CHAPTER XI.

THE END OF THE WAR.

SECTION I.--_Turenne's Strategy._

[Sidenote: 1643.

§ 1. Thoughts of peace.]

At last the thought entered into men's minds that it was time to put a stop to this purposeless misery and slaughter. It was hopeless to think any longer of shaking the strong grasp of France upon the Rhine; and if Sweden had been foiled in striking to the heart of the Austrian monarchy, she could not be driven from the desolate wilderness which now, by the evil work of men's hands, stretched from the Baltic far away into the interior of Germany. Long ago the disciplined force which Gustavus had brought across the sea had melted away, and a Swedish army was now like other armies--a mere collection of mercenaries, without religion, without pity, and without remorse.

[Sidenote: § 2. Meeting of diplomatists.]

Negotiations for peace were spoken of from time to time, and preparations were at last made for a great meeting of diplomatists. In order to prevent the usual quarrel about precedency it was decided that some of the ambassadors should hold their sittings at Osnabrück and others at Münster, an arrangement which was not likely to conduce to a speedy settlement. [Sidenote: 1644, 1645.] The Emperor proved his sincerity by sending his representative early enough to arrive at Münster in July, 1643, whilst the Swedish and French ambassadors only made their appearance in the March and April of the following year, and it was only in June, 1645, that the first formal proposition was handed in.

[Sidenote: § 3. Reluctance of the Emperor to give up all that is asked.]

All who were concerned were in fact ready to make peace, but they all wished it made on their own terms. Ferdinand III. was not bound by his father's antecedents. The Edict of Restitution had been no work of his. Long before this he had been ready to give all reasonable satisfaction to the Protestants. He had declared his readiness to include Calvinists as well as Lutherans in the religious peace. He had offered to restore the Lower Palatinate to Frederick's son, and he actually issued a general amnesty to all who were still in arms; but he shrank from the demand that these arrangements of the Empire should be treated of, not in the constitutional assemblies of the Empire, but in a congress of European powers. To do so would be to tear the last veil from the sad truth that the Empire was a mere shadow, and that the states of which it was composed had become practically independent sovereignties. And behind this degradation lay another degradation, hardly less bitter to Ferdinand. The proudest title of the great emperors of old had been that of Increaser of the Empire. Was he to go down to posterity with the title of Diminisher of the Empire? And yet it was beyond his power to loosen the hold of France upon Alsace, or of Sweden upon Pomerania.

[Sidenote: § 4. Especially the Breisgau.]

Nor was it only as Emperor that Ferdinand would feel the loss of Alsace deeply. Together with the Breisgau it formed one of territories of the House of Austria, but it was not his own. It was the inheritance of the children of his uncle Leopold, and he was loth to purchase peace for himself by agreeing to the spoliation of his orphan nephews.

[Sidenote: § 5. Aims of the Elector of Bavaria.]

Maximilian of Bavaria viewed the question of peace from another point of view. To him Alsace was nothing, and he warmly recommended Ferdinand to surrender it for the sake of peace. If concessions were to be made at all, he preferred making them to Catholic France rather than to the Protestants in the Empire, and he was convinced that if Alsace remained under French rule, the motive which had led France to support the Protestants would lose its chief weight. But besides these general considerations, Maximilian, like Ferdinand, had a special interest of his own. He was resolved, come what might, to retain at least the Upper Palatinate, and he trusted to be seconded in his resolve by the good offices of France.

[Sidenote: § 6. The campaign of 1646.]

The position of Maximilian was thus something like that of John George of Saxony in 1632. He and his chief ally were both ready for peace, but his ally stood out for higher terms than he was prepared to demand. And as in 1632 Wallenstein saw in the comparative moderation of the Elector of Saxony only a reason for driving him by force to separate his cause from that of Gustavus, so in 1646 the French government resolved to fall upon Bavaria, and to force the elector to separate his cause from that of Ferdinand.

[Sidenote: § 7. Turenne out-manoeuvres the Bavarians.]

The year before, the Elector of Saxony, crushed and ruined by the Swedes, had consented to a separate truce, and now Turenne was commissioned to do the same with Bavaria. In August he effected a junction on the Lahn with Wrangel and the Swedes, and if Enghien had been there, history would doubtless have had to tell of another butchery as resultless as those of Freiburg and Nördlingen. But Enghien was far away in Flanders, laying siege to Dunkirk, and Turenne, for the first time at the head of a superior force, was about to teach the world a lesson in the art of war. Whilst the enemy was preparing for the expected attack by entrenching his position, the united French and Swedish armies slipped past them and marched straight for the heart of Bavaria, where an enemy had not been seen since Bernhard had been chased out in 1634. That one day, as Turenne truly said, altered the whole face of affairs. Everywhere the roads were open. Provisions were plentiful. The population was in the enjoyment of the blessings of peace. Turenne and Wrangel crossed the Danube without difficulty. Schorndorf, Würzburg, Nördlingen, Donauwörth made no resistance to them. It was not till they came to Augsburg that they met with opposition. The enemy had time to come up. But there was no unanimity in the councils of the enemy. The Bavarian generals wanted to defend Bavaria. The imperialist generals wanted to defend the still remaining Austrian possessions in Swabia. The invaders were allowed to accomplish their purpose. They arrived at the gates of Munich before the citizens knew what had become of their master's army. With grim purpose Turenne and Wrangel set themselves to make desolate the Bavarian plain, so that it might be rendered incapable of supporting a Bavarian army. Maximilian was reduced to straits such as he had not known since the time when Tilly fell at the passage of the Lech. Sorely against his will he signed, in May, 1647, a separate truce with the enemy.

[Sidenote: § 8. Last struggles of the war.]

The truce did not last long. In September Maximilian was once more on the Emperor's side. Bavaria paid dearly for the elector's defection. All that had been spared a year before fell a sacrifice to new devastation. The last great battle of the war was fought at Zusmarshausen on May 17, 1648. The Bavarians were defeated and the work of the destroyer went on yet for a while unchecked. In Bohemia half of Prague fell into the hands of the Swedes, and the Emperor was left unaided to bear up in the unequal fight.

SECTION II.--_The Treaty of Westphalia._

[Sidenote: § 1. The Peace of Westphalia.]

Ferdinand could resist no longer. On the 24th of October, 1648, a few months before Charles I. ascended the scaffold at Whitehall, the Peace of Westphalia was signed.

[Sidenote: § 2. Religious settlement.]

The religious difficulty in Germany was settled as it ought to have been settled long before. Calvinism was to be placed on the same footing as Lutheranism. New-Year's day 1624 was fixed upon as the date by which all disputes were to be tested. Whatever ecclesiastical benefice was in Catholic hands at that date was to remain in Catholic hands forever. Ecclesiastical benefices in Protestant hands at that date were to remain in Protestant keeping. Catholics would never again be able to lay claim to the bishoprics of the north. Even Halberstadt, which had been retained at the Peace of Prague, was now lost to them. To make this settlement permanent, the Imperial Court was reconstituted. Protestants and Catholics were to be members of the court in equal numbers. And if the judicial body was such as to make it certain that its sanction would never be given to an infringement of the peace, the Catholic majority in the Diet became powerless for evil.

[Sidenote: § 3. Political settlement.]

In political matters, Maximilian permanently united the Upper Palatinate to his duchy of Bavaria, and the Electorate was confirmed to him and his descendants. An eighth electorate was created in favour of Charles Lewis, the worthless son of the Elector, Frederick, and the Lower Palatinate was given up to him. Sweden established herself firmly on the mouths of the great northern rivers. The Eastern part of Pomerania she surrendered to Brandenburg. But Western Pomerania, including within its frontier both banks of the lower Vistula, was surrendered to her; whilst the possession of the bishoprics of Bremen and Verdun, on which Christian of Denmark had set his eyes at the beginning of the war, gave her a commanding position at the mouths of the Elbe and the Weser. The bishoprics of Halberstadt, Camin, Minden, and the greater part of the diocese of Magdeburg, were made over to Brandenburg as a compensation for the loss of its claims to the whole of Pomerania, whilst a smaller portion of the diocese of Magdeburg was assigned to Saxony, that power, as a matter of course, retaining Lusatia.

[Sidenote: § 4. Gains of France.]

