehendra Nath Tagore--Brahmo Samaj Religion 4

Deo Brahman, ceremony of--Bedar 2

Demeter, the goddess--Kumhar 7

Deshmukh and Deshpandia, offices of--Kunbi, 2

Devi, the goddess--Kumhar, 11

Dhar and Ujjain--Panwar Rajput, 3

Dharam Das, legend of--Kabirpanthi S., 4

Dharna, sitting--Aghori, 2, Bhat, 14, Maratha, 14

Dhatura--Kalar, 10

Digging earth for oven at wedding--Kirar, 2

Diseases--Mehtar, 13 magical cure for--Koshti, 6

Disguises--Badhak, 5, Bhamta, 1, Jadua Brahman, Thug, 7

Divorce--Binjhwar, 5, Chamar, 6, Dewar, 3, Dhanwar, 6, Dhimar, 4, Gadba, 2, Gond, 25, Halba, 10, Katia, 3, Kohli, 2, Koli, 4, Korku, 10, Koshti, 3, Kunbi, 8, Mahar, 5, Mina, 4, Muhammadan R., 6, Panwar Rajput, 8, Savar, 4, Taonla

Diwali Festival, the--Ahir, 15, Bania, 15

Dog--Banjara, 20; associated with the god Khandoba--Maratha, 7

Domestic animals, taboos about--Dhangar, 4, Mang, 7, Naoda, Sonjhara, 6

Doms, the--Kanjar, 4

Donkey, the--Dhobi, 7

Dravidian tribes, their origin and immigration--Kol, 4, 5, Intro., 37, 39

Dress--Banjara, 18, Bharia, 7, Bohra, 7, Brahman, 22, Darzi, 4, Gadba, 5, Gond, 61, Gosain, 4, Halba, 19, Jogi, 7, Kasbi, 8, Kawar, 11, Kol, 16, Korku, 10, Koshti, 7, Kunbi, 22, Kurmi, 37, 38, Mahar, 12, Muhammadan R., 31, Oraon, 23, 24, Pardhi, 5, Parsi R., 18, Rajput 11

Dyeing clothes--Rangrez, Chhipa

Ear, tearing the--Sunar, 10

Ear-piercing--Gond, 62, Kachhi, 5, Muhammadan R., 11, Sunar, 10, 11

Earth, beliefs about the--Bhunjia, 4

Earth-eating--Chitari, 3, Kurmi, 14

Earth-goddess--Kumhar, 11

Eating with relatives, taboos on--Gauria

Eclipse, legends about--Mehtar, 19, Teli, 8

Emasculation. See article Hijra

Eunuchs. See article Hijra

Evil eye--Bhatra, 8, Chitari, 4, Khangar, 3, Mahar, 11

Exogamous septs or clans--_Passim_. See especially Bhaina, 3, Brahman, 8, Chadar, 1, Dahait, 2, Dangi, 2, Gond, 12, Gowari, 3, Halba, 4, Jhadi Telenga, 2, Karan, Katia, 2, Kawar, 3, Kewat, 2, Khond, 3, Korku, 3, Kunbi, 5, Kurmi, 4 and Appendix, Lodhi, 4, Mahar, 5, Maratha, 4, Panwar Rajput, 6, Rajput, 4, Savar, 3, Intro., 48, 69

Extortionate practices of Bards--Bhat, 7

False bride, custom of--Dhobi, 2

Fasting for the crops--Kunbi, 7, Oraon, 22; other fasts--Jain R., 13, Thug, 18

Female palanquin bearers--Kahar, 3

Festivals--Gadba, 3, Gond, 53, Khond, 10, Maratha, 7, Oraon, 20, 21, Parja, 7

Fighting, methods of--Gosain, 9, Khond, 7, 8

Fights of animals--Kasai, 21

Fishing--Dhimar, 8

Flowers--Mali, 3, 4, 10

Folktales--Korwa, 11

Food--Baiga, 8, Bania, 17, Bharia, 7, Brahman, 21, Gadba, 5, Gond, 68, Kawar, 12, Khond, 9, Kol, 18, Kolta, 4, Korku, 10, Kunbi, 21, Kurmi, 40, Lodhi, 9, Mina (or Deswali), 4, Muhammadan R., 30, Parsi R., 18, Rajput, 8, Tiyar, Intro., 85, 88; leavings of food--Dhimar, 10

Foreign religions, adoption of--Mahar, 10, Mehtar, 16

Forest ascetics--Jogi, 5

Fosterage--Ahir, 7

Funeral priest--Kurmi, 26

Furniture--Baiga, 7, Kunbi, 20, Kurmi, 36

Games and pastimes--Kamar, Mal, Pardhi, 7, 11

Ganja (Indian hemp)--Kalar, 10, 11

Ganpati, worship of--Bania, 14, Koshti, 5; legend about--Kunbi, 16

Gardening--Mali, 10, Intro., 28

Ghasi Das (legends and teachings of)--Satnami S., 2, 3, 4

Ghosts, beliefs about--Bhat, 10, 11

Gipsies, origin of--Kanjar, 2

Girls dedicated to temples--Kashi, 2, Waghya

Goats and sheep--Dhangar, 5, Gadaria, 6

Gods, attitude towards the--Garpagari, 4; making contracts with the--Mehtar, 8

Going away ceremony (or Gauna)--Halba, 9, Katia, 3, Lodhi, 6, Panwar Rajput, 8

Gold, sanctity of--Sunar, 7; washing for--Sonjhara, 8

Gondwana--Gond, 2

Govind Singh, Guru--Sikh R., 3

Graveyards--Bohra, 4, Kurmi, 23

Grazing cattle--Ahir, 19

Greeting--See _Address, methods of_

Grinding grain--Kanjar, 9

_Gur_ or sugar, the sacred--Thug, 16

_Guru_ or spiritual preceptor--Bairagi, 13, Daharia, 3

Hailstorms, averting--Garpagari, 1, 4

Hair--Gond, 63, Jogi 7, Manbhao 3, Nai _passim_

Hair-cutting--Nai 3

Halal (sacrifice) rites of Muhammadan,--Atari 4, Kasai 3

Hanuman, the god--Garpagari 3, 4, Kunbi 12

Haveli, meaning of--Kurmi, 3

Heber, Bishop--Swami Narayan S. 3

Hindu R., aversion to--Satnami S. 7. See _Religious Beliefs_

Holi Festival--Bania 16, Gond 54, Khairwar 9, Mannewar

Homosexual practices--Hijra

Horoscopes--Prabhu 1

Horse--Maratha 7

Houses--Banjara 19, Bohra 7, Gond 60, Kunbi 19, Kurmi 34, Sonjhara 7; superstitions about--Gond 36, Kurmi 35, Parja 7

Human corpse, eating of--Aghori 2

Human sacrifices--Banjara 16, Gond 51, Khond 12, Oraon 17

Hun immigration, the--Gujar 1, 2, Panwar Rajput 1, 2

Hunting, methods of--Gond 81, Kolhati 6, Mal, Pardhi 8, 9, 10; ceremonial hunting--Bhatra 7, and Gond

Hypergamy--Brahman 10, Dangi 2, Daraihan, Lodhi 3, Mina 4, Murha 2, Intro. 16

Id festivals--Muhammadan R. 20, 21

Illegitimacy--Khatri 3, Vidur 3, Dhakar

Immorality of girls--Oraon 4

Impure castes--Intro. 40, 94

Incest, legend of--Lohar 1

Indoor servants--Dhimar 10, Kahar, 4

Infant-marriage--Dhuri 2, Khandait, Kir 2

Infanticide--Rajput 4

Inheritance--Kamar 6, Kawar 12, Khairwar 8, Kol 15, Korku 12, Kunbi 6, Rautia 5

Initiation, rites of--Bairagi 11, Bishnoi 4, Gosain 3, Kabirpanthi S. 6, Manbhao 2, Parmarthi S., Satnami S. 5, Sikh R. 4, Thug 19, Waghya, Intro. 83

