CHAPTER II

PHYSICAL TYPE AND RELATIONSHIPS

From the time of the Spanish invasion up to the present, nearly every author who has mentioned the people of northern Luzon has described the Tinguian as being different from other Philippine tribes. The majority of these writers has pictured them as being of larger stature than their neighbors; as lighter in color, possessing aquiline features and mongoloid eyes; as being tranquil and pacific in character, and having a great aptitude for agriculture. From these characteristics they have concluded that they are probably descended from early Chinese traders, emigrants, or castaways, or are derived from the remnants of the pirate band of the Chinese corsair Limahon (Lin-fung), which fled into the mountains of Pangasinan after his defeat by Salcedo in 1574.

These conjectures are strengthened by the reported discovery, in early times, of graves in northwestern Luzon, which contained bodies of men of large stature accompanied by Chinese and Japanese jewels. The undisputed fact that hundreds of ancient Chinese jars and dishes are still among the cherished possessions of the Tinguian is also cited as a further proof of a close relationship between these peoples. Finally it is said that the head-bands, jackets, and wide trousers of the men resemble closely those of the fishermen of Fukien, one of the nearest of the Chinese provinces. [20]

Two writers, [21] basing their observations on color, physical resemblances, and the fact that the Tinguian blacken their teeth and tattoo their bodies, are convinced that they are the descendants of Japanese castaways; while _Moya_ [22] states that the features, dress, and customs of this people indicate their migration from the region of the Red Sea in pre-Mohammedan times.

Finally, _Quatrefages_ and _Hamy_ are quoted as regarding the Tinguian as modern examples of "the Indonesian, an allophylic branch of the pure white race, non-Aryan, therefore, who went forth from India about 500 B.C." [23]

_Dr. Barrows_ [24] classes all the pagan tribes of northern Luzon--the pygmies excepted--with the Igorot, a position assailed by _Worcester_, [25] particularly in regard to the Tinguian; but the latter writer is convinced that the Apayao and Tinguian are divisions of the same people, who have been separated only a comparatively short time.

In the introduction to the present volume (p. 236) I have expressed the opinion that the Tinguian and Ilocano are identical, and that they form one of the waves of a series which brought the Apayao and western Kalinga to northern Luzon, a wave which reached the Islands at a later period than that represented by the Igorot, and which originated in a somewhat different region of southeastern Asia. [26]

In order to come to a definite decision concerning these various theories, we shall inquire into the cultural, linguistic, and physical types of the people concerned.

The most striking cultural differences between the Igorot and the Tinguian, indicated in the introduction, will be brought out in more detail in the following pages, as will also the evidence of Chinese influence in this region. Here it needs only to be restated, that there are radical differences in social organization, government, house-building, and the like, between the Igorot-Ifugao groups, and the Ilocano-Tinguian-Apayao-Kalinga divisions.

All the tribes of northwestern Luzon belong to the same linguistic stock which, in turn, is closely related to the other Philippine languages. There are local differences sufficiently great to make it impossible for people to communicate when first brought together, but the vocabularies are sufficiently alike, and the morphology of the dialects is so similar that it is the task of only a short time for a person conversant with one idiom to acquire a speaking and understanding knowledge of any other in this region. It is important to note that these dialects belong to the Philippine group, and there seems to be very little evidence of Chinese influence [27] either in structure or vocabulary. [28]

The various descriptions of the physical types have been of such a conflicting nature that it seems best at this point to present rather detailed descriptions of the Tinguian, Ilocano, and Apayao, and to compare these with the principal measurements of the other tribes and peoples under discussion.

For purposes of comparison, the Tinguian have been divided into a valley and mountain group; for, as already indicated, there has been a considerable movement of the mixed Kalinga-Igorot people of the upper Saltan (Malokbot) river, of Guinaan Lubuagan and Balatok, into the mountain districts of Abra, and these immigrants becoming merged into the population have modified the physical type to a certain extent.

In the detailed description of the Ilocano, all the subjects have been drawn from the cities of Bangued in Abra, and Vigan in Ilocos Sur, in order to eliminate, so far as possible, the results of recent intermixture with the Tinguian,--a process which is continually taking place in all the border towns. The more general tabulation includes Ilocano from all the northern provinces.