France, as a matter of course, retained its conquests. It kept its hold upon Austrian Alsace, Strasburg, as a free city, and the immediate vassals of the Empire being, however, excluded from the cession. The strong fortress of Philippsburg, erected by the warlike Elector of Treves, received a French garrison, and the three bishoprics, Metz, Toul, and Verdun, which had been practically under French rule since the days of Henry II. of France, were now formally separated from the Empire. Equally formal was the separation of Switzerland and the Netherlands, both of which countries had long been practically independent.

[Sidenote: § 5. The question of toleration left to the German princes.]

The importance of the peace of Westphalia in European history goes far beyond these territorial changes. That France should have a few miles more and Germany a few miles less, or even that France should have acquired military and political strength whilst Germany lost it, are facts which in themselves need not have any very great interest for others than Frenchmen or Germans. That which gives to the Peace of Westphalia its prominent place amongst treaties is that it drew a final demarcation between the two religions which divided Europe. The struggle in England and France for the right of settling their own religious affairs without the interference of foreign nations had been brought to a close in the sixteenth century. In Germany it had not been brought to a close for the simple reason that it was not decided how far Germany was a nation at all. The government of England or France could tolerate or persecute at home as far as its power or inclination permitted. But the central government of Germany was not strong enough to enforce its will upon the territorial governments; nor on the other hand were the territorial governments strong enough to enforce their will without regard for the central government. Thirty years of war ended by a compromise under which the religious position of each territory was fixed by the intervention of foreign powers, whilst the rights of the central government were entirely ignored.

[Sidenote: § 6. How toleration was the result of this.]

Such a settlement was by no means necessarily in favour of religious toleration. The right of an Elector of Bavaria or an Elector of Saxony to impose his belief by force upon his dissident subjects was even more fully acknowledged than before. He could still give them their choice between conversion or banishment. As late as in 1729 an Archbishop of Salzburg could drive thousands of industrious Protestants into exile from his Alpine valleys, leaving a void behind them which has not been filled up to this day. But if such cases were rare, their rarity was indirectly owing to the Peace of Westphalia. In 1617 a bishop who had to consider the question of religious persecution, had to consider it with the fear of Christian of Anhalt before his eyes. Every Protestant in his dominions was a possible traitor who would favour, if he did not actively support, the revolutionary attacks of the neighbouring Protestants. In 1649 all such fear was at an end for ever. The bishop was undisputed master of his territory, and he could look on with contemptuous indifference if a few of his subjects had sufficient love of singularity to profess a religion other than his own.

[Sidenote: § 7. The Peace of Westphalia compared with the Peace of Augsburg.]

It may perhaps be said that the assurance given by the Peace of Westphalia was after all no better than the assurance given by the Peace of Augsburg, but even so far as the letter of the two documents was concerned, this was very far from being the case. The Peace of Augsburg was full of uncertainties, because the contracting parties were unable to abandon their respective desires. In the Peace of Westphalia all was definite. Evasion or misinterpretation was no longer possible.

[Sidenote: § 8. General desire for the continuance of peace.]

If the letter of the two treaties was entirely different, it was because the spirit in which they were conceived was also entirely different. In 1555 Protestantism was on the rise. The peace of 1555 was a vain attempt to shut out the tide by artificial dykes and barriers. In 1648 the tide had receded. The line which divided the Protestant from the Catholic princes formed almost an exact division between the Protestant and Catholic populations. The desire for making proselytes, once so strong on both sides, had been altogether extinguished by the numbing agony of the war. All Germany longed for peace with an inexpressible longing. The mutual distrust of Catholic and Protestant had grown exceedingly dull. The only feeling yet alive was hatred of the tyranny and exactions of the soldiers.

SECTION III.--_Condition of Germany._

[Sidenote: § 1. Effects of the war.]

What a peace it was when it really came at last! Whatever life there was under that deadly blast of war had been attracted to the camps. The strong man who had lost his all turned soldier that he might be able to rob others in turn. The young girl, who in better times would have passed on to a life of honourable wedlock with some youth who had been the companion of her childhood in the sports around the village fountain, had turned aside, for very starvation, to a life of shame in the train of one or other of the armies by which her home had been made desolate. In the later years of the war it was known that a body of 40,000 fighting men drew along with it a loathsome following of no less than 140,000 men, women, and children, contributing nothing to the efficiency of the army, and all of them living at the expense of the miserable peasants who still contrived to hold on to their ruined fields. If these were to live, they must steal what yet remained to be stolen; they must devour, with the insatiable hunger of locusts, what yet remained to be devoured. And then, if sickness came, or wounds--and sickness was no infrequent visitor in those camps--what remained but misery or death? Nor was it much better with the soldiers themselves. No careful surgeons passed over the battle-field to save life or limb. No hospitals received the wounded to the tender nursing of loving, gentle hands. Recruits were to be bought cheaply, and it cost less to enrol a new soldier than to cure an old one.

[Sidenote: § 2. Decrease of the population.]

The losses of the civil population were almost incredible. In a certain district of Thuringia which was probably better off than the greater part of Germany, there were, before the war cloud burst, 1,717 houses standing in nineteen villages. In 1649, only 627 houses were left. And even of the houses which remained many were untenanted. The 1,717 houses had been inhabited by 1,773 families. Only 316 families could be found to occupy the 627 houses. Property fared still worse. In the same district 244 oxen alone remained of 1,402. Of 4,616 sheep, not one was left. Two centuries later the losses thus suffered were scarcely recovered.

[Sidenote: § 3. Moral decadence.]

And, as is always the case, the physical decline of the population was accompanied by moral decadence. Men who had been accustomed to live by the strong arm, and men who had been accustomed to suffer all things from those who were strong, met one another, even in the days of peace, without that mutual respect which forms the basis of well-ordered life. Courts were crowded with feather-brained soldiers whose highest ambition was to bedeck themselves in a splendid uniform and to copy the latest fashion or folly which was in vogue at Paris or Versailles. In the country district a narrow-minded gentry, without knowledge or culture, domineered over all around, and strove to exact the uttermost farthing from the peasant in order to keep up the outward appearance of rank. The peasant whose father had been bullied by marauding soldiers dared not lift up his head against the exactions of the squire. The burden of the general impoverishment fell heavily upon his shoulders. The very pattern of the chairs on which he sat, of the vessels out of which he ate and drank, assumed a ruder appearance than they had borne before the war. In all ranks life was meaner, poorer, harder than it had been at the beginning of the century.

[Sidenote: § 4. Intellectual decline even before the war.]

If much of all this was the result of the war, something was owing to causes antecedently at work. The German people in the beginning of the seventeenth century was plainly inferior to the German people in the beginning of the sixteenth century. During the whole course of the war Maximilian of Bavaria was the only man of German birth who rose to eminence, and even he did not attain the first rank. The destinies of the land of Luther and Göthe, of Frederick II. and Stein were decided by a few men of foreign birth. Wallenstein was a Slavonian, Tilly a Walloon, Gustavus a Swede, Richelieu a Frenchman. The penalty borne by a race which was unable to control individual vigour within the limits of a large and fruitful national life was that individual vigour itself died out.

[Sidenote: § 5. Difficulties inherited from early times.]

We may well leave to those who like such tasks the work of piling up articles of accusation against this man or that, of discovering that the war was all the fault of Ferdinand, or all the fault of Frederick, as party feeling may lead them. Probably the most lenient judgment is also the truest one. With national and territorial institutions the mere chaos which they were, an amount of political intelligence was needed to set them right which would be rare in any country or in any age.

[Sidenote: § 6. Total disintegration of Germany.]

As far as national institutions were concerned the Thirty Years' War made a clean sweep in Germany. Nominally, it is true, Emperor and Empire still remained. Ferdinand III. was still according to his titles head of all Christendom, if not of the whole human race. The Diet still gathered to discuss the affairs of the Empire. The imperial court, re-established on the principle of equality between the two religions, still met to dispense justice between the estates of the Empire. But from these high-sounding names all reality had fled. The rule over German men had passed for many a long day into the hands of the princes. It was for the princes to strive with one another in peace or war under the protection of foreign alliances; and by and by, half consciously, half unconsciously, to compete for the leadership of Germany by the intelligence and discipline which they were able to foster under their sway.

[Sidenote: § 7. Protestantism saved.]

