The Student's Elements of Geology

Different Kinds of mineral Veins. — Ordinary metalliferous Veins or Lodes. — Their frequent Coincidence with Faults. — Proofs that they originated in Fissures in solid Rock. — V...

External Form, Structure, and Origin of Volcanic Mountains. — Cones and Craters. — Hypothesis of “Elevation Craters” considered. — Trap Rocks. — Name whence derived. — Minerals...

Eocene Areas of North of Europe. — Table of English and French Eocene Strata. — Upper Eocene of England. — Bembridge Beds. — Osborne or St. Helen’s Beds. — Headon Series. — Foss...

Principal Subdivisions of the Carboniferous Group. — Different Thickness of the sedimentary and calcareous Members in Scotland and the South of England. — Coal-measures. — Terre...

Why the Position of Marine Strata, above the Level of the Sea, should be referred to the rising up of the Land, not to the going down of the Sea. — Strata of Deep-sea and Shallo...

Lapse of Time between Cretaceous and Eocene Periods. — Table of successive Cretaceous Formations. — Maestricht Beds. — Pisolitic Limestone of France. — Chalk of Faxoe. — Geograp...

Glacial Formations of Pliocene Age. — Bridlington Beds. — Glacial Drifts of Ireland. — Drift of Norfolk Cliffs. — Cromer Forest-bed. — Aldeby and Chillesford Beds. — Norwich Cra...

Recent and Post-pliocene Periods. — Terms defined. — Formations of the Recent Period. — Modern littoral Deposits containing Works of Art near Naples. — Danish Peat and Shell-mou...

Lower Miocene Strata of France. — Line between Miocene and Eocene. — Lacustrine Strata of Auvergne. — Fossil mammalia of the Limagne d’Auvergne. — Lower Molasse of Switzerland....

Up to 1857 all the mammalian remains discovered in secondary rocks had consisted solely of single branches of the lower jaw, but in that year Mr. Beckles obtained the upper port...

Classification of the Silurian Rocks. — Ludlow Formation and Fossils. — Bone-bed of the Upper Ludlow. — Lower Ludlow Shales with Pentamerus. — Oldest known Remains of fossil Fis...

Upper Miocene Strata of France—Faluns of Touraine. — Tropical Climate implied by Testacea. — Proportion of recent Species of Shells. — faluns more ancient than the Suffolk Crag....

Beds of Passage between the Lias and Trias, Rhætic Beds. — Triassic Mammifer. — Triple Division of the Trias. — Keuper, or Upper Trias of England. — Reptiles of the Upper Trias....

in this case they will not remain unaltered, because they will be percolated by water often of high temperature, and charged with carbonate of lime, silex, iron, and other miner...

Volcanic Rocks of the Upper Miocene Period. — Madeira. — Grand Canary. — Azores. — Lower Miocene Volcanic Rocks. — Isle of Mull. — Staffa and Antrim. — The Eifel. — Upper and Lo...

Aqueous, Plutonic, volcanic, and metamorphic Rocks considered chronologically. — Terms Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary; Palæozoic, Mesozoic, and Cainozoic explained. — On the d...

Glaciation of Scandinavia and Russia. — Glaciation of Scotland. — Mammoth in Scotch Till. — Marine Shells in Scotch Glacial Drift. — Their Arctic Character. — Rarity of Organic...

Classification of the Old Red Sandstone in Scotland and in Devonshire. — Upper Old Red Sandstone in Scotland, with Fish and Plants. — Middle Old Red Sandstone. — Classification...

Denudation defined. — Its Amount more than equal to the entire Mass of Stratified Deposits in the Earth’s Crust. — Subaërial Denudation. — Action of the Wind. — Action of Runnin...

Vegetation of the Coal Period. — Ferns, Lycopodiaceæ, Equisetaceæ, Sigillariæ, Stigmariæ, Coniferæ. — Angiosperms. — Climate of the Coal Period. — Mountain Limestone. — Marine F...

submarine, must be understood before the student can comprehend what may at first seem to him an anomaly, but which it is his business particularly to understand. I allude to th...

General Character of Metamorphic Rocks. — Gneiss. — Hornblende-schist. — Serpentine. — Mica-schist. — Clay-slate. — Quartzite. — Chlorite-schist. — Metamorphic Limestone. — Orig...

General Aspect of Plutonic Rocks. — Granite and its Varieties. — Decomposing into Spherical Masses. — Rude columnar Structure. — Graphic Granite. — Mutual Penetration of Crystal...

In pursuance of the arrangement explained in the last chapter, we shall begin by examining the aqueous or sedimentary rocks, which are for the most part distinctly stratified, a...

Difficulty in ascertaining the precise Age of a Plutonic Rock. — Test of Age by Relative Position. — Test by Intrusion and Alteration. — Test by Mineral Composition. — Test by i...