Aged and immature individuals have been eliminated from all the descriptions here presented. [29]

_Ilocano_

Observations on 19 Males from Vigan and Bangued

Range Average Height, standing meters 1.510 to 1.714 1.607 Length of head " .164 to .191 .1787 Breadth of head " .146 to .158 .1522 Height of head " .120 to .144 .1316 Breadth of zygomatic arches " .129 to .148 .1373 Length of nose " .043 to .054 .0485 Breadth of nose " .034 to .046 .0382

Cephalic index 85.1 Length-Height index 73.0 Breadth-Height index 86.2 Nasal index 78.7

_Eyes_--Dark brown, 3-4 of Martin scale.

_Hair_--Often black, but usually brown-black. 50 per cent straight and about 50 per cent slightly wavy. One case closely curled.

_Forehead_--Usually high, broad, and moderately retreating, but sometimes vaulted.

_Crown and back of head_--Middle arched. Two cases flat.

_Face_--Moderately high; broad and oval. Three cases angular.

_Eye-slit_--Generally slightly oblique, moderately open, almond shape. Mongolian fold present in 45 per cent.

_Nose_--Root:--Middle broad and moderately high. Bridge:--Inclined to be concave, but often straight. Wings:--Middle thick and slightly arched or swelled.

_Lips_:--Middle thick and double bowed (slightly).

_Ears_:--Outstanding. Lobes generally small and close growing, but are sometimes free.

_Ilocano_ [30]

_Observations Made By Folkmar_ (_See Album of Philippine Types, Manila_, 1904)

37 Males of Ilocos Norte

Average Height, standing meters 1.593 Length of head " .180 Breadth of head " .151 Length of nose " .055 Breadth of nose " .040

Cephalic index 84.39 Nasal index 73.12

59 Males of Ilocos Sur

Average Height, standing meters 1.596 Length of head " .177 Breadth of head " .150 Length of nose " .053 Breadth of nose " .039

Cephalic index 85.06 Nasal index 72.95

31 Males of Union Province

Average Height, standing meters 1.590 Length of head " .176 Breadth of head " .151 Length of nose " .050 Breadth of nose " .039

Cephalic index 85.72 Nasal index 78.63

193 Males from All Provinces

Average Height, standing meters 1.602 Length of head " .178 Breadth of head " .151 Length of nose " .052 Breadth of nose " .040

Cephalic index 84.81 Nasal index 75.44

_Valley Tinguian_

Observations on 83 Males (See Plates III, IV)

Range Average Height, standing meters 1.48 to 1.70 1.572 Length of head " 1.65 to .195 .1811 Breadth of head " .140 to .164 .1507 Height of head, 39 cases " .116 to .144 .1337 Breadth of zygomatic arches " .129 to .148 .1387 Length of nose " .042 to .060 .0499 Breadth of nose " .030 to .043 .0384

Cephalic index 83.2 Length-Height index 72.5 Breadth-Height index 86.5 Nasal index 76.9

_Eyes_--Dark brown, 3-4 of Martin table.

_Hair_--Varies from black to brownish black. Usually wavy, but straight in about one third.

_Forehead_--Moderately high and broad; slightly retreating, but sometimes vaulted. Supra-orbital ridges strongly developed in three cases.

_Crown and back of head_--Middle arched. Two cases of flattening.

_Face_--Moderately high and broad; cheek bones sufficiently outstanding to give face angular appearance, tapering from above, but oval faces are common.

_Eye-slit_--Straight or slightly oblique; moderately wide open and inclined to be almond shaped; Mongolian fold slightly developed in about 20 per cent.

_Nose_--Root:--middle broad and high, seldom small or flat. Bridge:--middle broad and usually straight, but 25 per cent are slightly concave, while two cases are convex. Wings:--In most cases are thin, but are commonly thick; both are slightly arched.

_Lips_--Middle thick and double bowed (slightly).

_Ears_--Outstanding, with small close-growing lobes.