When the days of this competition arrived it was of inestimable advantage to Germany that, whatever else had been lost, Protestantism had been saved. Wherever Protestantism had firmly rooted itself there sprang up in course of time a mighty race of intellectual giants. Göthe and Schiller, Lessing and Kant, Stein and Humboldt, with thousands more of names which have made German intellect a household word in the whole civilized world, sprung from Protestant Germany. When Bavaria, scarcely more than two generations ago, awoke to the consciousness that she had not more than the merest rudiments of education to give to her children, she had to apply to the Protestant north for teachers.

[Sidenote: § 8. The worst over for Germany.]

For Germany in 1648 the worst was over. Physically, at least she had no more to suffer. One page of her history was closed and another had not yet been opened. She lay for a time in the insensibility of exhaustion.

SECTION IV.--_Continuance of the War between France and Spain._

[Sidenote: § 1. Peace between Spain and the Dutch.]

For France 1648 is hardly a date at all. She was rid of the war in Germany. But her war with Spain was not brought to an end. And if Spain would no longer have the support of the imperialists of Germany, France was at the same time deprived of the support of a far more vigorous ally. Spain at last lowered its haughty neck to accept conditions of peace on terms of equality from the Dutch republic. The eighty years' war of the Netherlands was brought to a conclusion simultaneously with the thirty years' war of Germany. Spain could now send reinforcements to Flanders by sea without fearing the overwhelming superiority of the Dutch marine, and could defend the southern frontier of the obedient provinces without having to provide against an attack in the rear.

[Sidenote: § 2. France and Spain.]

In the long run, a duel between France and Spain could be of no doubtful issue. It was a contest between the old system of immobility and intolerance and the new system of intelligence and tolerance; between a government which despised industry and commerce, and a government which fostered them. But however excellent might be the aims which the French government kept in view, it was still in its nature an absolute government. No free discussion enlightened its judgment. No popular intervention kept in check its caprices. It was apt to strike roughly and ignorantly, to wound many feelings and to impose grievous burdens upon the poor and the weak whose lamentations never reached the height of the throne.

[Sidenote: § 3. The Fronde.]

Suddenly, when Mazarin's government appeared most firmly rooted, there was an explosion which threatened to change the whole face of France. An outcry arose for placing restrictions upon rights of the crown, for establishing constitutional and individual liberties. The Fronde, as the party which uttered the cry was called, did its best to imitate the English Long Parliament whose deeds were then ringing through the world. But there were no elements in France upon which to establish constitutional government. The Parliament of Paris, which wished itself to be considered the chief organ of that government, was a close corporation of lawyers, who had bought or inherited judicial places; and of all governments, a government in the hands of a close corporation of lawyers is likely, in the long run, to be the most narrow-minded and unprogressive of all possible combinations; for it is the business of a lawyer to administer the law as it exists, not to modify it in accordance with the new facts which rise constantly to the surface of social and political life. Nor were the lawyers of the parliament fortunate in their supporters. The Paris mob, combined with a knot of intriguing courtiers, could form no firm basis for a healthy revolution. It was still worse when Condé, quarrelling on a personal question with Mazarin, raised the standard of aristocratic revolt, and threw himself into the arms of the Spanish invader. Mazarin and the young king represented the nation against aristocratic selfishness and intrigue; and when they obtained the services of Turenne, the issue was hardly doubtful. In 1652 Lewis XIV. entered Paris in triumph. In 1653 Condé, in conjunction with a Spanish army, invaded France, and pushed on hopefully for Paris. But Turenne was there with a handful of troops; and if Condé was the successor of Gustavus in the art of fighting battles, Turenne was Wallenstein's successor in the art of strategy. Condé could neither fight nor advance with effect. The siege and reduction of Rocroy was the only result of a campaign which had been commenced in the expectation of reducing France to submission.

[Sidenote: § 4. The war with Spain.]

In 1654 Condé and the Spaniards laid siege to Arras, whilst the French were besieging Stenay. Stenay was taken; Arras was relieved. In 1655 further progress was made by the French on the frontier of the Netherlands; but in 1656 they failed in the siege of Valenciennes.

[Sidenote: § 5. France, Cromwell, and Spain.]

With the check thus inflicted, a new danger appeared above the horizon. In England there had arisen, under Cromwell, a new and powerful military state upon the ruins of the monarchy of the Stuarts. To Cromwell Spain addressed itself with the most tempting offers. The old English jealousy of France, and the political advantage of resisting its growing strength, were urged in favour of a Spanish alliance. Cromwell might renew the old glories of the Plantagenets, and might gather round him the forces of the Huguenots of the south. If Charles I. had failed at Rochelle, Cromwell might establish himself firmly at Bordeaux.

[Sidenote: § 6. Spain refuses Cromwell's terms.]

For a moment Cromwell was shaken. Then he made two demands of the Spanish ambassador. He must have, he said freedom for Englishmen to trade in the Indies, and permission for Englishmen carrying on commercial intercourse with Spain to profess their religion openly without interference. "To give you this," was the Spaniard's cool reply, "would be to give you my master's two eyes."

[Sidenote: § 7. Alliance between France and England.]

To beat down religious exclusiveness and commercial exclusiveness was the work to which Cromwell girded himself. An alliance with France was quickly made. The arrogant intolerance of Spain was to perish through its refusal to admit the new principle of toleration. The politic tolerance of France was to rise to still higher fortunes by the admission of the principle on which all its successes had been based since Richelieu's accession to power. In 1657, six thousand of Cromwell's Ironsides landed to take part in continental warfare. The union of Turenne's strategy with the valour and discipline which had broken down opposition at Naseby and Worcester was irresistible. That autumn the small Flemish port of Mardyke surrendered. In 1658 Dunkirk was taken, and given over, according to compact, to the English auxiliaries. But France, too, reaped an ample harvest. Gravelines, Oudenarde, Ypres saw the white flag of France flying from their ramparts.

[Sidenote: § 8. The Treaty of the Pyrenees.]

Spain was reduced to seek for peace. In 1660 the Treaty of the Pyrenees, a supplement as it were to the Treaty of Westphalia, put an end to the long war. The advantages of the peace were all on the side of France. Roussillon and Artois, with Thionville, Landrecies, and Avesnes, were incorporated with France. Another condition was pregnant with future evil. Lewis XIV. gave his hand to the sister of Philip IV. of Spain, the next heiress to the Spanish monarchy after the sickly infant who became afterwards the imbecile and childish Charles II. At her marriage she abandoned all right to the great inheritance; but even at the time there were not wanting Frenchmen of authority to point to circumstances which rendered the renunciation null and void.

[Sidenote: § 9. The greatness of France based on its tolerance.]

Richelieu's power had been based upon tolerance at home and moderation abroad. Was it likely that his successors would always imitate his example? What guarantee could be given that the French monarchy would not turn its back upon the principles from which its strength had been derived? In a land of free discussion, every gain is a permanent one. When Protestantism, or toleration, or freedom of the press, or freedom of trade had been once accepted in England, they were never abandoned; they became articles of popular belief, on which no hesitation, except by scattered individuals, was possible. Multitudes who would find it difficult to give a good reason why they thought one thing to be true and another untrue, had yet a hazy confidence in the result of the battle of reason which had taken place, much in the same way as there are millions of people in the world who believe implicitly that the earth goes round the sun, without being able to give a reason for their belief.

[Sidenote: § 10. But this depended on the will of the king.]

In France it was hard for anything of the kind to take place. Tolerance was admitted there by the mere will of the government in the seventeenth century, just as free trade was admitted by the mere will of the government in the nineteenth century. The hand that gave could also take away; and it depended on the young king to decide whether he would walk in the steps of the great minister who had cleared the way before him, or whether he would wander into devious paths of his own seeking.

[Sidenote: § 11. Intolerance of Lewis XIV.]

At first everything promised well. A great statesman, Colbert, filled the early part of the manhood of Lewis XIV. with a series of domestic reforms, the least of which would have gladdened the heart of Richelieu. Taxation was reduced, the tolls taken upon the passage of goods from one province to another were diminished in number, trade and industry were encouraged, the administration of justice was improved; all, in short, that it was possible to do within the circle of one man's activity was done to make France a prosperous and contented land. But the happy time was not of long duration. The war fever took possession of Lewis; the lust of absolute domination entered into his heart. He became the tyrant and bully of Europe; and as abroad he preferred to be feared rather than to be loved, at home he would be content with nothing else than the absolute mastery over the consciences as well as over the hearts of his subjects. The Edict of Nantes, issued by Henry IV. and confirmed by the policy of Richelieu, was revoked, and intolerance and persecution became the law of the French monarchy, as it had been the law of the Spanish monarchy.