Interest on money--Bania, 23, Muhammadan R. 35

Iron-working industry--Lohar 5; superstitions about iron--Lohar 2

Jain Banias--Bania, 9, and Bania, Parwar subcaste; Jain Guraos--Gurao 8

Jasondhis, the--Bhat 8

Jawaras or Gardens of Adonis--Kurmi 31

Jhambaji--Bishnoi 2

Juari as a food--Kunbi 21

Juggling--Jadua Brahman

Kabir, legend and teachings of--Kabirpanthi S. 1, 2, 3

Kali, worship of--Sakta S., Thug, 14; derived from the tiger--Thug, 14, 16, 22

Karan, legend of--Basdewa

Karma festival--Baiga 8, Binjhwar 8, Gond 56, Majhwar 7, Oraon 19

Kayasths, aversion to--Ghasia 8

Kazi--Muhammadan R. 25

Keshub Chandar Sen--Brahmo Samaj R. 5. 7

Kettle-drum--Ganda 5, Nagarchi

Khandoba, worship of--Bhil 8, Maratha 7, Waghya

Khatpati--Bhat 16

Khonds, rebellion of the--Khond 14

Kidnapping children--Banjara 17

King, legend of killing--Bhil 2

Kinship, basis of--Kasai 9, 10, 11

Kolarians and Dravidians, the--Kol 4, Intro. 35-39

Koli caste; derived from Kol tribes--Kohli, 1

Koran--Muhammadan R. 27

Krishna, the god--Ahir, 4, 12; worship of Krishna--Bairagi 7

Lac (bangles and toys)--Lakhera, 4, 9; industry--Lakhera 3

Lalbeg, worship of--Mehtar 15

Land, rules for occupation of--Khond 7; rights in--Bania 24; ownership of--Intro. 23

Language--Ahir 3, Baiga 10, Bhil 14, Gond 78, Halba 5, Kharia 14, Kol 5, 22, Kolam 1, Korku 14

Leather--Chamar 11, 12, 13

Leather-workers--Mochi 4

Legends of origin--_Passim_. See especially Agharia, Baiga, Balahi, Bhat, Bhoyar, Bhunjia, Brahman (Kanaujia and Nagar sub-castes), Chamar, Daharia, Dangi, Dhanwar, Dhimar, Halba, Holia, Jat, Kalar, Kasar, Kharia, Khatri, Kol, Komti, Korku, Lohar, Mali, Mang, Panwar Rajput, Parja, Sanaurhia, Sunar, Sundi, Teli

Levirate, the--Mang 4, Mina (or Deswali) 4, Parja 6, Sunar 3, Turi 3

Lingo, Gond hero, legend of--Gond 5-10

Liquor, drinking--Gond 69, Kalar 4, 7; and preparation of--Kalar 13; rice-beer--Kol 7, Oraon 26; toddy or date-palm liquor--Pasi 6

Liquor, sanctity of--Kalar 8, 9

Lizard hunting--Badhak15

Love charms--Kunbi 13

Lukman Hakim, worship of--Kadera 4

Madak or opium smoking--Kalar 11

Magic--Banjara 15, Bharia 6, Bhat 11, Bhatra 8, Dhanwar 10, Gauria, Gond 46, 49, Jhadi Telenga 7, Kawar 6, 10, Kol 13, Korku 8, Teli 14, Vam-Margi S.

Maha-Brahman, presents to--Kurmi 26

Manasa Devi--Nat 6

Maratha, derivation of name--Mahar 1, Maratha 2

Maratha immigration into the Central Provinces--Kunbi 2, 3

Maratha soldiers--Maratha 13, 15, 16

Marriage, barber's duties at--Nai 5

Marriage between relations, restrictions on--Balahi 2, Brahman 9, Dangi 3, Dhoba 2, Gond 15, Injhwar 3, Kai-kari 2, Kunbi 6, Murha 2, Panka 4, Tamera 2

Marriage by capture--Gond 22, Kolam 2, Oraon 6, Intro. 71, 72

Marriage cakes, the--Kurmi 7

Marriage crowns--Chitari 6

Marriage customs--_Passim_. See especially Baiga 4, Bania 11, Banjara 7, Bhatra 5, Binjhwar 3, 4, Brahman 11, Chamar 5, Daharia 3, Gadaria 3, Ganda 3, Gond 15-23, Halba 6, 8, Jat 8, Jhadi Telenga 4, Kachera 3, Kachhi 3, Kapewar, Kasbi 5, Kawar 4, Kayasth 8, Kharia 5, Khatri 4, Khond 4, Kol 10, Kolam 2, Kolta 3, Komti, Korku 5, Koshti 3, Kunbi 7, Kunjra, Kurmi, Lodhi 5, Mahar 5, Mali 6, Muhammadan R. 5, Oraon 6, Panwar Rajput 7, Parja 3, 4, 5, Prabhu 1, Raghuvansi 2, Rajput 5, Sansia 2, Teli 5, Turi 3

Masan Baba, worship of--Teli 7

Massage--Nai 4

Mecca, pilgrimage to--Muhammadan R. 18

Meghnath rites--Gond 55

Menstruation--Dhanwar 2, Gond 27, Halba 14, Kamar 4, Kunbi 10, Kurmi 12, 15

Migration--Bhuiya 5, Kirar, Kohli 1, Kol 5, Kunbi 2

Military system--Arab, Maratha 11, 12, 13, 15, 16

Milk--Ahir 20

Miscarriage--Kurmi 12

Monasteries--Bairagi 14, Gosain 8

Moneychangers and testers--Sunar 14

Moneylenders--Bania 18-24

Months, the Hindu--Joshi 11, 13

Moon, legends about--Bharia 6, Kunbi 16, Turi 4; the moon's path and daily mansions--Joshi 4, 8, 10, 15

Moral character, disposition, or conduct--Badhak 16, Banjara 22, Bhil 3, 12, Bhilala 5, Brahman 25, Chamar 17, Dangi 5, Gond 58, 59, Gujar 3, Hijra, Jat 4, Kohli 5, Kunbi 11, 23, 24, Kunjra, Manbhao 2, Oraon 28, Panwar Rajput 13, Pardhan 5, Parja 1, Pindari 7, Rajput 9, 10, 14, Thug 11, Turi 6

Mosques--Muhammadan R. 22

Mourning--Bania 13, Brahman 14, Chauhan, Dumal 4, Ganda 4, Gond 34, Kawar 7, Khatri 4, Kirar 3, Kunbi 15, Kurmi 25, 27; shaving hair for--Nai 15

Muhammadan and Hindu rites, mixture of--Bishnoi 5, Kunbi 18, Kunjra, Meo, Mukeri, Sikligar, Teli 8

Muhammadan castes--Muhammadan R. 3

Muhammadan tribal divisions, families and names--Muhammadan R. 4, 9

Muharram rites--Kunbi 18, Muhammadan R. 19

Mulla, the--Bohra 3, Muhammadan R. 24

Music, in connection with dancing--Kasbi 3

Musical instruments--Mochi

Nails, superstitions about--Nai 16

_Nakshatras_, the--Joshi 7, 8, 14

Namdeo Sect--Darzi 5

Names--Agaria 4, Baiga 5, Bhatra 10, Bhoyar 3, Chamar 8, Dhanwar 13, Gond 30, Halba 16, Jhadi Telenga 6, Joshi 18-21, Khond 5, Kol 20, Kolhati 5, Mahar 8, Sunar 2, Vidur 6

Naming of a child--Oraon 10, Vidur 6

Naming relations, taboos on--Bhatra 10, Dhanwar 13, Gond 72, Khond 9, Lodhi 10

Nanak--Nanakpanthi S. 1, Sikh R. 1

Nanakpanthi and Sikh sects, distinction between--Sikh R. 5

Narayandeo, worship of--Koshti 5, Panwar Rajput 9

Nudity of women--Garpagari 4

Numbers, superstitions about--Joshi 12

Oaths--Mahar 12

Oil-pressing--Teli 15

Omens, beliefs about--Ahir 16, Badhak 12, Baiga 6, Gond 21, 47, Kawar 10, Koli 3, Korku 8, Mang-Garori, Mina 3, Pardhi 4, Parja 7, Sansia 6, Thug 22, 23, 24

Opium--Kalar 10, 11, Rajput 9

Ordeals--Bharia 6, Kaikari 4, Kolhati 5, Pardhi 6, Sansia 7

Ornaments--Ahir 18, Gond 61, Kunbi 22, Sunar 6, 8, 9

Outram, Sir James--Bhil 4

Paida ceremony--Jat 10

Palanquin or Doli--Kahar 2

Parasurama, legend of--Panwar Rajput 2

Passover, the--Kasai 18

Pavilion or the marriage-shed--Kurmi 6

Pearls--Sunar 9

Physical type. See _Appearance_

Pickaxe, the Sacred--Thug 15

Pigs, breeding for sacrifice and estimation of--Kumhar 6, 8

Pipal tree, beliefs about--Kunbi 12

Pledge, or covenant, between married couple--Bhatra 5; with the gods--Bhat 14. See also _Dharna_

Pola festival--Kunbi 17

Polyandry, survivals of fraternal--Bhuiya 10, Khond 4, Korku 5, Oraon 7. See also Gowari 3

Polygamy--Agharia 3, Andh, Bania 12, Barai 3, Dangri, Dhuri 2, Gond 26, Kaikari 2, Kohli 2, Korwa 4, Kunbi 8, Kurmi 11, Mali 7, Muhammadan R. 6

Prannath--Dhami S.