_Valley Tinguian_

Observations on 35 Females (See Plates V, VI)

Range Average Height, standing meters 1.42 to 1.58 1.474 Length of head " .161 to .186 .1743 Breadth of head " .136 to .155 .1460 Height of head (22 cases) " .119 to .138 .1301 Breadth of zygomatic arches " .123 to .139 .1304 Length of nose " .039 to .056 .046 Breadth of nose " .030 to .042 .0354

Cephalic index 83.7 Length-Height index 74.6 Breadth-Height index 88.6 Nasal index 76.9

_Eyes_--Dark brown, 3-4 of Martin table.

_Hair_--Usually brown black, but black is common. Sometimes straight, but generally slightly wavy.

_Forehead_--Considerable variation. Usually moderately high, broad, and vaulted, but is sometimes low and moderately retreating.

_Crown and back of head_--Middle arched. Two cases of flattening.

_Face_--Moderately high and oval. In a few cases angular, tapering from above.

_Eye-slit_--Generally oblique, moderately open and almond shape. Is sometimes straight and narrowly open. Mongolian fold slightly developed in about 25 per cent.

_Nose_--Root:--Moderately broad and either flat or slightly elevated. Bridge:--Middle broad and slightly concave. In five cases is straight and in two is convex. Wings:--Equally divided between thick and thin. Slightly arched.

_Lips_--Middle thick and double bowed (slightly).

_Ears_--Outstanding, with small, close growing lobes.

_Mountain Tinguian_

Observations on 62 Males (See Plates VII-VIII)

Range Average Height, standing meters 1.45 to 1.71 1.57 Length of head " .171 to .203 .1856 Breadth of head " .140 to .161 .1493 Height of head (59 cases) " .115 to .154 .1316 Breadth of zygomatic arches " .129 to .149 .1385 Length of nose (60 cases) " .043 to .059 .0512 Breadth of nose (60 cases) " .033 to .046 .0399

Cephalic index 80.4 Length-Height index 70.9 Breadth-Height index 87.4 Nasal index 77.9

_Eyes_--Dark brown, 3-4 of Martin table.

_Hair_--Brown black, and slightly wavy.

_Forehead_--Middle high to high, moderately broad, moderately retreating, but sometimes vaulted. Supra-orbital ridges strongly developed in five cases.

_Crown and back of head_--Middle or strongly arched.

_Face_--Moderately high. Cheek bones moderately outstanding giving face angular appearance, tapering from above. In seven cases face is oval.

_Eye-slit_--Sometimes straight, but usually slightly oblique, moderately open, almond shape. Mongolian fold in five cases.

_Nose_--Root:--Middle broad and moderately high, but sometimes high. Bridge:--Middle broad and straight. Seven cases concave and three convex. Wings:--Middle thick and arched.

_Lips_--Middle thick, sometimes thin; double bowed.

_Ears_--Outstanding; lobes generally small and close growing.

_Mountain Tinguian_

Observations on 16 Females (See Plates IX-X)

Range Average Height, standing meters 1.38 to 1.53 1.482 Length of head " .163 to .188 .1782 Breadth of head " .137 to .155 .1452 Height of head " .119 to .137 .1303 Breadth of zygomatic arches " .125 to .138 .1327 Length of nose " .039 to .054 .0461 Breadth of nose " .034 to .042 .0368

Cephalic index 80.1 Length-Height index 73.1 Breadth-Height index 90.0 Nasal index 79.8

_Eyes_--Dark brown, 3-4 of Martin table.

_Hair_--Brown-black and slightly wavy.

_Forehead_--Moderately high and broad; moderately retreating.

_Crown and back of head_--Middle arched.

_Face_--Moderately high and generally oval; sometimes angular tapering from above.

_Eye-slit_--About equally divided between straight and oblique; moderately open. Mongolian fold slightly developed in one third of cases.

_Nose_--Root:--Moderately broad and nearly flat, but sometimes moderately high. Bridge:--Middle broad and inclined to be concave. Straight noses occur. Wings:--Usually thin and inclined to be swelled.

_Lips_--Middle thick and inclined to be double bowed.