[Sidenote: § 12. Fate of the French monarchy.]

It was not for this that Henry IV. and Richelieu had laboured. The tree that bears no fruit must be cut down to the ground, or it will perish by its own inherent rottenness. As the Empire had fallen, as the Spanish monarchy had fallen, the French monarchy, shaken by the thunders of La Hogue and Blenheim, fell at last, when, amidst the corruption of Versailles, it ceased to do any useful work for man.

INDEX.

Aachen (_Aix-la-Chapelle_) place of coronation, 2.

Administrators. _See_ Bishoprics.

Aix-la-Chapelle. _See_ Aachen.

Aldringer, offers to assist Wallenstein, 175; declares against him, 177; tries to seize him, 177.

Alsace, Mansfeld in, 50; his designs there, 56; Mansfeld returns to, 60; proposed march of Mansfeld to, 75; its possession of importance to France, 191; comes into French possession, 197.

Anhalt, Prince of. _See_ Christian of Anhalt.

Anne of Austria, Regent of France, 205.

Anspach, the Margrave of, hopes for a revolution, 135.

Anstruther, Sir Robert, his mission to the King of Denmark, 84.

Arnim, ordered by Wallenstein to besiege Stralsund, 108; commands the Saxons at Breitenfeld, 139; his conference with Wallenstein, 153; is expected to meet Wallenstein at Eger, 179.

Arras, besieged by Condé, 223.

Augsburg, city of, swears obedience to Gustavus, 150; besieged by the imperialists, 187; resists Turenne, 212.

Augsburg, Peace of, 9; questions arising out of it, 10; evaded by the Protestants, 11.

Austria, Lower, estates of, attempt to wring concessions from Ferdinand, 36.

Austria, Upper, surrenders to Maximilian, 42; pledged to Maximilian, 46; restored to Ferdinand, 119.

Austria, the House of, territories governed by it, 9; its branches, 24.

Avesnes incorporated with France, 225.

Bautzen, besieged by John George, 42.

Bergen-op-zoom, siege of, 63.

Bernhard of Weimar, joins the King of Denmark, 101; joins Gustavus, 138; takes the command of the Swedes at Lützen, 163; his expectations after the death of Gustavus, 166; his duchy of Franconia, 167; takes Ratisbon, 173; is invited to assist Wallenstein, 179; prepares to march to Eger, 179; is defeated at Nördlingen, 183; loses his duchy of Franconia, 183; his alliance with France, 190; defeats the imperialists at Rheinfelden and takes Rheinfelden, Freiburg, and Breisach, 195; his death, 196.

Bachararch, misery at, 187.

Baden-Durlach, Margrave of, joins Frederick, 54; defeated at Wimpfen, 57; abandons his allies, 60; aids the King of Denmark, 101.

Bamberg and Würzburg, Bishop of; attacked by Mansfeld, 49.

Baner, defeats the Imperialists at Wittstock, 194; is driven back to the coast of the Baltic, 195; fights in different parts of Germany, 196.

Bärwalde, treaty of, 132.

Bethlen Gabor, Prince of Transylvania, attacks Austria, 40; prepares to aid Frederick, 44; defeats Bucquoi, 49; threatens Austria, 88, 94; is joined by Mansfeld, 97; withdraws from the contest, 101.

Bishoprics, question connected with them left unsettled at the Peace of Augsburg, 10; in the north they mainly fall under Protestant administrators, 12; forcible reconversion of the population where this is not the case, 14; Protestant administrators not acknowledged by the Diet, 14; attempt to bring over Cologne and Strasburg to Protestantism, 14; questions relating to them settled for a time at Mühlhausen, 41; reopened after the battle of Stadtlohn, 67; names of those reclaimed in the Edict of Restitution, 121; arrangement for them at the treaty of Prague, 184.

Boguslav, Duke of Pomerania, compelled to accept a garrison by Wallenstein, 108; supports Wallenstein in the siege of Stralsund, 110; complains of Wallenstein's soldiers, 127; submits to Gustavus, 130.

Bohemia, the Royal Charter granted in, 25; its infringement, 27; acknowledgment of Ferdinand as its king, 28; revolution in, 29; directors appointed, 32; war begins in, 32; political incapacity of the revolutionary government, 32; it makes application to foreign powers, 35; election of Frederick as king, 38; suppression of the Revolution, 45; occupied by John George, 151; the Saxons driven out of, 155; Torstenson's occupation of, 209.

Bohemia, King of, his functions as an Elector, 1. _See_ also Rudolph II., Matthias, Frederick V., and Ferdinand II.

Bohemian Brethren expelled from Bohemia, 46.

Brandenburg, bishopric of, named in the Edict of Restitution, 131.

Brandenburg, Elector of, 1. _See_ also John Sigismund, and George William.

Braunau, Protestant church at, 27.

Breda, siege of, 76.

Breisach, taken by Bernhard, 195.

Breisgau, taken possession of by the French, 195.

Breitenfeld, battle of, 141.

Bremen, archbishopric of, connexion of, with Christian IV., 78; named in the Edict of Restitution, 120; given up to Sweden, 214.

Bridge of Dessau, battle of, 96.

Brünn, besieged by Torstenson, 209.

Brunswick, peace negotiations at, 93.

Brussels, conferences for peace at, 52, 57, 60.

Bucquoi, commands the army invading Bohemia, 32; defeats Mansfeld, 37; joined by Maximilian, 43; advises to delay a battle, 44; is killed, 49.

Buckingham, Duke of, his expedition to Rhé, 114; intends to raise the siege of Rochelle, 115; is murdered, 115.

Budweis, attacked by the Bohemians, 32.

Burgundy, Eastern. _See_ Franche Comté.

Butler, receives orders to capture Wallenstein, 180; consults on the murder with Leslie and Gordon, 180.

Calvinism in Germany, 18.

Camin, bishopric of, named in the Edict of Restitution, 121.

Casale, sieges of, 122, 123.

Catalonia, insurrection of, 199.

Charles I., King of England, forms an alliance with Christian IV., 86; is unable to fulfil his engagement, 95; sends Sir C. Morgan to aid Christian IV., 101; quarrels with France, 111; attempts to succour Rochelle, 113; his arrangements about the Spanish fleet in the Downs, 198.

Charles V., his strength external to the empire, 8; his meeting with Luther, 9; forced to yield to the Protestants, 9.

Charles Emanuel, Duke of Savoy, helps the Bohemians, 33; plans for his advancement in Germany, 35; attacks Genoa, 76; reduced to submission by Richelieu, 122.

Charles Lewis, Elector Palatine, claims his father's dominion, 198; receives the Lower Palatinate, 214.

Charles, Prince of Wales, proposed marriage with an Infanta, 51; treaty with Spain broken off, 70; proposed marriage with Henrietta Maria, 74. _See_ Charles I., King of England.

Charles the Great (_Charlemagne_), nature of his authority, 2.

Cherasco, treaty of, 135.

Chichester, Lord, his embassy to the Palatinate, 59.

Christian IV., King of Denmark, his connection with Germany, 78; his views on the course of the war, 79; his offers to England to make war, 84; his offer accepted, 85; attacked by Tilly, 94; defeated at Lutter, 96; refuses Wallenstein's terms of peace, 101; sends agents to Stralsund, 109; makes peace at Lübeck, 117.

Christian of Anhalt, leader of the German Calvinists, 18; his character and policy, 18; his part in the foundation of the Union, 21; his intrigues in Austria, 26; his plan for supporting the Bohemians, 34; commands the Bohemian army, 44.

Christian of Brunswick, administrator of Halberstadt, his instalment in the cathedral, 54; resolves to take part in the war, 55; invades the diocese of Paderborn, 55; defeated at Höchst, 59; retreats to Alsace, 60; marches through Lorraine, 63; loses his arm at Fleurus, 64; threatens the Lower Saxon Circle, 65; negotiates with the Emperor, 66; is defeated at Stadtlohn, and resigns the See of Halberstadt, 67; joins Christian IV., 95; dies, 96.