Pregnancy, rites during--Chitari 3, Gond 28, Halba 15, Kasbi 6, Kunbi 10, Kurmi 13, Muhammadan R. 8

Priests, tribal--Koshti 5

Prostitution--Beria 3, Kasbi 2, 7

Proverbs--Arora, Bahna 5, Bharbhunja 3, Dhobi 7, Jogi 14, Julaha

Puberty rites--Gurao 3, Kaikari 3, Lodhi 7

Rajput and Jat, relations of--Jat 3

Rakshabandhan festival--Patwa

Ramazan, fast of--Muhammadan R. 17

Ram Das, Guru--Sikh R. 2

Ram Mohan Roy--Brahmo Samaj R. 1, 2

Red a lucky colour--Lakhera 5

Red dye on the feet--Lakhera 7

Red threads, custom of wearing--Lakhera 8

Relatives, taboos between--Kanjar 8, Kharia 6. See also Marriages between Relatives, and Naming Relatives

Religious beliefs--_Passim_. See especially collection of articles on Religions and Sects, and caste articles on Bishnoi, Manbhao, Bairagi and Gosain. Also articles Baiga 6, Banjara 10, Brahman 15, 16, Chamar 9, Gond 40-56, Khond 11, Korku 6, Koshti 5, Kunbi 16, Kurmi 30, Mahar 9, Oraon 15, 16, Thug 12; Hinduism, Intro. 90, 95, 96

Sacred thread, the--Brahman 17, Gurao 5, Kunbi 16, Lodhi 11; of the Jains--Jain R. 9; the sacred cord of the Parsis--Parsi R. 15

Sacrifices, beliefs about and method of--Kasai 22, 23

Sacrificial meal, the--Kasai 8, Kurmi 7, Lakhera 5, 6

Sacrificial method of slaughter--Kasai 22

Sacrificial slaughter for food--Kasai 20

Sahajanand Swami--Swami-Narayan S. 1

Sal flower festival--Oraon 20

_San_-hemp--Lorha

Sankrants--Joshi 6

Sati or burning of widows--Brahman 13

Scent--Atari 4

Sculpture, Hindu--Mochi 3

Sects. For individual sects see articles in section on Religions and Sects. For right-hand and left-hand sects see articles Mala and Vam-Margi S.

Self-torture--Jogi 4

Sewn clothes, wearing of--Darzi 3

Sexual morality--Gosain 11, Khond 4, Mali 6, Oraon 4, 21

Shankar Acharya--Gosain 2, Smarta S.

Shantik ceremony--Gurao 3, Maratha 6

Sheep--Gadaria 6, Dhangar 5

Shoes--Chamar 12, 14, Mochi 7

Sikh Council (Guru-Mata)--Sikh R. 7

Silajit--Siddi

Singaji, deified Ahir--Ahir 12

Singara or waternut--Dhimar 8

Sister's son, importance of--Bhamta 2, Dhera, Gowari 4, Gurao 5, Halba 7, Kamar 3, Pasi 5; marriage to maternal uncle's daughter-- Bhatra 5, Parja 3; connection with uncle--Mehtar 13

Siva, the god. See article Saiva Sect

Sleeping-place or common dormitory--Bhuiya 9, Gond 71, Oraon 4; dormitory discipline--Oraon 12

Snake-bite, cure for--Gauria, Kir 3, Nat 6

Snake-worship and snake-charmers--Gond 43, Nat 6, Panwar Rajput 10

Social extravagance--Jat 10, Kirar 2, Kurmi 5, Maratha 8

Social life--Kunbi 19, Muhammadan R. 32

Social status and customs--Barhai 5, Basor 5, Bhat 4, Bhilala 1, Bhunjia 5, Brahman 18, Chamar 16, Dangi 4, Dewar 4, Halwai, Jat 5, Kahar 1, Kalar 4, Kolam 5, Koshti 8, Kumhar 3, Kunbi 5, Lodhi 2, 9, Lohar 2, Mahar 13, 14, Mali 1, Mehtar 17, Mina (or Deswali) 1, 4, Nat 3, Oraon 26, Pardhi 5, Sunar 5, Tanti, Teli 10, 13, Velama, Vidur 6

Soldiers. See articles Arab, Bhil, Khandait, Maratha, Paik, Rajput, Taonla

Soma, sacred liquor--Kalar 5; Homa liquor--Parsi R. 13

Songs--Bhat 17, Bhunjia 1, Chitari 5, Dhanwar 4, Gond 77, Gondhali, Kayasth 9, Murha 5, Panwar Rajput 7, Parja 4

Souls of the dead recalled--Ahir 11, Gond 37, Kharia 10, Khond 6, Kurmi 24, Lohar 4, Oraon 13, Taonla

Spangles for the forehead--Lakhera 6

Spells--Lohar 4

Spirits, beliefs in--Badhak 10, Bhat 15, Halba 13, Kalanga 3, Mahar 11, Panwar Rajput 10

Spirits-laying--Kawar 8 (of persons killed by tiger)

Subcastes--_Passim_. See especially Brahman 5, 6, 7, Chamaar 2, 3, Dhimar 2, Gond 11, Halba 3, Kalar 2, ,3, Kanjar 1-6, Kawar 2, Kayasth 7, Khond 2, Kol 2, 8, Korku 3, Kunbi 3, Kurmi 3, Lodhi 3, Lohar 3, Mali 5, Mehtar 2, Sunar 2, Intro. 5, 45-47

Suckling children--Kurmi 18

Sudra--Intro. 12

Suicide--Bhat 10, 13, Jasondhi, Rajput 14; burning of widows--Brahman 13

Suthra Shahi--Nanakpanthi S. 4

Sweetmeats, preparation of--Halwai

Swindling practices--Jadua Brahman, Jogi 13, Sunar 15, Yerukala

Taboos, on food--Dhakar 3, Kharia 6; of relationship--Sansia 3; general--Jat 13, Thug 23

Tank building--Kohli 3, Sansia (Uria) 4

Tanning--Chamaar 11

Tattooing--Bharia 7, Binjhwar 9, Brahman 23, Dhanwar 12, Gond 65, 66, Gowari 8, Halba 20, Kamar 10, Mahar 12, Oraon 11; suggested origin of--Sunar 11

Teeth, disposal of--Kaikari 3, Kunbi 10, Nai 16

Theft, and detection of--Bhamta 1, Bharia 6, Mang-Garori, Ramosi 3, Sanaurhia 3, Yerukala. See also _Criminal practices_

Threads as amulets--Lakhera 8, Patwa

Thugs derived from Kanjars and Doms--Thug 3

Tiger, worship of--Koshti 1, Panwar Rajput 10

Tirthakars of Jains--Jain R. 3, 12

Tobacco--Kalar 12

Tomb-stones--Gond 35

Totem, worship of--Kewat 1

Totemism--Agharia 2, Andh, Audhelia 2, Barai 2, Basor 3, Bhaina 3, Bharia 2, Bhil 6, Bhoyar 2, Bhulia, Chadar, Chasa 2, Chauhan, Dahait 2, Dhanwar 2, Dumal 2, Gadba 1, Gond 13, 14, Kalanga 2, Kawar 3, Kewat 2, Khadal, Khadra, Khangar 2, Kharia 4, Khond 3, Kol 9, Kurmi 4, Lodhi 4, Majhwar 4, Oraon 3, Parja 2, Rautia 2, Savar 3, Sudh, Intro. 49, 51