_Ears_--Outstanding. Lobes small and close growing.

_Apayao_

Observations on 32 Males

Range Average Height, standing meters 1.48 to 1.70 1.587 Length of head " .175 to .199 .1877 Breadth of head " .137 to .158 .1492 Height of head " .119 to .155 .1331 Breadth of zygomatic arches " .130 to .149 .1418 Length of nose " .040 to .054 .0466 Breadth of nose " .035 to .044 .0390

Cephalic index 79.5 Length-Height index 70.9 Breadth-Height index 89.2 Nasal index 83.6

_Eyes_--Dark brown, 1 to 4 in Martin table.

_Hair_--Brown black and wavy.

_Forehead_--High and generally moderately retreating, but in about one third is vaulted. Supra-orbital ridges strongly developed in six cases.

_Crown and back of head_--Rather strongly arched. Six cases (all from one village) showed slight flattening of occipital region.

_Face_--Usually high. The cheek bones are moderately outstanding giving face angular appearance, tapering from above. In eight cases face tapers from below, and in nine is oval.

_Eye-slit_--Usually oblique, moderately open, almond shape. Mongolian fold in about 50 per cent.

_Nose_--Root:--Middle broad and flat or slightly elevated. Bridge:--Middle broad and slightly or strongly concave. Seven instances of straight noses occur. Wings:--Middle thick, arched or swelled.

_Lips_--Middle thick and slightly double bowed.

_Ears_--Outstanding. Lobes small and close growing.

_Bontoc Igorot_ [31]

_Observations By Jenks_ (_See The Bontoc Igorot, Manila_, 1905)

32 males Average Range Height, standing meters 1.6028 Length of head " .1921 Breadth of head " .1520 Length of nose " .0525 Breadth of nose " .0462

Cephalic index 79.13 67.48 to 91.48 Nasal index 79.19 58.18 to 104.54

In this group 9 are brachycephalic 20 are mesaticephalic 3 are dolichocephalic

_Color_--Ranges from light brown, with strong saffron undertone, to very dark brown or bronze.

_Eyes_--Black to hazel brown. "Malayan" fold in large majority.

_Hair_--Coarse, straight and black. A few individuals possess curly or wavy hair.

_Nose_--Jenks gives no statement, but his photos show the root of the nose to be rather high; the bridge appears to be broad and straight, although in some individuals it tends toward concave.

29 females Average Range Height, standing meters 1.4580 Length of head " .1859 Breadth of head " .1470 Length of nose " .0458 Breadth of nose " .0360

Cephalic index 79.09 64.89 to 87.64 Nasal index 78.74 58.53 to 97.56

In this group 12 are brachycephalic 12 are mesaticephalic 5 are dolichocephalic

Very different results were obtained by _Kroeber_ [32] from the group of Igorot exhibited in San Francisco in 1906. His figures may possibly be accounted for by the fact that about one third of the party came from Alap near the southern end of the Bontoc area, also, as he has suggested, by the preponderance of very young men. The figures for this group are as follows:

Observations on 18 Males

Average height 1.550 Range 1.46 to 1.630 " length of head .186 .176 to .194 " breadth of head .146 .138 to .153 " bizygomatic width .135 .129 to .142 " length of nose .041 .031 to .046 " breadth of nose .040 .036 to .046 "

cephalic index 78.43 nasal index 99.8

Observations on 7 Females

Average height 1.486 Range 1.440 to 1.530 " length of head .182 .171 to .191 " breadth of head .143 .136 to .150 " bizygomatic width .131 .127 to .136 " length of nose .037 .033 to .042 " width of nose .037 .036 to .038 "

cephalic index 78.59 nasal index 99.7

From these descriptive sheets it is obvious that each tribe is made up of very heterogeneous elements, and each overlaps the other to a considerable extent; however, the number of individuals measured is sufficiently great for us to draw certain general conclusions from the averages of each group.