Christina, Queen of Sweden, 166.

Christina, Regent of Savoy, assisted by the French, 197.

Church lands secularized, 10, 11; legal decision about them against the Protestants, 14.

Cities, free imperial, their part in the Diet, 6.

Cleves, war of succession in, 21.

Coblentz, fired at by the French in Ehrenbreitstein, 187.

Colbert, his reforms, 226.

Cologne, Elector of, 1; failure of an attempt by him to bring over the electorate to Protestantism, 14.

Condé, Prince of, takes part with Spain, 223.

Convention of Passau. _See_ Passau.

Corbie, taken by the Spaniards, and retaken by the French, 193.

Cordova, Gonzales de, commands the Spaniards in the Lower Palatinate, 50; takes part in the battle of Wimpfen, 57; joins in defeating Christian of Brunswick at Höchst, 59; commands at Fleurus, 63.

Corneille, writes "The Cid," 169.

Cromwell, courted by France and Spain, 223; decides to help France, 224.

Dänholm, seized by Wallenstein's soldiers, 109.

Darmstadt, entered by Mansfeld, 58.

Descartes, his first work published, 169.

Dessau, the Bridge of, battle of, 96.

Devereux, murders Wallenstein, 180.

Diet of the Empire, 1; its reform in the 15th century, 5; its constitution, 5; how far opposed to Protestantism, 8; its meeting in 1608, 21.

Directors of Bohemia appointed, 31.

Donauwörth, occupation of, 20; entered by Gustavus, 149; surrenders to Turenne, 212.

Downs, the Spanish fleet takes refuge in the, 198.

Dunkirk, surrender of, 224.

East Friesland, invaded by Mansfeld, 64.

Ecclesiastical reservation, the, _See_ Bishoprics.

Edict of Restitution, issued, 120.

Eger, Wallenstein summons his colonels to, 179.

Eggenberg confers with Wallenstein, 99; favours Wallenstein's restoration, 151; joins Oñate against Wallenstein, 176.

Ehrenbreitstein, receives a French garrison, 170; fires on Coblentz, 187.

Elector Palatine, 1. _See_ also Frederick IV., and Frederick V.

Electors, functions of, 1; their part in the Diet, 6; their quarrel with Wallenstein, 103, 124; demand Wallenstein's dismissal, 127.

Eliot, Sir John, his satisfaction at the victories of Gustavus, 142.

Elizabeth, Electress Palatine, encourages her husband to accept the crown of Bohemia, 39.

Emperor, functions of, 1; he is practically scarcely more than a German king, 2.

Enghien, Duke of (afterwards Prince of Condé), defeats the Spaniards at Rocroy, 206; commands at the battle of Freiburg and Nördlingen, 208. _See_ Condé, Prince of.

England. _See_ James I., Charles I., Charles, Prince of Wales.

English ambassador (the Earl of Arundel), notes of his journey through Germany, 187.

Erfurt, Gustavus at, 147.

Fabricius, thrown out of window, 30.

Felton, murders Buckingham, 115.

Ferdinand, the Archduke, afterwards the Emperor Ferdinand I., represents Charles V., at Augsburg, 10.

Ferdinand, Archduke (afterwards the Emperor Ferdinand II.), rules Styria, Carinthia, and Carniola, 24; puts down Protestantism there, 24; acknowledged as King of Bohemia, 28; his character, 28; swears to the Royal Charter, 29; elected King of Hungary, 32; receives help from Spain, 33; promises to respect the Royal Charter, 36; besieged by Mansfeld, 37; elected Emperor, 38; comes to terms with Maximilian, 40; puts Frederick to the ban, 46; refuses to go beyond the agreement of Mühlhausen, 68; accepts Wallenstein's offer to raise an army, 89; grants Mecklenburg to Wallenstein, 105, 118; oppresses the Protestants, 120; recovers Upper Austria, 119; takes part in the Mantuan war, 121; carries out the Edict of Restitution, 126; despises Gustavus, 134; refuses to abandon the Edict, 137; looks to Spain for help, 151; hesitates what to do about Wallenstein, 174; decides against him, 176; consents to the Peace of Prague, 184; his death, 194.

Ferdinand, King of Hungary (afterwards the Emperor Ferdinand III.), his marriage, 174; commands the army after Wallenstein's death, 182; becomes Emperor, 194; reluctance to surrender Alsace to the French, 210.

Ferdinand, the Cardinal-infant, proposed command of, resisted by Wallenstein, 171; joins the King of Hungary before the battle of Nördlingen, 182; proceeds to Brussels, 183; invades France, 192.

Fleurus, battle of, 63.

France, takes precautions against Mansfeld, 63; its internal dissensions, 77, 112; at war with England, 113; intervenes in Italy and makes peace with England, 122; supremacy of Richelieu in, 168; places itself at the head of a German alliance, 189; declares war openly against Spain, 192; continues the war with Spain, 197; its victories over Spain, 205; its victories in Germany, 207; its gains by the Peace of Westphalia, 214; continuance of its war with Spain, 221; successes of, in Flanders, 224; its gains by the treaty of the Pyrenees, 224; its condition under Lewis XIV., 226.

Franche Comté, included in the Empire, 2.

Franconia, duchy of, assigned to Bernhard, 167; taken from him, 183.

Frankenthal, garrisoned by Vere's troops, 57; given up to the Spaniards, 60.

Frankfort-on-the Main, place of coronation, 2.

Frankfort-on-the-Oder, taken by Gustavus, 134.

Frederick III., the Emperor, words used to him, 2.

Frederick IV., Elector Palatine, nominal leader of the Calvinists, 18; his death, 31.

Frederick V., Elector Palatine, his marriage, 31; encourages the Bohemians, 31; proposal that he shall mediate in Bohemia, 34; is elected King of Bohemia, 38; becomes unpopular at Prague, 43; his defeat at the White Hill, 45; takes refuge at the Hague, 45; put to the ban, 46; maintains his claims to Bohemia, 48; proposal that his eldest son shall be educated at Vienna, 52; his prospects in 1622, 53; joins Mansfeld in Alsace, 57; seizes the Landgrave of Darmstadt, 58; driven back to Mannheim, 59; returns to the Hague, 60; enters Munich with Gustavus, 150; his death, 171.

Freiburg (in the Breisgau), surrenders to Bernhard, 195; retaken, 208; battle of, 208.

Friedland, Prince and Duke of. _See_ Wallenstein.

Friesland. _See_ East Friesland.

Fronde, the, 217.

Fuentes, Count of, killed at Rocroy, 207.

Fürth, Wallenstein's entrenchments at, 158.

Gallas, offers to assist Wallenstein, 175.

Gassion, advises the French to give battle at Rocroy, 206.

Gaston, Duke of Orleans, leaves France, 167; takes part in a rebellion, 168.

George of Lüneburg, a Lutheran in Wallenstein's service, 98; sent into Silesia, 101.

George William, Elector of Brandenburg, consents to his sister's marriage with Gustavus, 81; refuses to join Gustavus, 131; compelled to submit to him, 135.

Germany, its political institutions, 1-7; what it included, 2; divided into circles, 6; its miserable condition, 186; its condition after the Peace of Westphalia, 217.

Glückstadt, fortified by Christian IV., 78; siege of, 117.

Gordon, his part in Wallenstein's murder, 180.

Gravelines surrenders to the French, 224.

Guebriant, defeats the Imperialists at Wolfenbüttel and Kempten, 201.

Guise, the Duke of, leaves France, 168.

Guiton, Mayor of Rochelle, 115.

Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden, his character, 79; early struggles, 80; visits Germany, 81; hostile to the growth of the Empire, 82; views on religion and politics, 83; projects a general league against the House of Austria, 84; refuses to take part in it on the terms offered, and attacks Poland, 86; sends help to Stralsund, 104; makes peace with Poland, 124; negotiates with France, 124; lands in Pomerania, 127; gains possession of the lands on the Baltic coast, 131; negotiates with France, 131; signs the treaty of Bärwalde, 132; compels the Elector of Brandenburg to join him, 135; fails to relieve Magdeburg, 136; entrenches himself at Werben, 138; allies himself with Saxony, 139; his skill as a commander, 140; defeats Tilly at Breitenfeld, 141; receives overtures from Wallenstein, 143; his political plans, 144; determines to march to the Rhine, 145; keeps Christmas at Mentz, 147; his reception at Nüremberg, 148; enters Donauwörth, and defeats Tilly at the Lech, 149; occupies Munich, 150; lays down terms of peace, 156; proposes a league of the cities, 157; rebukes his officers, 159; fails in storming Wallenstein's entrenchments, 160; follows Wallenstein into Saxony, 161; attacks Wallenstein at Lützen, 162; his death, 163; his future plans, 165.