Traps for animals--Gond 81

Trees, spirits in--Kunbi 12

Turmeric--Mali 5

Twins, beliefs about--Kurmi 19

Udasi--Nanakpanthi S. 3

Ukika sacrifice, the--Muhammadan R. 10

Umbrella--Dahait 6, 7

Vaishnava, sect--Kasbi 7

Vaishya--Intro. 13

Valmiki, legend of--Mehtar 14

Vermilion and spangles, meaning of, substitutes for blood--Lakhera 5, 6

Village community--Intro. 22, 23, 73

Village gods--Banjara Devi in Banjara 10, Chordewa in Oraon 16, Khermata in Baiga 6, Kurmi 30, Maiya Andhiyari in Dhanwar 9, Mithu Bhukia in Banjara 11

Village menials--Chamaar 15, Dhimar 12, Gurao 1, Kahar 1, Kumhar 4, Mang 6

Village--priests (Bhumka Jhankar)--Binjhwar 9, Korku 7, Intro. 28

Villages--Gond 60, Korku 10, Kunbi 19

Vishnu, the god. See article Vaishnava Sect

Washerman--Dhobi 8

Washing clothes, method of--Dhobi 5, 6, Gond 64

Watchman, village--Kotwar, Ramosi 3, Intro. 27

Weapons--Khond 7

Weeping, custom of--Bharia 3, Chauhan, Gond 22

Widow-marriage--_Passim_. See especially Bania 12, Banjara 8, Brahman 12, Chamaar 6, Gauria (disposal of first husband's children), Gond 24, Gujar 5, Halba 10, Kirar 2, Kohli 2, Kori 2, Koshti 3, Kunbi 9, Kurmi 11, Mahar 5, Mali 7, Muhammadan R. 6, Panwar Rajput 8, Teli 6; sale of widows--Panwar Rajput 8; Sati or burning of widows--Brahman 13

Wine-drinking, legend of--Kalar 7. See Liquor

Witchcraft--Bhatra 8, Bhil 9, Gond 50, Kawar 10, Oraon 16

Women, sexual morality of--Gond, Gowari; seclusion of--Rajput, 13

Wool, sanctity of--Gadaria, 8; shearing and weaving--Gadaria, 7

Yadava tribe, the--Ahir, 4

Yawning--Chitari, 4

Yoga philosophy--Jogi, 1

Zend-Avesta--Parsi R., 3, 4

Zodiac, the--Joshi, 2-7

End of Vol. I

NOTES

[1] _Indian Caste_, p. 12.

[2] Dr. Wilson's _Indian Caste_ (Times Press and Messrs. Blackwood), 1875, p. 88, quoting from Rig-Veda.

[3] Dr. Wilson's _Indian Caste_ (Times Press and Messrs. Blackwood), 1875, p. 88, quoting from Rig-Veda.

[4] Rig-Veda, i. 11. Wilson, _ibidem_, p. 94.

[5] Wilson, _ibidem_, p. 99.

[6] Manu, ii. 17, 24.

[7] Barbarians or foreigners.

[8] See Burnett and Hopkins, _Ordinances of Manu, s.v._

[9] Wilson, _Indian Caste_, p. 170, quoting Weber, _Indische Studien_, i. 170.

[10] A collection of rules for sacrifices and other rites, coming between the Vedas and the law-books, and dated by Max Müller between 600-200 B.C.

[11] Wilson, _Indian Caste_, p. 182.

[12] Wilson, p. 184, quoting from Shrauta-sutra of Katyayana, 1. 1. 6.

[13] Manu, iv. 99; iii. 178.

[14] Wilson, pp. 421, 422.

[15] Wilson, p. 187, quoting from Hiranyakeshi Sutra.

[16] See article Mehtar in text.

[17] Wilson, p. 363, quoting from Smriti of Angira.

[18] Wilson, _Indian Caste_, p. 195, from Hiranyakeshi Sutra.

[19] Manu, viii. 417.

[20] Wilson, p. 260, quoting Mahabharata, viii. 1367 _et seq._

[21] Wilson, p. 403, quoting from _Vyavahara Mayukha_.

[22] Wilson, p. 400, from Parashara Smriti.

[23] Wilson, p. 140, quoting from _Atharva Veda_, iv. 32. 1.

[24] Wilson, p. 211.

[25] Wilson, _Indian Caste_, referring to Ptolemy, vii. 1. 61 and vi. 120. 3.

[26] Wilson, pp. 113, 114.

[27] See for the impure castes _para._ 40 _post_.

[28] The word "aboriginal" is used here for convenience and not as conveying any assertion as to the origin of the pre-Aryan population.

[29] _Bombay Gazetteer_, _Parsis of Gujarat_, p. 213.

[30] Rig-Veda, 6. 3. 16, quoted by Wilson, _Indian Caste_, p. 110.

[31] Wilson, p. 109.

[32] Monier-Williams, Sanskrit Dictionary, pointed out by Mr. Crooke.

[33] Quoted by Wilson, p. 209. It would seem probable, however, that the Vaishyas must themselves have formed the rank and file of the fighting force, at least in the early period.

[34] Manu, i. 90.

[35] Wilson, _Indian Caste_, p. 193, quoting from Hiranyakeshi Sutra.

[36] Wilson, p. 260, quoting Mahabharata, viii. 1367 _et seq_.

[37] Mahabharata, xii. 2749 _et seq_.

[38] List of classes of Indian society given in the Purusha-Medha of the White Yajur-Veda, Wilson, pp. 126-135.

[39] Manu, viii. 113.

[40] Hopkin's and Burnett's _Code of Manu,_ x. 64, 65, and footnotes.

[41] Mahabharata, xiii. 2510 _et. seq_., quoted by Wilson, p. 272.

[42] Manu, ix. 149, 157.

[43] Manu indeed declares that such children could not be initiated (x. 68), but it is clear that they must, as a matter of fact, have been capable of initiation or they could not possibly have been married in the father's caste.

[44] See article on Brahman for some further details.

[45] Wilson, _Indian Caste_, i. 440, quoting _Brahma Vaivarrta Purana_.

[46] See article Bhat for further discussion of this point.

[47] _Dolichos uniflorus_.

[48] See article Jat for a more detailed discussion of their status.

[49] _Tribes and Castes of Bengal_, art. Khandait.

[50] Proprietors of large landed estates.

[51] See article on Kunbi, para. 1.

[52] _Village Communities_, p. 127.

[53] _History of the Marathas_, vol. i. p. 25.

[54] _Village Communities_, pp. 226, 227.

[55] _The Aryan Household_, ed. 1891, p. 190.

[56] _Ibidem_, p. 228. Professor Hearn followed Sir Henry Maine in thinking that the clan was an expansion of the patriarchal joint family; but the reasons against this view are given subsequently.

[57] _Memoir of Central India_, vol. ii. p. 22.

[58] _La Cité antique_, 21st ed. pp. 66, 68.

[59] _La Cité antique_, 21 st ed. pp. 66, 68.

[60] _Nigeria_, quoted in _Saturday Review_, 6th April 1912.

[61] _Religion of the Semites_, p. 96.

[62] See article Sunar for a discussion of the sanctity of gold and silver, and the ornaments made from them.

[63] _Michelia champaka_, a variety of the jack or bread-fruit tree.

[64] See article Darzi for further discussion of the use of sewn clothes in India.

[65] See articles on Bhulia, Panka, Kori and Julaha.

[66] Traill's _Account of Kumaon, Asiatic Researches_, vol. xvi. (1828) p. 213.

[67] _Tribes and Castes of Bengal_, art. Bari.

[68] Pointed out by Mr. Crooke.

[69] The Marathi name for the god Hanuman.

[70] _Linguistic Survey_, vol. iv., _Munda and Dravidian Languages_, p. 7.

[71] _Acacia catechu_.

[72] See article on Gond.

[73] _Linguistic Survey_, p. 15.

[74] Introduction to _The Mundas and their Country_, p. 9.

[75] _Linguistic Survey_, p. 277.

[76] See for this the article on Kol, from which the above passage is abridged.

[77] Bombay Gazetteer, vol. xii. p. 175.

[78] _Cochin Census Report_, 1901, quoted in Sir H. Risley's _Peoples of India_, 2nd ed. p. 115.

[79] This was permissible in the time of Asoka, _circa_ 250 B.C. Mr. V.A. Smith's _Asoka_, pp. 56, 58.