Geology defined. — Successive Formation of the Earth’s Crust. — Classification of Rocks according to their Origin and Age. — Aqueous Rocks. — Their Stratification and imbedded F...

Classification of the Cambrian Group, and its Equivalent in Bohemia. — Upper Cambrian Rocks. — Tremadoc Slates and their Fossils. — Lingula Flags. — Lower Cambrian Rocks. — Mene...

Classification of marine and fresh-water Strata. — Upper Neocomian. — Folkestone and Hythe Beds. — Atherfield Clay. — Similarity of Conditions causing Reappearance of Species af...

Successive Deposition indicated by Fossils. — Limestones formed of Corals and Shells. — Proofs of gradual Increase of Strata derived from Fossils. — Serpula attached to Spatangu...

Chemical and Mechanical Deposits. — Cementing together of Particles. — Hardening by Exposure to Air. — Concretionary Nodules. — Consolidating Effects of Pressure. — Mineralizati...

Mineral Character of Lias. — Numerous successive Zones in the Lias, marked by distinct Fossils, without Unconformity in the Stratification, or Change in the Mineral Character of...

Definition of slaty Cleavage and Joints. — Supposed Causes of these Structures. — Crystalline Theory of Cleavage. — Mechanical Theory of Cleavage. — Condensation and Elongation...

Difficulty of ascertaining the Age of metamorphic Strata. — Metamorphic Strata of Eocene date in the Alps of Switzerland and Savoy. — Limestone and Shale of Carrara. — Metamorph...

Geographical Distribution, Form, and Characters of Glacial Drift. — Fundamental Rocks, polished, grooved, and scratched. — Abrading and striating Action of Glaciers. — Moraines,...

Order of Succession of Sedimentary Formations. — Frequent Unconformability of Strata. — Imperfection of the Record. — Defectiveness of the Monuments greater in Proportion to the...

Line of Separation between Mesozoic and Palæozoic Rocks. — Distinctness of Triassic and Permian Fossils. — Term Permian. — Thickness of calcareous and sedimentary Rocks in North...

The Purbeck Beds a Member of the Jurassic Group. — Subdivisions of that Group. — Physical Geography of the Oolite in England and France. — Upper Oolite. — Purbeck Beds. — New Ge...

Different Kinds of mineral Veins. — Ordinary metalliferous Veins or Lodes. — Their frequent Coincidence with Faults. — Proofs that they originated in Fissures in solid Rock. — V...

How we obtain an Insight at the Surface, of the Arrangement of Rocks at great Depths. — Why the Height of the successive Strata in a given Region is so disproportionate to their...

Tests of relative Age of Volcanic Rocks. — Why ancient and modern Rocks cannot be identical. — Tests by Superposition and intrusion. — Test by Alteration of Rocks in Contact. —...

Lapse of Time between Cretaceous and Eocene Periods. — Table of successive Cretaceous Formations. — Maestricht Beds. — Pisolitic Limestone of France. — Chalk of Faxoe. — Geograp...

Eocene Areas of North of Europe. — Table of English and French Eocene Strata. — Upper Eocene of England. — Bembridge Beds. — Osborne or St. Helen’s Beds. — Headon Series. — Foss...

Recent and Post-pliocene Periods. — Terms defined. — Formations of the Recent Period. — Modern littoral Deposits containing Works of Art near Naples. — Danish Peat and Shell-mou...

STRATIFICATION. Why the Position of Marine Strata, above the Level of the Sea, should be referred to the rising up of the Land, not to the going down of the Sea. — Strata of Dee...

The Purbeck Beds a Member of the Jurassic Group. — Subdivisions of that Group. — Physical Geography of the Oolite in England and France. — Upper Oolite. — Purbeck Beds. — New Ge...

Beds of Passage between the Lias and Trias, Rhætic Beds. — Triassic Mammifer. — Triple Division of the Trias. — Keuper, or Upper Trias of England. — Reptiles of the Upper Trias....

Aqueous, Plutonic, volcanic, and metamorphic Rocks considered chronologically. — Terms Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary; Palæozoic, Mesozoic, and Cainozoic explained. — On the d...

Principal Subdivisions of the Carboniferous Group. — Different Thickness of the sedimentary and calcareous Members in Scotland and the South of England. — Coal-measures. — Terre...

Lower Miocene Strata of France. — Line between Miocene and Eocene. — Lacustrine Strata of Auvergne. — Fossil Mammalia of the Limagne d’Auvergne. — Lower Molasse of Switzerland....

Difficulty in ascertaining the precise Age of a Plutonic Rock. — Test of Age by Relative Position. — Test by Intrusion and Alteration. — Test by Mineral Composition. — Test by i...