Hagenau, seized by Mansfeld, 50.

Hague, the, Frederick takes refuge there, 45; returns after his campaign in Germany, 60.

Halberstadt, diocese of, Christian of Brunswick Bishop of it, 54; forfeited by his treason, 65; occupied by Wallenstein, 92; named in the Edict of Restitution, 120; execution of the Edict at, 125; not recovered by the Protestants at the treaty of Prague, 184; restored at the peace of Westphalia, 214.

Halle, Pappenheim's march to, 162.

Hamburg, its commerce, 78; refuses to submit to Wallenstein, 110.

Hanse Towns, offers made them by the Emperor, 106.

Havelberg, bishopric of, named in the Edict of Restitution, 121.

Heidelberg, garrisoned by Vere, 57; taken by Tilly, 61; treatment of Protestants at, 119.

Heilbronn, the league of, 167; its leading members excepted from the amnesty of the treaty of Prague, 184.

Heiligenhafen, combat of, 102.

Henry IV., King of France, plans intervention in Germany, 22.

Henry the Fowler, not an emperor, 2.

Hesse Cassel, Landgrave of. _See_ Maurice, and William.

Hesse Darmstadt. _See_ Lewis.

Höchst, battle of, 59.

Horn, commands a Swedish force in Mecklenburg, 134; is defeated at Nördlingen, 183.

Huguenots, nature of toleration granted to, 173; insurrection of, 77, 112; tolerated by Richelieu, 116.

Hungary, political divisions of, 40.

Imperial Council (_Reichshofrath_) intervenes in the case of Donauwörth, 20.

Imperial Court (_Reichskammergericht_), institution, 6; out of working order, 19.

Ingolstadt, Tilly's death at, 149.

Italy, kingdom of, 3, 122.

James I., King of England, offers to mediate in Bohemia and Germany, 35, 47; proposes to pay Mansfeld, 51; his negotiations with Spain, 51, 70; desires aid from France, 71; supports Mansfeld, 75; orders him not to relieve Breda, 76; agreement with Christian IV., 85; death of, 86.

Jankow, battle of, 209.

Jesuits, the, appear in Germany, 13.

John Ernest, Duke of Saxe-Weimar, ideas of religious liberty, 94; supports Mansfeld, 96; dies, 101.

John George, Elector of Saxony, at the head of the Lutheran and neutral party, 15, 22; wishes to pacify Bohemia, 31; his share in Ferdinand's election to the Empire, 38; is gained over by Maximilian, 41; his vacillations in 1622, 62; refuses to join in the Danish war, 87; his son elected administrator of Magdeburg, 126; attempts to mediate between Gustavus and the Emperor, 133, 134; joins Gustavus, 139; failure of his army at Breitenfeld, 141; despatched into Bohemia, 151; enters Prague, 151; is driven out of Bohemia, 155; proposes terms of peace to Gustavus, 156; refuses to join the League of Heilbronn, 167; negotiates with Wallenstein, 170; hopes for peace, 184; agrees to the Peace of Prague, 185; his troops defeated at Wittstock, 194.

John Sigismund, Elector of Brandenburg, his claim to the duchy of Cleves, 21; turns Calvinist, 22.

Joseph, Father, employed as Richelieu's agent, 128.

Kempten, battle of, 201.

Klostergrab, Protestant church at, 27.

Köln. _See_ Cologne.

La Force, commands at Paris, 193.

Lamormain, Father, Ferdinand's confessor, declares against peace, 171.

Landrecies incorporated with France, 224.

League, the Catholic, its formation, 21; agrees to the treaty of Ulm, 42. _See_ Maximilian, Duke of Bavaria.

Lebus, bishopric of, 121.

Lech, battle at the passage of the, 149.

Leipzig, assembly at, 133.

Leipzig, battle of. _See_ Breitenfeld.

Leslie, his part in Wallenstein's murder, 180.

Leuchtenberg, Landgrave of, taken prisoner by Mansfeld, 49.

Lewis XIII., King of France, his character, 72; his jealousy of Spain, 73; summons Richelieu to his council, 74; takes part against Spain, 75; his policy towards the Huguenots, 112; at war with England, 113; invades Italy, 122; dislikes the success of Gustavus, 148; takes the field against Spain, 193; dies, 205.

Lewis XIV., King of France, accession of, 205.

Lewis, Landgrave of Hesse Darmstadt, taken prisoner, 58.

Lombardy, the iron crown of, 3.

Lorraine (_Lothringen_), included in the Empire, 2; Mansfeld and Christian of Brunswick, in, 63.

Lorraine, Duke of, joins the Spaniards against Gustavus, 158; is reduced to subjection by France, 170.

Lower Saxony, Circle of, threatened by Christian of Brunswick and Tilly, 64; refuses to support Christian, 65; disunion amongst its members, 68; attacked by Tilly, 87.

Lübeck, bishopric of, named in the Edict of Restitution, 121.

Lübeck, Peace of, 117.

Lusatia, invaded by the Saxons, 42.

Luther, his meeting with Charles V., 9.

Lutherans, 17; their estrangements from Frederick in Bohemia, 43; still remain in Paderborn, 55.

Lutter, battle of, 96.

Lützen, battle of, 161.

Magdeburg, city of, refuses to admit Wallenstein's troops, 105, 126; declares for Gustavus, 134; stormed and sacked, 136.

Magdeburg, diocese of, occupied by Wallenstein, 92; included in the Edict of Restitution, 120; execution of the Edict at, 126.

Magdeburg, Protestant administrator of, not acknowledged as Archbishop by the Diet, 14.

Maintz. _See_ Mentz.

_Majestätsbrief._ _See_ Royal Charter.

Manheim, garrisoned by Vere, 57; retreat of Frederick and Mansfeld to, 59; taken by Tilly, 60.

Mansfeld, Count Ernest of, takes service with the Bohemians and besieges Pilsen, 33; takes the field against Bucquoi, 36; is defeated by him, 37; character of his army, 48; occupies the Upper Palatinate, 49; marches into Alsace, 50; aims at becoming master of part of it, 56; invades the Lower Palatinate, 57; seizes the Landgrave of Darmstadt, 58; state of his army, 59; retreats to Alsace, 60; occupies Lorraine, 63; cuts his way through the Spanish Netherlands, relieves Bergen-op-zoom, and invades East Friesland, 64; returns to the Netherlands, 69; assisted by France, 74; proposed march into Alsace, 75; fails to relieve Breda, 76; sent to help the King of Denmark, 86; joins Christian IV., 94; defeated at the Bridge of Dessau, 96; marches through Silesia into Hungary, 96; dies, 97.

Mantua and Montferrat, war of succession in, 121.

Mardyke, surrender of, 224.

Martinitz, one of the Regents of Bohemia, thrown out of window, 30.

Mary of Medici, opposes Richelieu, 132; obliged to leave France, 160.

Matthias, Archduke, rises against Rudolph II., 25; succeeds as Emperor, 26. _See_ Matthias, Emperor.

Matthias, Emperor, his election, 26; his attempts to break the Royal Charter, 27; his death, 36.

Maurice, Landgrave of Hesse Cassel, submits to Spinola, 47.

Maximilian, Archduke, governs Tyrol, 24.

Maximilian, Duke of Bavaria, his character and policy, 15; his part in the formation of the League, 21; prepares to attack Bohemia, 39; proposed transference of the Palatinate Electorate to, 40; gains over the North German princes, 41; attaches Austria and Bohemia, 42; receives Upper Austria in pledge, 46; receives the Electorate, 60; his policy after the peace of Lübeck, 118; makes an effort against the French, 207; is ready to surrender Alsace to the French, 211; but refuses to surrender the Upper Palatinate, 211; makes a truce, which does not last long, 213.

Mayence. _See_ Mentz.