[80] Sir H. Risley's _Tribes and Castes of Bengal_, art. Tanti.

[81] See article Kanjar for a discussion of the connection of the gipsies and Thugs with the Kanjars.

[82] See article Chamar, para. 1.

[83] _Loha_, iron; _tamba_, copper; _kansa_, brass or bell-metal; _sona_, gold.

[84] _Kanch_, glass.

[85] _Phul_, flower; _haldi_,turmeric; _jira_, cumin.

[86] _Crotalaria juncea_. See article Lorha for a discussion of the objections to this plant.

[87] _Morinda citrifolia_. The taboo against the plant is either because the red dye resembles blood, or because a number of insects are destroyed in boiling the roots to extract the dye.

[88] See article on Brahman.

[89] Sonjhara is a separate caste as well as a subcaste of Dhimar.

[90] See article Kurmi, appendix, for some instances of territorial names.

[91] Wilson's _Indian Caste_, p. 439.

[92] Vol. i. pp. 272, 276.

[93] _Studies in Ancient History_, p. 123.

[94] See lists of totems of Australian and Red Indian tribes. Sir J.G. Frazer notes that the majority are edible animals or plants.

[95] Address to the British Association, 1902. I had not had the advantage of reading the address prior to the completion of this work.

[96] M'Lennan, _Studies in Ancient History_, p. 123, quoting from Grant's _Origin and Descent of the Gael_.

[97] _Totemism and Exogamy_, i. pp. 112, 120, ii. p. 536, iii. pp. 100, 162; _Native Tribes of Central Australia_, pp. 209-10; _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_ p. 145; _Native Tribes of Northern Australia_ (Professor Baldwin Spencer), pp. 21, 197; J.H. Weeks, _Among the Primitive Bakongo_, p. 99.

[98] See pp. II, 138, 190 (Edition 1891).

[99] _Totemism and Exogamy_, ii. pp. 338, 339.

[100] _La Cité Antique_, p. 254.

[101] _The Origin of Civilisation_, 7th ed. p. 246.

[102] W.W. Skeat, _Malay Magic_, pp. 52, 53.

[103] I. p. 253.

[104] 2nd ed. vol. i. pp. 169, 174. See also Sir E.B. Tylor's _Primitive Culture_, i. pp. 282, 286, 295; ii. pp. 170, 181, etc.

[105] See also _Primitive Culture_, i. pp. 119, 121, 412, 413, 514.

[106] Messrs. Spencer and Gillan, _Native Tribes of Central Australia_ (London, Macmillan), p. 201.

[107] _Linguistic Survey of India_, vol. iv., _Munda and Dravidian Languages_, pp. 40, 41, 45.

[108] _Linguistic Survey of India_, vol. iv., _Munda and Dravidian Languages_, pp. 292, 294.

[109] Dr. A.H. Keane, _The World's Peoples_, London, Hutchinson, 1908, p. 50.

[110] _Nimar Settlement Report_.

[111] See also _Primitive Culture_, i. p. 408.

[112] _The Oraons_, pp. 408, 409.

[113] 2nd ed. vol. ii. p. 457 _et seq._

[114] For instances of omens see article Thug and Index. Also Miss Harrison's _Themis_, pp. 98, 99.

[115] _La Cité Antique_, p. 225.

[116] W.W. Skeat, _Malay Magic_, pp. 178, 571.

[117] _Early History of Mankind_, 3rd ed. p. 143.

[118] _Ibidem_, p. 125.

[119] See article Joshi for examples of Hindu names.

[120] _La Cité Antique_, p. 357.

[121] p. 182, _et seq._

[122] See para. 61.

[123] I. p. 430.

[124] See article on Nai.

[125] 2nd ed. vol. i. p. 57.

[126] _Native Tribes of Central Australia,_ Introduction, p. 25.

[127] Dr. A. H. Keane, _The Worlds Peoples,_ p. 62.

[128] For counting, see _Primitive Culture_, 5th ed. pp. 240, 254, 265, 266.

[129] _Account of the Mewar Bhils_, J.A.S.B., vol. xxiv. (1875) p. 369.

[130] _Early History of Mankind_, p. 293.

[131] _Ibidem_, p. 294.

[132] _Ibidem_, p. 295.

[133] See also _Primitive Culture_, i. p. 493, ii. p. 431.

[134] See article on Mochi for the Muhammadan reference. The Jewish reference is of course to the Second Commandment.

[135] _Native Tribes of Central Australia_, p. 176.

[136] _Ibidem_, pp. 181, 182.

[137] _The Golden Bough_, 2nd ed. ii. p. 120.

[138] _The Golden Bough_, 2nd ed. iii. p. 301.

[139] Section on the Kol tribe in Dalton's _Ethnology of Bengal_.

[140] Mr. S.C. Roy, _The Oraons_, p. 262.

[141] See also _Primitive Culture_, 5th ed. ii. pp. 243, 244, 246.

[142] See article on Brahman.

[143] See article Bairagi.

[144] _Native Tribes of Central Australia_, pp. 185, 186.

[145] _Ibidem_, pp. 154, 155.

[146] _Primitive Culture_, 5th ed. ii. pp. 243, 244.

[147] _Primitive Culture_, 5th ed. ii. pp. 243, 244.

[148] Dr. A.W. Howitt, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_, p. 146. In this case the reference seems to be to any one of several totems of a sub-class.

[149] Dr. A.W. Howitt, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_, p. 145.

[150] _Ibidem_, pp. 148, 149.

[151] _The Religion of the Semites_, pp. 273, 274.

[152] _Primitive Paternity_, vol. i. pp. 272, 273.

[153] _The Religion of the Semites_, p. 265.

[154] See paragraph 80 below and the article on Kasai.

[155] _The Origin of Civilisation_, p. 240.

[156] See _The Golden Bough_, ii. p. 396 _et seq._

[157] This view of sacrifice was first enunciated by Professor Robertson Smith in the article on Sacrifice in the _Encyclopædia Britannica_, and _The Religion of the Semites_.

[158] _History of Human Marriage_, p. 324.

[159] Many instances are also given by Mr. Hartland in _Primitive Paternity_.

[160] _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_, p. 481.

[161] _Primitive Marriage_, p. 135, footnote.

[162] _Totemism and Exogamy_, ii. p. 473, iii. pp. 34, 76, 101, 225, 272, 308, 360. The Australians have secret Churinga names, the Churingas apparently representing the spirits of ancestors which have returned to the totem. (Spencer and Gillan, _ibidem_, Appendix A.)

[163] _Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia_, pp. 198, 200.

[164] _Native Tribes of Central Australia_, p. 70; _Natives of Australia,_ Mr. N.W. Thomas, p. 75.

[165] _Totemism and Exogamy_, iii. pp. 93, 120, 122, 124, 226, ii. p. 6.

[166] _Totemism and Exogamy_, vol. iv.

[167] See article Lakhera for further discussion of the marking with vermilion and its substitutes.

[168] _La Cité Antique_, Paris, Librairie Hachette, 21st ed. p. 4.

[169] _La Cité Antique_, p. 45.

[170] This word seems to mean elder sister, and is applied by the girls to their sex-totem, the emu-wren.

[171] _Native Tribes of S.-E. Australia,_ p. 149.

[172] _History of Human Marriage_, pp. 418-420.

[173] _The People of India_ (Thacker & Co.), pp. 171, 173.

[174] _Tribes and Castes of the N.-W.P. and Oudh_, art. Nunia.

[175] _Religion and Customs of the Oraons, Memoirs_, As. Socy. of Bengal, vol. i. No. 9.

[176] Mr. S.C. Roy, _The Oraons_, p. 247.

[177] See article on Rajput, para. 9.

[178] Professor W. E. Hearn's _Aryan Household_ (London, Longmans, Green & Co.), p. 160.

[179] At first the whole _gens_ were the heirs, _Ancient Law_, p. 221. The group of agnatic kinsmen are mentioned in _Early Law and Custom_, pp. 238, 239, but not directly as heirs.

[180] _Aryan Household_, p. 28, quoting Becker's _Charicles_, p. 394.

[181] _Aryan Household_, p. 160, quoting Plutarch, _Quaestiones Romanae_, c. 6.

[182] _La Cité Antique_, 21st ed. Paris, Hachette et Cie.

