Chapter 81

quis eos antiquitatis nimius admirator in Graccorum Catonisque et aliorum similium lectione durescere velit ... Alterum, quod huic diversum est, ne recentis huius lasciviae flosculis capti voluptate prava deleniantur, ut praedulce illud genus et puerilibus ingeniis hoc gratius, quo propius est, adament.'

For Quintilian's high appreciation of Cicero see x. 1, 105-112; and for his antagonism to Seneca, x. 1, 125-131, and to philosophers in general, i. prooem. 10.

For Quintilian's authorities see iii. 1, 'Prooemium de scriptoribus artis rhetoricae.' They include Dionysius of Halicarnassus; Caecilius; Chrysippus (for education; cf. i. 1, 16, etc.); Cicero; _Auctor ad Herenn._; Celsus, cf. iii. 1, 21, etc.; Rutilius, cf. ix. 3, 89; Remmius Palaemon.

Literary criticism is treated of in Book X. as regards the Greek and Latin authors useful to the orator. The principal authority used was the +peri mimêseôs+ of Dionysius Halicarnassius. Much of Quintilian's criticism is traditional, and the lists of great writers came ultimately from the critics of Alexandria. Roman literary critics referred to were Cicero (_e.g._ on the Attic orators, x. 1, 76-80) and Horace (x. 1, 24; 56, etc.).

_Spurious works._--These include two collections of _declamationes_.

1. Nineteen long pieces, ascribed to Quintilian by Jerome and others, but much later than Quintilian's time.

2. One hundred and forty-five shorter pieces out of an original collection of three hundred and eighty-eight, the first half being lost. Some suppose they are the 'libri artis rhetoricae' (i. prooem. 7, quoted above), but this is not likely.

FRONTINUS.

(1) LIFE.

Iulius Frontinus (as he is called by Tacitus: inscriptions and some MSS. give the _praenomen_ Sextus) was born at latest A.D. 41, for he was _praetor urbanus_ A.D. 70.

Tac. _Hist._ iv. 39, 'in senatu quem Iulius Frontinus praetor urbanus vocaverat ... Mox eiurante Frontino Caesar Domitianus praeturam cepit.'

He served in Gaul during the revolt of Civilis, and received the submission of the Lingones (Front. _Strat._ iv. 3, 14[92]). Under Vespasian he held the consulship, and preceded Agricola in the command in Britain, where he conquered the Silures, probably A.D. 76-78.

Tac. _Agr._ 17, 'Et Cerealis quidem alterius successoris curam famamque obruisset: sustinuit molem Iulius Frontinus, vir magnus, quantum licebat, validamque et pugnacem Silurum gentem armis subegit, super virtutem hostium locorum quoque difficultates eluctatus.'

His knowledge of the tactics of Domitian (_Strat._ i. 1, 8; i. 3, 10; ii. 3, 23; ii. 11, 7) makes it probable that he took part in the war with the Chatti, A.D. 83. In 97 he became _curator aquarum_ (_Aq._ 102), and at the beginning of the following year was consul for the second time (_C.I.L._ iii., p. 862); cf. Martial x. 48, 20, 'bis Frontino consule.' In 100 he was once more consul (_C.I.L._ viii. 7066). He also held the office of augur, in which, A.D. 103 or 104, he was succeeded by the younger Pliny; Plin. _Ep._ iv. 8, 'gratularis mihi quod acceperim auguratum ... Successi Iulio Frontino, principi viro.' His death then may be placed in A.D. 103.

Frontinus was a friend of Martial, who addresses to him _Epig._ x. 58.

We get a glimpse of his character from Pliny's words, _Ep._ ix. 19, 6, 'Vetuit exstrui monumentum: sed quibus verbis? "Impensa monumenti supervacua est: memoria nostri durabit si vita meruimus."'

(2) WORKS.