Mazarin, Cardinal, Minister of Anne of Austria, 205.

Mecklenburg, Dukes of their land pledged to Wallenstein, 105; formally given to Wallenstein, 118.

Meissen. _See_ Misnia.

Melancthon, his protest against theological disputation, 13.

Mentz, entered by Spinola, 42; treaty for the dissolution of the Union signed at, 47.

Mentz, Archbishop of, one of the Electors, 6; lays claim to lands in North Germany, 98.

Mentz, city of, Gustavus at, 147; given over to Oxenstjerna, 148; misery at, 187.

Mercy, prudence of, 208; is killed, 208.

Merseburg, bishopric of, named in the Edict of Restitution, 121.

Merseburg, city of, taken by Pappenheim, 139.

Metz, annexed by France, 215.

Minden, bishopric of, named in the Edict of Restitution, 121.

Misnia, bishopric of, named in the Edict of Restitution, 121.

Montmorenci, Duke of, his rebellion, 168.

Morgan, Sir Charles, commands an English force sent in aid of Denmark, 101.

Mühlhausen (in Thuringia), agreement of, 41; meeting of the Electors at, 103.

Munich, occupied by Gustavus, 150.

Münster, meeting of diplomatists at, 210.

Münster, diocese of, threatened by Mansfeld, 64.

Nancy, taken possession of by the French, 180.

Nantes, Edict of, 71; its revocation, 226.

Naumburg, bishopric of, named in the Edict of Restitution, 121.

Naumburg, city of, entered by Gustavus, 161.

Netherlands, the, included in the Empire, 2.

Netherlands, the Spanish, defended against a French attack, 191.

Netherlands, United States of the, end of their truce with Spain, 51; acknowledgment of their independence, 221.

Neuberg, Wolfgang Wilhelm, Count Palatine of, lays claim to the duchy of Cleves, 22; has his ears boxed, 22.

Neustadt, misery at, 188.

Nevers, Duke of, his claims to the succession in Mantua, 122.

New Brandenburg, taken by Tilly, 134.

Nienburg, holds out for Christian IV., 101.

Nordheim, holds out for Christian IV., 101.

Nördlingen, treatment of the Protestants at, 120; battle of, 183; second battle of, 208; surrenders to Turenne, 213.

Nüremberg, joins the Union, 20, 21; meeting of the Union at, 41; deserts the Union, 47; welcomes Gustavus, 148; despatches Gustavus against Wallenstein, 158; sufferings of, 158.

Oñate, opposes Wallenstein, 175; proposes to kill Wallenstein, 177.

Oppenheim, stormed by Gustavus, 147.

Osnabrück, election of a Catholic Bishop of, 67; meeting of diplomatists at, 217.

Otto the Great, becomes Emperor, 2.

Oudenarde, surrender to the French, 224.

Oxenstjerna, his view of Gustavus' march upon the Rhine, 145; receives the government of Mentz, 148; his position after the death of Gustavus, 166; asked to help Wallenstein, 172; keeps his doubts till the last, 179; surrenders fortresses in Alsace to Richelieu, 192.

Paderborn, attack upon by Christian of Brunswick, 55.

Palatinate, the Lower, attacked by Spinola, 43; defended by Vere, 49; invaded by Tilly, 50; conquered by Tilly, 60; the eastern part made over to Maximilian, 119; the whole restored to Charles Lewis, 214.

Palatinate, the Upper, Mansfeld's occupation of, 50; its conquest by Tilly, 50; made over to Maximilian, 119; secured to him by the peace of Westphalia, 214.

Pappenheim, confidence that Gustavus will be beaten, 139; storms Magdeburg, 135; commands on the Rhine, 161; leaves Wallenstein before the battle of Lützen, 161; is killed at Lützen, 161.

Passau, convention of, 9.

Peace of Augsburg. _See_ Augsburg.

Peace of Phillipsburg, French garrison of, 215.

Piccolomini, offers to join Wallenstein, 175; declares against him, 177; tries to seize him, 177; orders Butler to capture Wallenstein, 180.

Pignerol, seized by Richelieu, 124.

Pilsen refuses to take part with the Bohemian directors, 32; besieged and taken by Mansfeld, 33; Wallenstein holds a meeting of officers at, 177.

Pomerania laid waste by Wallenstein's troops, 127; Gustavus lands in, 128; divided between Brandenburg and Sweden, 214.

Pomerania, Duke of, _See_ Boguslav.

Portugal, independence of, 200.

Prague, revolution at, 29; Frederick crowned King of Bohemia at, 38; Frederick's growing unpopularity there, 43; battle at the White Hill near, 45; entered by the Saxons, 151; recovered by Wallenstein, 155; part of it taken by the Swedes, 213.

Prague, the treaty of, 184.

Princes of the Empire, their increasing power, 3; compared with the French vassals, 4; care little for the Diet, 5; their part in the Diet, 6; the majority opposed to Protestantism, 9.

Protestantism, its rise in Germany, 7; its position in North Germany, 12; its division, 12; contrast between it in the north and the south, 17.

Pyrenees, treaty of the, 224.

Ratisbon, diets held at, 61, 127; taken by Bernhard, 173.

Ratseburg, bishopric of, named in the Edict of Restitution, 121.

Regensburg. _See_ Ratisbon.

_Reichshofrath_. _See_ Imperial Council.

_Reichskammergericht._ _See_ Imperial Court.

Rhé, Isle of, Buckingham's expedition to, 114.

Rheinfelden, battle of, 195.

Richelieu, becomes a minister of Lewis XIII., 74; recovers the Valtelline, 75; his plans frustrated by the insurrection of the Huguenots, 77; wishes to make peace with them, 112; causes of his success, 116; his policy of toleration, 116; takes part in the Mantuan War, 122; negotiates with Sweden, 124; is startled by the victories of Gustavus, 148; defends himself against the French aristocracy, 167; nature of the government established by him, 168; his aims in Europe, 169; intervenes more decidedly in Germany, 184, 190; aims at the conquest of Alsace, 191; obtains control over fortresses in Alsace, 192; failure of his attack upon the Spanish Netherlands, 192; successfully resists a Spanish invasion, 193; continues the struggle with Spain, 197; his successes, 197, 201; his death and policy, 201.

Rochelle, insurrection of, 77, 112; siege of, 114; surrender of, 115; subsequent treatment of, 116.

Rocroy, attacked by the Spaniards, 206; battle of, 207.

Rohan, Duke of, insurrection of, 123.

Rostock, its harbour blocked up by Wallenstein, 108.

Roussillon, conquered by France, 200, 201; annexed to France, 224.

Royal Charter, the (_Majestätsbrief_), granted by Rudolph II., 25; its forfeiture declared, 45.

Rüdesheim, misery at, 187.

Rudolph II., Emperor, his part in the Austrian territories, 24; grants the Royal Charter of Bohemia, 25; tries to withdraw it, 26; dies, 26; fate of his art-treasures, 43.

Rupert, Prince, his birth at Prague, 43.

Saluces, seized by Richelieu, 124.

Salzburg, persecution of Protestants of, 216.

Saxony, Elector of, 1. _See_ also John George.

Savoy, Duke of. _See_ Charles Emanuel.

Schorndorf, surrenders to Turenne, 212.

Sigismund, King of Poland, a claimant to the crown of Sweden, 81.

Sigismund, the Emperor, anecdote of, 2.

Slawata, one of the Regents of Bohemia, 30; thrown out of window, 30.

Soissons, Count of, rebels in France, 200.

Soubise, Duke of, rebels, 77.

Spain, intervenes in the war, 42; anxious for peace, 43; military position of in 1624, 74; loses the Valtelline, 75; takes part in the Mantua war, 121; supports Wallenstein, 151; takes part in the war on the Rhine, 158; turns against Wallenstein, 171; at war with France, 192; invades France, 193; naval inferiority of, 197, 198; rebellion of the Catalans, 199; loss of Portugal, 200; continues the war with France after the Peace of Westphalia, 221; agrees to the Peace of the Pyrenees, 224.

Spens, Sir James, his mission to Sweden, 84.

Spinola, attacks the Palatinate, 42; returns to Brussels, 50; besieges Bergen-op-zoom, 63; besieges Breda, 75; besieges Casale, 123.

Spires, Bishop of, attacked by Vere, 50.