[183] _Aryan Household_, p. 215.

[184] _La Cité Antique_, p. 299.

[185] _La Cité Antique_, p. 304.

[186] _Ibidem_, pp. 128, 129.

[187] _Ibidem_, p. 318.

[188] _Ibidem_, p. 129.

[189] _Ibidem_, p. 273.

[190] _Ibidem_, p. 129.

[191] _Ibidem_, p. 320.

[192] _La Cité Antique_, p. 279.

[193] _Ibidem_, pp. 281, 282.

[194] _Ibidem_, p. 281.

[195] _Ibidem_, p. 320.

[196] _La Cité Antique_, p. 179.

[197] _Ibidem_.

[198] _Ibidem_.

[199] _Ibidem_, p. 181.

[200] _La Cité Antique_, p. 113.

[201] _Ibidem_, pp. 186-188.

[202] _La Cité Antique_, _ibidem_.

[203] Pp. 151, 154.

[204] The above account of the festival and pilgrimage is taken from the Rev. T.P. Hughes' _Dictionary of Islam_, articles Idu-l-Azha and Hajj.

[205] _La Cité Antique_, p. 134.

[206] _Ibidem_, p. 127.

[207] Para. 48 above.

[208] See article on Rajput, para. 9.

[209] _The Magic Art_, ii. p. 89, quoting Satapatha Brahmana.

[210] See article on Kasai.

[211] See account in article on Kasai.

[212] _Orpheus_, pp. 123, 125.

[213] 7th ed. p. 300.

[214] _Origin of Civilisation_, 7th ed. p. 299.

[215] _The Dasahra: an Autumn Festival of the Hindus_, Folk-lore, March 1915. Some notice of the Dasahra in the Central Provinces is contained in the article on Kumhar.

[216] Crooke, _loc. cit._ p. 41.

[217] See also article Mahar.

[218] _La Cité Antique_, pp. 202, 204.

[219] _Imperial Gazetteer of India_, ii. p. 312.

[220] _Totemism and Exogamy_, vol. ii. pp. 528, 530.

[221] _Ibidem_.

[222] _Totemism and Exogamy_, vol. ii. p. 608; _The Golden Bough_, 2nd ed. vol. iii. p. 407.

[223] Dr. A.H. Keane, _The World's Peoples,_ p. 138.

[224] Mr. L.D. Barnett's _Antiquities of India_, p. 171.

[225] _The Golden Bough_, 2nd ed. vol. i. pp. 234, 235.

[226] _Ibidem_, vol. ii. pp. 9, 10.

[227] Other features of the sacramental rite, strengthening this hypothesis, are given in the article Kabirpanthi Sect. The account is taken from Bishop Westcott's _Kabir and the Kabirpanth._

[228] See articles Dewar, Bhunjia, Gauria, Sonjhara, Malyar.

[229] Some instances are given in the article on Kalar and on Rajput, para. 9.

[230] Dr. A.H. Keane, _The World's Peoples_, pp. 129, 130.

[231] Para. 11.

[232] For further notice of Vishnu and Siva see articles Vaishnava and Saiva sects; for Devi see article Kumhar, and for Kali, article Thug; for Krishna, article Ahir; for Ganpati, article Bania.

[233] See above, para. 13.

[234] _La Cité Antique_, p. 341.

[235] _Early History of Mankind_, pp. 259, 260. The needfire, as described by Sir E.B. Tylor, had the character of a purificatory rite, but it may be doubted whether this was its original form, any more than in the case of the Suovetaurilia or Pola ceremonies.

[236] Mr. J.T. Marten's _Central Provinces Census Report_, p. 238.

[237] For further notice of this offence see article Sunar under Ear-piercing.

[238] Para. 61.

[239] "Tarpeia" in M. Salomon Reinach's _Cults, Myths and Religions_ (English edition, London, David Nutt, 1912).

[240] _Cults, Customs_, p. 130.

[241] Maclagan, _Punjab Census Report_, p. 174.

[242] Burn, _United Provinces Census Report_, p. 82.

[243] _Cults, Customs_, p. 144.

[244] _Ibidem_, pp. 176, 177.

[245] _Cults, Customs_, pp. 148, 149.

[246] Maclagan, _l.c._

[247] _Ibidem_.

[248] J. T. Marten, _Census Report_ (1911).

[249] Lillingston, p. 45, on the authority of Max Mullet. Professor Oman states, however, that he had but little acquaintance with the Vedas (_Brahmans, Tkeists,_ p. 103), and if this was so it would seem likely that his knowledge of the other ancient languages was not very profound. But he published a book in Persian and knew English well.

[250] Oman, quoting from Dr. George Smith's _Life of Dr. Alexander Duff_, vol. i. p. 118.

[251] Oman, quoting Mary Carpenter's _Last Days in England of the Raja Ram Mohan Roy_, p. 67.

[252] Lillingston, p. 51.

[253] _Brahmans, Theists_, p. 105.

[254] _Brahmans, Theists_, p. 111.

[255] Lillingston, p. 73.

[256] _Brahmans, Theists_, p. 116.

[257] _Ibidem_, p. 113.

[258] _Brahmans, Theists_, p. 118.

[259] Lillingston, p. 96.

[260] _Brahmans, Theists_, p. 133.

[261] _Brahmans, Theists_, pp. 131, 139, 140.

[262] _Brahmans, Theists_, p. 148.

[263] This article is compiled from the notices in Wilson's _Hindu Sects, As. Res._ vol. xvi. pp. 79-81; Sir E. Maclagan's _Punjab Census Report_, 1891; and Mr. Bhimbhai Kirparam's _Hindus of Gujarat_, _Bombay Gazetteer_, vol. ix.

[264] Captain C.E. Luard, in _Central India Census Report_ (1901), p. 88.

[265] _Bombay Gazetteer, Hindus of Gujarat_ (Mr. Bhimbhai Kirparam), p. 545.

[266] This information was kindly furnished by the Diwan of Panna, through the Political Agent at Bundelkhand.

[267] Barth, p. 148.

[268] Hopkins, p. 310, and _The Jains_, p. 40.

[269] Barth, p. 149.

[270] _The Jainas_, pp. 38-47.

[271] The writer is inclined to doubt whether either Buddhism or Jainism were really atheistic, and to think that they were perhaps rather forms of pantheism; but the above is the view of the best authorities.

[272] _The Jainas_, p. 10.

[273] _The Jainas_, p. 6.

[274] _Ibidem_, p. 10.

[275] Moor's _Hindu Infanticide_, pp. 175-176.

[276] Marten, _C.P. Census Report_ (1911), p. 67.

[277] Maclagan, _Punjab Census Report_ (1891), p. 183.

[278] Mr. Marten's _Central Provinces Census Report_, 1911.

[279] The particulars about the Tirthakars and the animals and trees associated with them are taken from _The Jainas_.

[280] _Jonesia Asoka_.

[281] _Cedrela toona_.

[282] _Grislea tomentosa_.

[283] _Eugenia jambolana_.

[284] _Michelia champaka_.

[285] Crooke, _Things Indian_, art. Pinjrapol.

[286] Moor, _Hindu Infanticide_, p. 184.

[287] _Rajasthan_, vol. i. p. 449, and pp. 696, 697, App.

[288] _Central Provinces Census Report_, 1911.

[289] Westcott, _Op. cit._ p. 3.

[290] _Op. cit._ p. 12.

[291] _Kabir and the Kabirpanth_, pp. 115 and 116.

[292] Raipur District.

[293] The description of the Chauka service is mainly taken from Bishop Westcott's full and detailed account.

[294] _Ficus glomerata_.

[295] Sherring, _Hindu Castes and Tribes,_ iii. pp. 96, 123.

[296] By Surgeon-Major Cornish.

[297] _Bombay Census Report_, 1901, pp. 181-183.

[298] _Hindu Manners, Customs and Ceremonies_, p. 117.

[299] Mr. Marten's _C.P. Census Report_ (1911), Subsidiary Table, ix., Occupation, p. 276.

[300] Short for Amir or Prince.

[301] Siddik means veracious or truthful, and he was given the name on account of his straightforward character (_Bombay Gazetteer._)

[302] _Supplemental Glossary_, vol. i. p. 195.

[303] Mr. A. M. T. Jackson in _Bomb. Gaz. Muh. Guj_;, p. 10.