It is at once evident that the differences between the Ilocano and the Valley Tinguian are very slight, in fact are less than those between the valley and mountain people of the latter tribe. The Ilocano appear to be slightly taller, the length of head a little less, and the breadth a bit more; yet there is an average difference of only two points in the cephalic indices of the two groups. The only other points of divergence are: the greater percentage among the Ilocano of eyes showing the Mongolian fold, and the occurrence of straight hair in about half the individuals measured. However, this latter feature may be more apparent than real; for the Ilocano cut the hair short, and a slight degree of waviness might readily pass unobserved.

As we pass from the Valley to the Mountain Tinguian, and from them to the Apayao, we find the average stature almost constant, but the head becomes longer; there is a greater tendency for the cheekbones to protrude and the face to be angular, and there is a more frequent development of the supra-orbital ridges. The root of the nose is often flat and the bridge concave; while wavy hair becomes the rule in the mountains. There is a slight decrease, in the Tinguian groups, of eyes showing the Mongolian fold, but in the Apayao the percentage again equals that of the Ilocano.

The Apayao present no radical differences to the Mountain Tinguian; yet, as already noted, the length and height of the head are slightly greater; the zygomatic arches more strongly developed; the face more angular; and the nose is broader as compared with its length. Evidences of former extensive intermixture are here apparent, while at the present time there is rather free marriage with the neighboring Kalinga and Negrito.

Comparing these four groups with the Igorot, we find that the latter averages slightly taller than all but the Ilocano. The breadth of the head is about the same as the Ilocano; but the length is much greater, and there is, in consequence, a considerable difference in the cephalic index. Reference to our tables will show the Ilocano and both Tinguian divisions to be brachycephalic, while the Igorot is mesaticephalic. The average index of the Apayao also falls in the latter classification; but the variation from Igorot is greater than is indicated, for the Apayao skull is actually considerably shorter and narrower. In the length and breadth of the nose, the Igorot exceeds any of the groups studied, while the Malayan (Mongolian?) fold of the eye is reported in the great majority of cases. The bodily appearance of the Tinguian and Bontoc Igorot differs little, although the latter are generally of a slightly heavier build. Both are lithe and well proportioned, their full rounded muscles giving them the appearance of trained athletes; neither is as stocky or heavy set as are the Igorot of Amburayan, Lepanto, and Benguet.

There is great variation in color among the members of all these tribes, the tones varying from a light olive brown to a dark reddish brown; but in general the Ilocano and Valley Tinguian are of a lighter hue than the mountain people.

Observations on the Southern Chinese and the South Perak Malay are given below, not with the intention of connecting them with any one of the tribes of Luzon, but in order to test, by comparison, the theory of the Chinese origin of the Tinguian, and also to secure, if possible, some clue as to the relationships of both peoples.

_The Southern Chinese_

_Dr. Girard_, [33] as a result of his studies on the Chinese of Kwang-si, a province of southern China, expresses the belief that the population is greatly mixed, but all considered they appear more like Indo-Chinese than like the Chinese proper (that is, Northern Chinese). _Deniker_ [34] comes to a similar conclusion from a study of the results obtained by many observers.

_Girard_ gives the following measurements for 25 males of Kwang-si:

Range Average Height, standing meters 1.528 to 1.748 1.616 Length of head " .1815 Breadth of head " .1435 Height of head " .1270 Length of nose " .04648 Breadth of nose " .03876

Cephalic index 73. to 85. 79.52 Length-Height index 69.9 Breadth-Height index 88.5 Nasal index 67. to 95. 82.98

_Deniker_ (p. 578) gives the average height of 15,582 males, mostly Hakka of Kwang-tung, as 1.622. The cephalic index of 61 living subjects and 84 crania, principally from Canton, he finds to be--Living 81.2; crania 78.2.

_Martin_ [35] presents the following data: Average height of males--1.614; average height of females--1.498. Cephalic index (49 males)--81.8. Length-Height index (49 males)--66.5. Nasal index (49 males)--77.7. [36]

_South Perak Malay_ [37]

_Observations by Annandale and Robinson_ (_Fasciculi Malayenses, Pt_. I, pp. 105 _et seq_., _London_, 1903).