Stade, taken by Tilly, 117.

Stadtlohn, battle of, 66.

Stenay, besieged by Condé, 223.

Stralsund, siege of, 108.

Strasburg, Bishopric of, failure of an attempt to place it in Protestant hands, 14.

Strasburg, city of, joins the Union, 20, 21; deserts it, 47.

Sweden, her gains at the Peace of Westphalia, 214.

Switzerland included in the Empire, 21.

Tabor, occupied by Mansfeld, 48.

Thionville, besieged by the French, 207; annexed to France, 224.

Thirty Years' War, the disputes which led to it, 14; commencement of, 30; end of, 213.

Thurn, Count Henry of, his part in the Bohemian Revolution, 30; his operations against Bucquoi, 33; besieges Vienna, 36; aids Christian IV., 101.

Tilly, commands the army of the League, 42; his part in the conquest of Bohemia, 44; his army, 48; conquers the Upper Palatinate, 50; invades the Lower Palatinate, 51; his prospects in 1622, 55; defeats the Margrave of Baden at Wimpfen, 57; defeats Christian of Brunswick at Höchst, 59; conquers the Lower Palatinate, 61; threatens the Lower Saxon Circle, 64; defeats Christian of Brunswick at Stadtlohn, 66; attacks Lower Saxony, 87; makes head against Christian IV., 95; defeats him at Lutter, 96; besieges Stade and Glückstadt, 117; his campaign against Gustavus, 134; takes Magdeburg, 136; attacks Saxony, 139; defeated at Breitenfeld, 141; his defeat and death at the passage of the Lech, 149.

Torgau, holds out against Wallenstein, 161.

Torstenson, his campaign of 1645, 209.

Toul, annexed to France, 215.

Treves, Elector of, 1; makes an alliance with France, 170.

Trier. _See_ Treves.

Tübingen, university of, 17.

Turenne, his part in the campaigns of 1644 and 1645, 208; his strategy in Bavaria in 1646, 212.

Turin, changes of government in, 197.

Ulm, joins the Union, 20, 21; deserts it, 47.

Ulm, treaty of, 42.

Union, the Protestant, formation of, 21; enters into an agreement with the Duke of Savoy, 33; its coolness in the cause of the Bohemians, 34; refuses to support Frederick in Bohemia, 41; agrees to the treaty of Ulm, 42; its dissolution, 47.

Valtelline, the Spaniards driven from the, 75.

Verden, bishopric of, occupied by a son of Christian IV., 78; named in the Edict of Restitution, 121; given up to Sweden, 215.

Verdun, annexed to France, 214.

Vere, Sir Horace, defends the Lower Palatinate, 49, 57.

Vienna, besieged by Thurn, 36; attacked by Bethlen Gabor, 40; attacked by Torstenson, 209.

Wallenstein, his birth and education, 88; raises an army for the Emperor, and is created Prince of Friedland, 89; his mode of carrying on war, 90; enters Magdeburg and Halberstadt, 92; defeats Mansfeld at the Bridge of Dessau, 96; his quarrel with the League, 98; confers with Eggenberg, 99; is created Duke of Friedland, 100; subdues Silesia, 101; conquers Schleswig and Jutland, 102; complaints of the Electors against him, 103; his fresh levies, 104; Mecklenburg pledged to him, 105; named Admiral of the Baltic, 108; attempts to burn the Swedish fleet, 108; besieges Stralsund, 108; assists in the siege of Glückstadt, 117; his investiture with the Duchy of Mecklenburg, 118; his breach with the Electors, 124; talks of sacking Rome, 127; his deprivation demanded, 127; his dismissal, 129; makes overtures to Gustavus, 142; breaks off his intercourse with Gustavus, 152; is reinstated in command by the Emperor, 153; character of his army, 153; drives the Saxons out of Bohemia, 155; entrenches himself near Nüremberg, 158; repulses Gustavus and marches into Saxony, 160; takes up a position at Lützen, is defeated, 161; negotiates with the Saxons, 170; hopes to bring about peace, 171; negotiates with the Swedes, 172; prepares to force the Emperor to accept peace from him, 174; opposition to him, 175; the Emperor decides against him, 176; throws himself upon his officers, 177; is declared a traitor, and abandoned by the garrison of Prague, 178; his murder, 181; causes of his failure, 181.

Werben, camp of Gustavus at, 138.

Werth, John of, general in Maximilian's service, 207.

Weston, Sir Richard, represents England at the Congress at Brussels, 57.

Westphalia, the Peace of, opening of negotiations for, 209; signature of, 213; its results, 215.

White Hill, battle of the, 45.

Wiesloch, combat of, 57.

William, Landgrave of Hesse Cassel, joins Gustavus, 138; shut out from the benefits of the treaty of Prague, 186; his alliance with France, 190.

Wimpfen, battle of, 57.

Winter-king, nickname of Frederick, 39.

Wismar in Wallenstein's hands, 108.

Wittingau, occupied by Mansfeld, 48.

Wittstock, battle of, 194.

Wolfenbüttel holds out for Christian IV., 101; battle at, 201.

Wrangel, succeeds Torstenson as commander of the Swedes, 209; joins Turenne, 212.

Würtemberg, accepts the terms of the treaty of Prague, 195.

Würzburg taken by Gustavus, 147; surrenders to Turenne, 212.

Ypres, surrenders to the French, 224.

Znaim, Wallenstein confers with Eggenberg at, 153.

Zusmarshausen, battle of, 231.

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Transcriber's notes:

The following is a list of changes made to the original. The first line is the original line, the second the corrected one.

creeds. Bnt freedom of conscience did not by any creeds. But freedom of conscience did not by any

In an instant he was hurled out, crying, "Jesus, Mary!' In an instant he was hurled out, crying, 'Jesus, Mary!'

Mary will help him." A moment later he added: "By Mary will help him.' A moment later he added: 'By

God, his Mary has helped him." Slawata followed, God, his Mary has helped him.' Slawata followed,

Saxony in mediating an arangement, whilst, on the other Saxony in mediating an arrangement, whilst, on the other

from the Syrian frontier to the borders of Silesia, from the Styrian frontier to the borders of Silesia,

will of God. This,' he cried triumphantly, 'is the will of God. 'This,' he cried triumphantly, 'is the

the North German Protestants, Nobody doubted that, the North German Protestants. Nobody doubted that,

hands of the French governmment. In that hands of the French government. In that

Gospel was not a very real thing. Historians cooly Gospel was not a very real thing. Historians coolly

After, all, however, the main point was the success or After all, however, the main point was the success or

Tilly found occupation for his men in the seige of the Tilly found occupation for his men in the siege of the

of westerly winds prevented them from leaviug of westerly winds prevented them from leaving

stout guardians around him, stout guardians around him.

which was nothing to Güstavus, but which a German which was nothing to Gustavus, but which a German

fire. In the exeitement of plunder or of terror no one fire. In the excitement of plunder or of terror no one

at all, must be based as far as posssible on institutions at all, must be based as far as possible on institutions

a victory, With drums beating and banners a victory. With drums beating and banners

advanced, Gustavus riding at the head of the calvary at advanced, Gustavus riding at the head of the cavalry at

of Saxony he was was already secure; of Saxony he was already secure;

who shall release me from my oath?' "You, gentlemen," who shall release me from my oath?" "You, gentlemen,"

[Sidenote: § 2. The Battle of Nôrdlingen.] [Sidenote: § 2. The Battle of Nördlingen.]

pacification. Most of the princes and towns so accepted, pacification. Most of the princes and towns so accepted

the storm of a city doomed to massacre and pilllage; the storm of a city doomed to massacre and pillage;

Swedish general, Torstenson. who had taken Swedish general, Torstenson, who had taken

the issue was hardly doubtful. In 1652 Louis XIV. entered the issue was hardly doubtful. In 1652 Lewis XIV. entered

succeeeds as Emperor, 26. succeeds as Emperor, 26.

Richelieu, becomes a minister of Louis XIII., 74; Richelieu, becomes a minister of Lewis XIII., 74;

Saluces, siezed by Richelieu, 124. Saluces, seized by Richelieu, 124.

sketching succintly the most important epochs sketching succinctly the most important epochs

End of Project Gutenberg's The Thirty Years' War, by Samuel Rawson Gardiner