[304] _Bombay Gazetteer, ibidem_.

[305] Hughes' _Dictionary of Islam, s. v._ Marriage.

[306] _Bomb. Gaz. Muh. Guj._ p. 166.

[307] _Ibidem_, p. 66.

[308] _Bomb. Gaz. Muh. Guj._ pp. 147,148, from which the whole paragraph is taken.

[309] _Bomb. Gas. Muh. Guj._ p. 150.

[310] Temple's _Proper Names of the Punjabis_, pp. 41, 43.

[311] _Qanun-Islam_, p. 20.

[312] _Ibidem_.

[313] _Qanun-i-Islam_, pp. 26, 27.

[314] _Ibidem_, pp. 30, 35.

[315] Hughes, _Notes on Muhammadanism_, pp. 122, 131.

[316] _Qanun-i-Islam_, p. 286.

[317] _Bomb. Gaz. Muh. Guj._ pp. 168, 170.

[318] _Dictionary of Islam_, art. Inheritance.

[319] Hughes, _Notes on Muhammadanism_, pp. 63, 75.

[320] See _post_. The account is compiled mainly from the _Dictionary of Islam,_ articles Idu-l-Azha and Hajj.

[321] _Bomb. Gas. Muh. Guj_. p. 138.

[322] Hughes, _Dictionary of Islam, s.v._ Idu-l-Azha.

[323] Hughes, _ibidem_.

[324] _Bomb. Gaz. Muh. Guj_. p. 131.

[325] Professor Margoliouth's _Muhammadanism._

[326] _Bomb. Gaz. Muh. Guj_. p. 131.

[327] _Bomb. Gaz. Muh. Guj._ pp. 132, 135.

[328] _Bomb. Gaz., ibidem_.

[329] Professor Margoliouth's _Muhammadanism_ and the _Dictionary of Islam_.

[330] _Early Developments of Muhammadanism_, pp. 87, 97.

[331] _Notes on Muhammadanism_, p. 168.

[332] _Dictionary of Islam_, _s.v._ Food.

[333] _Bomb. Gaz. Muh. Guj._ pp. 100-103, and _Dictionary of Islam_, art. Dress and Ornaments.

[334] Hughes, _Notes on Muhammadanism_.

[335] _Qanun-i-Islam, _ pp. 24, 25. This account is a very old one, and the elaborate procedure may now have been abandoned.

[336] Hughes, _Dictionary of Islam, s.v._ Fitrah.

[337] _Bomb. Gaz. Muh. Guj._ pp. 143, 144.

[338] Hughes, _Dictionary of Islam_, _s.v._ Whistling.

[339] _C.P. Census Report_, 1911, p. 66.

[340] This article is compiled from Sir Denzil Ibbetson's _Punjab Census Report_ of 1881, and Sir E.D. Maclagan's _Punjab Census Report_ of 1891.

[341] Ibbetson, para. 260.

[342] Maclagan, para. 88.

[343] Maclagan, _loc. cit._

[344] Ibbetson, para. 265.

[345] Maclagan, para. 95.

[346] _Tribes and Castes_, article Suthra Shahi.

[347] _C.P. Census Report_ (1911), p. 69.

[348] P. 276.

[349] _Orphéus_, p. 94.

[350] _Ibidem_.

[351] Haug, _loc. cit._ pp. 69, 70.

[352] _Orphéus_, pp. 91, 92.

[353] Haug, pp. 267, 268.

[354] Haug, p. 269.

[355] Haug, pp. 272, 273.

[356] _Great Religions of India_.

[357] _Great Religions of India_.

[358] _Orphéus_, p. 96.

[359] _Ibidem_, p. 98.

[360] Haug, p. 199.

[361] Sykes' _Persia and its People_, p. 180; _Great Religions of India_, p. 173.

[362] _Bombay Gazetteer_, vol. ix. part ii., _Parsis of Gujarat_ p. 190.

[363] _Bombay Gazetteer, ibidem._

[364] _Bombay Gazetteer_, vol. ix. part ii., _Parsis of Gujarat_, pp. 233, 237.

[365] P. 133.

[366] _Bombay Gazetteer_, vol. ix. part ii., _Parsis of Gujarat_, pp. 221-226.

[367] _Bombay Gazetteer_, vol. ix. part ii., _Parsis of Gujarat_, p. 231.

[368] _Ibidem_, pp. 239-242.

[369] _Bombay Gazetteer_, vol. ix. part ii., _Parsis of Gujarat_, pp. 241, 243.

[370] _Bombay Gazetteer, Parsis of Gujarat_, pp. 205, 207, 219, 220.

[371] See also article on Kalar.

[372] _Aegle marmelos_.

[373] Dr. Bhattacharya's _Hindu Castes and Sects_, p. 371.

[374] See articles Kumhar, Thug and Sakta sect.

[375] See art. Sakta Sect.

[376] Mr. Marten's _C. P. Census Report_, 1911.

[377] _India Census Report_ (1901), p. 360.

[378] _Hindu Castes and Sects_ (Thacker, Spink & Co., Calcutta), pp. 407-413.

[379] Sir E. Gait's note, _India Census Report_.

[380] _Hindu Castes and Sects_.

[381] This article is based principally on a paper by Mr. Durga Prasad Pande, Tahsildar, Raipur.

[382] _Bilaspur Settlement Report_ (1888), p. 45.

[383] Some of Mr. Chisholm's statements are undoubtedly inaccurate. For instance, he says that Ghasi Das decided on a temporary withdrawal into the wilderness, and proceeded for this purpose to a small village called Girod near the junction of the Jonk and Mahanadi rivers. But it is an undoubted fact, as shown by Mr. Hira Lal and others, that Ghasi Das was born in Girod and had lived there all his life up to the time of his proclamation of his gospel.

[384] _Ibidem_.

[385] _Luffa acutangula_.

[386] _Solanum melangenum_.

[387] Some of the Bundela raids in the north of the Province were made on the pretext of being crusades for the protection of the sacred animal.

[388] From Mr. Durga Prasad Pande's paper.

[389] This text is recorded by Mr. Durga Prasad Pande as follows:

"Bhaji chhurai bhanta chhurdi Gondli karat chhonka Lai bhaji ke chhurawate Gaon la marai chauka. Sahib ke Satnamia; 'Thonka.'"

Or

"We have given up eating vegetables, we eat no brinjals: we eat onions with more relish; we eat no more red vegetables. The _chauka_ has been placed in the village. The true name is of God; (to which the pair replied) 'Amen.'"

[390] See article Nanakpanthi for an account of Nanak's creed.

[391] Here again, Sir D. Ibbetson notes, it is often the women who are the original offenders: "I have often asked Sikhs how it is that, believing as they do in only one God, they can put any faith in and render any obedience to Brahmans who acknowledge a large number of deities, and their answer in every case has been that they do not themselves believe in them; but their women do, and to please them they are obliged to pay attention to what the Brahmans say."

[392] _Punjab Census Report_ (1891), para. 107.

[393] Account of the Sikhs, _Asiatic Researches_.

[394] Apparently the Scripture of Govind, the tenth _guru_.

[395] 'Hurrah for the Guru's Khalsa, Victory to the Guru.'

[396] Sir Lepel Griffin's _Life of Ranjit Singh_.

[397] Based on the account of the sect in the volume, _Hindus of Gujarat,_ of the _Bombay Gazetteer_, and _The Swami-Narayan Sect_ pamphlet, printed at the Education Society's Press, Bombay, 1887.

[398] Bishop Heber's _Narrative of a Journey through the Upper Provinces,_ pp. 143, 153.

[399] _The Swami-Narayan Sect_, pp. 4, 22. The above details are given, because in the _Bombay Gazetteer_ the Swami is said to have prohibited the taking of food with low-caste people, and caste pollution; and this appears incorrect.

[400] _The Swami-Narayan Sect_, p. 25.

[401] _Bombay Ducks_, p. 194.

[402] For a suggested explanation of the myth of Parasurama see article Panwar Rajput.

[403] See also article Ahir.

[404] Kabirpanthi, Nanakpanthi, Dadupanthi, Swami-Narayan, etc.

[405] This article is based on Professor Wilson's _Hindu Sects_, M. Chevrillon's _Romantic India_, and some notes collected by Munshi Kanhya Lal of the Gazetteer Office.