During the reign of Domitian (A.D. 81-96) Frontinus composed two works. One of these, of which only fragments survive, dealt with the art of land-surveying and the laws relating to land. The other, written after A.D. 84, when Domitian received the title of Germanicus (_Strat._ ii. II, 7, 'eo bello quo victis hostibus cognomen Germanici meruit'), is a manual of strategy, in three Books, entitled _Strategemata_. It is a sequel to a previous work (now lost) on the theory of the art of war, and illustrates its rules by historical examples derived chiefly from Sallust, Caesar, and Livy. The purpose of the book did not require the citation of authorities, and the mention of Livy in ii. 5, 31 and 34, is probably spurious. Frontinus gives either a paraphrase retaining some of the expressions of the original (cf. _Strat._ i. 5, 16, with Liv. xxxv. 11, 2-13), or a bald summary (cf. _Strat._ ii. 5, 1, with Liv. i. 14, 6-11). See G. Gundermann, _Jahrb. f. class. Philol._, suppl. xvi., p. 315 _sqq._ (1888). Some later hand has added a fourth Book, which not only presents marked differences in style and tone from the original three, but deals with an entirely different subject--the maintenance of discipline, and other duties of a commander.

Under Nerva and Trajan (A.D. 97-98) Frontinus wrote his treatise on the Roman water-supply, _De Aquis Urbis Romae_. Having been appointed _curator aquarum_, he considered it his first duty to acquaint himself with the details of his department, and published the result of his inquiries in the hope that they might be useful to his successors (cf. the preface). The book was begun under Nerva (praef. 'cum ... sit nunc mihi ab Nerva Augusto ... aquarum iniunctum officium'), but Nerva had been succeeded by Trajan before it was completed (118, 'divus Nerva'; 93, 'Traianum Augustum').

JUVENAL.

The sources for Juvenal's life are (1) his works; (2) an inscription found at Aquinum; (3) thirteen extant _vitae_; (4) information of the scholiasts; (5) references in Martial and other writers.

The inscription at Aquinum has been much debated; but it is safe to follow the opinion of Mommsen, whose experience in identifying people mentioned in inscriptions with historical characters depends upon a width of knowledge that no other person possesses. The _vitae_ are all early mediaeval works, probably founded on a brief account of the poet's life composed by some unknown ancient writer, and existing at the early Renaissance. The extant _vitae_ contain a very few facts which appear to be derived from this source, together with a number of inferences gathered, often incorrectly, from Juvenal's works. The most important statement is that regarding Juvenal's birth, which is contained in the _vita_ in the Codex Barberinus, 8, 18, discovered by J. Dürr. The date is given in such precise and accurate terms, and is in itself so probable as solving so many of the questions connected with the poet's works, that to invent it requires an amount of knowledge with which we cannot credit the writer of this otherwise very poor account. The statements of the _vitae_ must be carefully weighed, and accepted only when rendered probable by other considerations.[93]

Juvenal's name is given in some of the MSS. as Decimus Iunius Iuvenalis. He was born A.D. 55.

_Codex Barberinus_, 'Iunius Iuvenalis Aquinas Iunio Iuvenale patre, matre vero Septumuleia ex Aquinati municipio Claudio Nerone et L. Antistio consulibus natus est. Sororem habuit Septumuleiam, quae Fuscino nupsit.'

The statement about his sister and mother is very doubtful; that about Fuscinus is a bad inference from the fact that _Sat._ 14 (on the education of children) is addressed to him. The name _Septumuleia_ may be invented from 14, 105, _septima lux_. Juvenal's sister must have been called Iunia after her father; the naming of a girl after her mother was a mediaeval idea.

Juvenal was born at Aquinum, a town of the Volscians. Twelve of the _vitae_ agree in this, and they are confirmed by the poet's own words supposed to be addressed to him by his friend Umbricius: 3, 318-21,

'Quotiens te Roma tuo refici properantem reddet Aquino, me quoque ad Helvinam Cererem vestramque Dianam converte a Cumis.'

Cf. 6, 57,

'agello cedo paterno.'

This is corroborated by the inscription found at Aquinum (_C.I.L._ x. 5382), which gives us other information about the poet:

_cere_RI · SACRVM _d . iu_NIVS · IVVENALIS _trib_ COH_·i_·DELMATARVM II · VIR · QVINQ · FLAMEN DIVI · VESPASIANI VOVIT · DEDICAV_itq_VE SVA PEC

This inscription appears to have stood near the temple of Ceres Helvina or Elvina, dedicated by a member of the gens Elvia, references to which are found on inscriptions of the district.