Upper Miocene Strata of France. — Faluns of Touraine. — Tropical Climate implied by Testacea. — Proportion of recent Species of Shells. — faluns more ancient than the Suffolk Cr...

concluded. Glaciation of Scandinavia and Russia. — Glaciation of Scotland. — Mammoth in Scotch Till. — Marine Shells in Scotch Glacial Drift. — Their Arctic Character. — Rarity...

General Aspect of Plutonic Rocks. — Granite and its Varieties. — Decomposing into Spherical Masses. — Rude columnar Structure. — Graphic Granite. — Mutual Penetration of Crystal...

External Form, Structure, and Origin of Volcanic Mountains. — Cones and Craters. — Hypothesis of “Elevation Craters” considered. — Trap Rocks. — Name whence derived. — Minerals...

Classification of the Old Red Sandstone in Scotland and in Devonshire. — Upper Old Red Sandstone in Scotland, with Fish and Plants. — Middle Old Red Sandstone. — Classification...

Classification of the Silurian Rocks. — Ludlow Formation and Fossils. — Bone-bed of the Upper Ludlow. — Lower Ludlow Shales with Pentamerus. — Oldest known Remains of fossil Fis...

Mineral Character of Lias. — Numerous successive Zones in the Lias, marked by distinct Fossils, without Unconformity in the Stratification, or Change in the Mineral Character of...

REMODELLING THE EARTH’S CRUST. How we obtain an Insight at the Surface, of the Arrangement of Rocks at great Depths. — Why the Height of the successive Strata in a given Region...

Classification of the Cambrian Group, and its Equivalent in Bohemia. — Upper Cambrian Rocks. — Tremadoc Slates and their Fossils. — Lingula Flags. — Lower Cambrian Rocks. — Mene...

Tests of relative Age of Volcanic Rocks. — Why ancient and modern Rocks cannot be identical. — Tests by Superposition and intrusion. — Test by Alteration of Rocks in Contact. —...

Glacial Formations of Pliocene Age. — Bridlington Beds. — Glacial Drifts of Ireland. — Drift of Norfolk Cliffs. — Cromer Forest-bed. — Aldeby and Chillesford Beds. — Norwich Cra...

Volcanic Rocks of the Upper Miocene Period. — Madeira. — Grand Canary. — Azores. — Lower Miocene Volcanic Rocks. — Isle of Mull. — Staffa and Antrim. — The Eifel. — Upper and Lo...

Line of Separation between Mesozoic and Palæozoic Rocks. — Distinctness of Triassic and Permian Fossils. — Term Permian. — Thickness of calcareous and sedimentary Rocks in North...

Classification of marine and fresh-water Strata. — Upper Neocomian. — Folkestone and Hythe Beds. — Atherfield Clay. — Similarity of Conditions causing Reappearance of Species af...

Successive Deposition indicated by Fossils. — Limestones formed of Corals and Shells. — Proofs of gradual Increase of Strata derived from Fossils. — Serpula attached to Spatangu...

General Character of Metamorphic Rocks. — Gneiss. — Hornblende-schist. — Serpentine. — Mica-schist. — Clay-slate. — Quartzite. — Chlorite-schist. — Metamorphic Limestone. — Orig...

Definition of slaty Cleavage and Joints. — Supposed Causes of these Structures. — Crystalline Theory of Cleavage. — Mechanical Theory of Cleavage. — Condensation and Elongation...

Difficulty of ascertaining the Age of metamorphic Strata. — Metamorphic Strata of Eocene date in the Alps of Switzerland and Savoy. — Limestone and Shale of Carrara. — Metamorph...

Denudation defined. — Its Amount more than equal to the entire Mass of Stratified Deposits in the Earth’s Crust. — subaërial Denudation. — Action of the Wind. — Action of Runnin...

Geographical Distribution, Form, and Characters of Glacial Drift. — Fundamental Rocks, polished, grooved, and scratched. — Abrading and striating Action of Glaciers. — Moraines,...

Geology defined. — Successive Formation of the Earth’s Crust. — Classification of Rocks according to their Origin and Age. — Aqueous Rocks. — Their Stratification and imbedded F...

Order of Succession of Sedimentary Formations. — Frequent Unconformability of Strata. — Imperfection of the Record. — Defectiveness of the Monuments greater in Proportion to the...

Chemical and Mechanical Deposits. — Cementing together of Particles. — Hardening by Exposure to Air. — Concretionary Nodules. — Consolidating Effects of Pressure. — Mineralizati...

Vegetation of the Coal Period. — Ferns, Lycopodiaceæ, Equisetaceæ, Sigillariæ, Stigmariæ, Coniferæ. — Angiosperms. — Climate of the Coal Period. — Mountain Limestone. — Marine F...