37 males Range Average Height, standing meters 1.488 to 1.763 1.594 Length of head " .173 to .198 .182 Breadth of head " .141 to .162 .149 Height of head (tragus to vertex) " .119 to .146 .135 Breadth of zygomatic arches " .120 to .150 .139 Length of nose " .0413 to .0525 .0477 Breadth of nose " .0337 to .0437 .0358

Cephalic index 82.3 Length-Height index 73.9 Nasal index 81.2

_Color_--Varies from dark olive to red; less commonly olive or yellowish white.

_Eyes_--Black, sometimes reddish brown.

_Hair_--Appears to be straight in most cases, but being cut short a slight waviness might not be noticed. Black.

A comparison of these figures with those of our Luzon groups brings out several interesting points. It shows that the Tinguian are not related to the Chinese, "because of their tall stature;" for they are, as a matter of fact, shorter than either the Chinese or Igorot. It is also evident that they resemble the southern Chinese no more than do the people of Bontoc. Further it is seen that both the Tinguian-Ilocano and the Chinese show greater likeness to the Perak Malay than they do to each other. As a matter of fact, we find no radical differences between any of the peoples discussed; despite evident minor variations, the tribes of northwestern Luzon approach a common type, and this type appears not to be far removed from the dominant element in southern China, Indo-China, and Malaysia generally, a fact which probably can be attributed to a common ancestry in times far past. [38]

With this data before us, we might readily dismiss most of the theories of early writers as interesting speculations based on superficial observation; but the statement that the Tinguian are derived from the pirate band of Limahon has received such wide currency that it deserves further notice. It should be borne in mind that the scene of the Chinese disaster was in Pangasinan, a march of three days to the south of the Tinguian territory. It is unlikely that a force sufficiently large to impress its type on the local population could have made its way into Abra, without having been reported to Salcedo, who then had his headquarters at Vigan.

As early as 1598 the Tinguian were so powerful and aggressive that active steps had to be taken to protect the coast people from their raids. Had they been recognized as being essentially Chinese--a foreign, hostile population--some mention of that fact must certainly have crept into the Spanish records of that period. Such data are entirely wanting, while the exceedingly rich traditions of the Tinguian [39] likewise fail to give any evidence of such an invasion.

The presence of large quantities of ancient Chinese pottery in Abra must be ascribed to trade, for it is inconceivable that a fugitive band of warriors would have carried with them the hundreds of jars--many of large size--which are now found in the interior.

The reputed similarity of the garments of the men to those of Fukien fishermen is likewise without value, for at the time of the Spanish invasion both Ilocano and Tinguian were innocent of trousers. It was not until the order of Gov. Penñarubia, in 1868, barring all unclad pagans from the Christianized towns, that the latter donned such garments. To-day many of the men possess full suits, but the ordinary dress is still the head-band, breech-cloth, and belt.

Finally, it seems curious that the Tinguian should be of "a pacific character" because of the fact that they are descended from a band of Chinese pirates.

Summarizing our material, we can say of the Tinguian, that they are a rather short, well-built people with moderately high, brachycephalic heads, fairly high noses, and angular faces. Their hair is brown black and inclined to be wavy, while the skin varies from a light olive brown to a dark reddish brown. A study of our tables shows that within this group there are great extremes in stature, head and nasal form, color, and the like, indicating very heterogeneous elements in its make-up. We also find that physically the Tinguian conform closely to the Ilocano, while they merge without a sharp break into the Apayao of the eastern mountain slopes. When compared to the Igorot, greater differences are manifest; but even here, the similarities are so many that we cannot classify the two tribes as members of different races.

We have seen that this people approaches the southern Chinese in many respects, but this is likewise true of all the other tribes under discussion and, hence, we are not justified, on anatomic grounds, in considering the Tinguian as distinct, because of Chinese origin. The testimony of historical data and language leads us to the same conclusions. Chinese influence, through trade, has been active for many centuries along the north and west coast of Luzon, but it has not been of a sufficiently intimate nature to introduce such common articles of convenience and necessity as the composite bow, the potter's wheel, wheeled vehicles, and the like.

The anatomical data likewise prevent us from setting this tribe apart from the others, because of Japanese or Indonesian origin.