[406] _Dhatura alba_, a plant sacred to Siva, whose seed is a powerful narcotic, and is used to poison travellers.

[407] This article consists entirely of extracts from the article on the Wahhabi sect in the Rev. T. P. Hughes' _Dictionary of Islam_.

[408] Irvine, _Army of the Mughals_, p. 198.

[409] Irvine, _Army of the Mughals_, p. 232.

[410] _Summary of the Maratha and Pindari Campaigns_, p. 264.

[411] _Bombay Gazetteer_, vol. ix. part ii. p. 16.

[412] _Madras Census Report_ (1891), p. 221.

[413] _Punjab Census Report_ (1881), para. 543.

[414] _Berar Census Report_ (1881), p. 128.

[415] _Punjab Census Report_ (1881), para. 529.

[416] Khan Bahadur Lutfullah Faridi in _Bombay Gazetteer_, _Muh. Guj._

[417] _Berar Census Report_, _ibidem_.

[418] In 1911 about 3000 persons belonging to the caste were returned, mainly from Bilaspur District, and the Korea and Sarguja States.

[419] Crooke, vol. i. p. 184.

[420] _Eastern India_, ii. p. 467.

[421] _North-West Provinces Gazetteer_, vol. xiv., Mirzapur, p. 365.

[422] _Ethnographic Notes in Southern India_, page 72.

[423] This article consists of extracts from Mr. Crooke's account of the caste in his _Tribes and Castes_.

[424] _Eastern India_, ii. 248.

[425] _Punjab Census Report_ (1881), para. 542.

[426] _Tribes and Castes_, art. Bhatia.

[427] _Rajasthan_, ii. p. 292.

[428] _Tribes and Castes of Bengal_, art. Bind.

[429] _Tribes and Castes of the N.W.P. and Oudh_, art. Bind.

[430] _Bauhinia scandens._

[431] _Ethnology of Bengal._ pp. 158, 221.

[432] See art. Bhunjia.

[433] _Linguistic Survey of India,_ vol. iv., _Munda and Dravidian Dialects,_ p. 102.

[434] Caldwell's _Dravidian Grammar_, pp. 123 and 134. Captain Glasfurd says: 'The termination _war_ is a Telugu affix signifying person or man' (_Settlement Report of the Upper Godavari District_ (1868), p. 26).

[435] This article consists only of extracts from the accounts of Colonel Dalton and Sir H. Risley.

[436] Dalton's _Ethnology of Bengal_, pp. 126, 127.

[437] _Tribes and Castes of Bengal_, art. Chero.

[438] See also art. Daharia for a discussion of the origin of that caste.

[439] _Tribes and Castes_, art. Dhalgar.

[440] From a paper by Narayan Bohidar, Schoolmaster, Sonpur State.

[441] This article is based on papers by Mr. D.P. Kshirsagar, Naib-Tahsildar, Buldana, and Mr. Khandekar, Headmaster, Nandura.

[442] _Madras Census Report_ (1901), p. 149.

[443] _Bhandara Settlement Report_ (Mr. A.B. Napier), p. 8.

[444] _Criminal Tribes of the C.P._, p. 61.

[445] Buchanan, i. p. 331.

[446] _B.G. Muh. Guj_., p. 84.

[447] This article is based on information collected by Mr. Hira Lai in Betul.

[448] Art. Dom. in _Tribes and Castes of Bengal_, and of the _North-Western Provinces and Oudh_.

[449] See article Are.

[450] _Thana Gazetteer_, pp. 119, 120.

[451] _Sholapur Gazetteer_, p. 158.

[452] _Madras Census Report_ (1891), p. 238.

[453] _Ibidem_, p. 280.

[454] _Satara Gazetteer_, p, 41.

[455] _Nasik Gazetteer_, p. 54.

[456] This account is taken from inquiries made by Mr. Hira Lal in Patna.

[457] _Tribes and Castes of Bengal_, art. Bauri.

[458] From a paper by Mr. Kripasindh Tripathi, Headmaster, Saria Middle School, Sarangarh State.

[459] From _pag_, a foot.

[460] Malcolm, _Memoir of Central India_, ii. p. 21.

[461] This paper is compiled from notes taken by Mr. Hira Lal at Raj-Nandgaon and Betul.

[462] Perhaps _Pandanus fascicularis_.

[463] This article is compiled from papers by C. Ramiah, Kanungo, Sironcha, and W.G. Padaya Naidu, clerk, District Office, Chanda.

[464] _Mysore Census Report_ (1891), p. 205.

[465] This article is compiled from a paper by Mr. Ghasinam Dani, Deputy Inspector of Schools, Bastar State.

[466] The caste numbered 85 persons in 1911. The above notice is compiled from a paper by Mr. Krishna Sewak, Naib-Tahsildar, Bargarh.

[467] Based on inquiries made by Mr. Hira Lal, Assistant Gazetteer Superintendent in Bhandara.

[468] _Madras Census Report_ (1901), p. 168.

[469] _Bombay Gazetteer, Guj. Mukh_. p. 18.

[470] Elliott's _Memoirs_, vol. i. p. 54.

[471] Crooke's _Tribes and Castes_, vol. i. p. 161.

[472] _Madras Census Report_ (1891), p. 303.

[473] _India Census Report_ (1891), p. 200.

[474] _Man_, November 1909.

[475] Tone, _Letter on the Marathas_ (1798), India Office Tracts, p. 25.

[476] Lane, _Modern Egyptians_, p. 373.

[477] _Census Report_ (1891), p. 211.

[478] From a paper by Mr. Rajaram Gangadhar Deshpande, Tahsildar, Wardha.

[479] _Settlement Report of the Upper Godavari District_ (1868), quoted in Mr. Nunn's _Monograph on the Gold and Silver Industries of the Central provinces_.

[480] _Monograph on the Gold and Silver Industries, loc. cit._

[481] _Berar Census Report_ (1881), p. 219.

[482] Based on a paper by Mr. Ali Mustafa, Naib-Tahsildar, Hatta.

[483] _Census Report_ (1891), p. 179.

[484] In the introduction to Firishta's History (Elliot, vi. p. 568), it is stated that Roh is the name of a particular mountain (country) which extends in length from Swat and Bajaur to the town of Siwi belonging to Bhakar. In breadth it stretches from Hasan Abdul to Kabul. Kandahar is situated in this country. (Crooke's _Hobson-Jobson_, p. 766.)

[485] Mr. Crooke's _Tribes and Castes_, vol. iv. pp. 165, 166.

[486] _Proper Names of the Punjabis_, p. 74.

[487] _Indian Life and Sentiment_, p. 99.

[488] _Linguistic Survey_, vol. iv. p. 30.

[489] _Linguistic Survey_, vol. iv., _Munda and Dravidian Languages_, p. 79.

[490] _Ibidem_, pp. 84, 85.

[491] _Ethnology of Bengal_, p. 235 _et seq._

[492] _Tribes and Castes of Bengal_, App. I.

[493] _Ibidem_, pp. 222, 223.

[494] This article is written from papers by Mr. G.A. Khan, Assistant Commissioner, Venkatesh Tumaiya Ayawar, Schoolmaster, Chanda, and Mr. G. Padaya Naidu, District Officer, Chanda.

[495] _North Arcot Manual_, i. p. 200.

[496] _North Arcot Manual_, i. p. 242.

[497] Based on a paper by G. Pydiah Naidu of the Gazetteer Office.

[498] Vol. xi. p. 433.

[499] Mr. Edwardes, _Byways of Bombay_, p. 79.

[500] _Bombay Gazetteer, ibidem_.

[501] _J.A.S.B._, No. 3 of 1903, p. 103.

[502] Partly based on a note by Mr. C.J. Irwin, Assistant Commissioner, Jubbulpore.

[503] _Bombay Gazetteer_, vol. xvii. (_Sholapur_), p. 234.

[504] _Bombay Gazetteer, Belgaum_, p. 250.

[505] _Tribes and Castes_, art. Sikligar.

[506] Based on a paper by Mr. Gokul Prasad, Naib-Tahsildar, Dhamtari.

[507] _Tribes and Castes of Bengal_, art. Tanti.

[508] _Madras Census Report_ (1901), p. 153.

[509] _Tribes and Castes of Bengal, s.v._

[510] _Madras Census Report_ (1891), p. 243.