The _vitae_ say that Juvenal was the son of a freedman.[94] Cf. _Vitae_ i. _a_, i. _b_, ii. _c_ (Dürr): 'libertini locupletis incertum filius an alumnus.' _Vita_ v. (Dürr), 'ordinis ut fertur libertinorum.' This story is due to a misapprehension of some of Juvenal's references. 1, 99-102,

'Iubet a praecone vocari ipsos Troiugenas (nam vexant limen et ipsi nobiscum): "da praetori, da deinde tribuno." Sed libertinus prior est.'

_Libertinus_ here is not to be taken to mean that the entire set are freedmen.

As to 4, 98,

'unde fit ut malim fraterculus esse gigantis,'

it gives no evidence whatever of Juvenal's position. If it meant anything, it would rather imply that Juvenal was the son of a poor Italian and not of a foreign slave. So for 11, 145-6. His family was respectable, his means were fair, and he could afford to look down on upstarts in virtue both of his birth and of his property, although it is clear from his own works that he had in Rome the position of a rather humble dependent, who would be exposed to insult at the tables of the rich and powerful. Cf. 3, 318; 6, 57 (above); 12, 89, 'laribus paternis'; 1, 24,

'patricios omnes opibus cum provocet unus, quo tondente gravis iuveni mihi barba sonabat.'

So 10, 225.

In _vita_ iv. he is said to have attained equestrian rank. (Tribunician rank implied equestrian). This, on the whole, is confirmed by the inscription, and may be founded on the original _vita_.

Juvenal had a full course of education, first under the _litterator_ and the _grammaticus_, then under the _rhetor._[95] Cf. 1, 15,

'Et nos ergo manum ferulae subduximus, et nos consilium dedimus Sullae, privatus ut altum dormiret.'

This would imply a good position, and a certain command of money. Such _patres libertini_ as Horace's were very rare.

The inscription above quoted (_divi Vespasiani_ shows that its date is after A.D. 79, and probably not long after) informs us that Juvenal was (1) 'tribunus cohortis I. Delmatarum'[96]; (2) 'duumvir quinquennalis'[97] and 'flamen divi Vespasiani' at Aquinum. The dates when Juvenal held these posts cannot be determined exactly; but we can infer certain points.

(1) There was a _certus ordo honorum_ in municipal life, and Juvenal must have held the quaestorship and the aedileship before the _duumviratus quinquennalis_. The lower limit of entering on a municipal career was twenty-five, according to an order of Augustus, and people did not usually begin it much later; we may therefore conclude that these municipal posts were held by Juvenal somewhere between A.D. 80 and 90. The last year is approximately fixed by the way in which Martial in two of his epigrams (vii. 24 and 91) belonging to A.D. 91 or 92 speaks of Juvenal; the words show that the latter must have been established in Rome for some time.

(2) In ordinary course Juvenal would enter the army after the completion of his seventeenth year. The short time he took to arrive at the position of tribune, and the statement of _vita_ iv. 'cum ... ad dignitatem equestris ordinis pervenire sua virtute meruisset,' make it probable that he entered the army as _petitor militiae equestris_, as a preliminary step towards entering on a political career.

The cohors Delmatarum I., which Juvenal commanded as tribune, was in Britain in A.D. 106, and in A.D. 124.[98] Probably it had been stationed there for a period of years, and it is likely that Juvenal filled his tribuneship there. Now, all the _vitae_ inform us that Juvenal was banished under the pretext of a military command. While the other _vitae_ give Egypt as the place of his banishment, _vita_ iv. gives Scotland; and it seems highly probable that _vita_ iv. has confused Juvenal's regular military command in Britain, and his banishment, late in life, to Egypt. The words are:

'[Tyrannus] sub honoris praetextu fecit eum praefectum militis contra Scotos, qui bellum contra Romanos moverant.'

This is supported by Juvenal's references to Britain. Some of these, like his references to Egypt, seem, in contradistinction to most of his references to foreign parts, to imply personal knowledge and observation. They are as follows:

(1) 2, 159-161,

'Arma quidem ultra litora Iuvernae promovimus et modo captas Orcadas ac minima contentos nocte Britannos.'

Here 'Iuverna' is the old name of Ireland, which is not mentioned even in Tacitus' _Agricola_[99]; for the Orcades cf. Tac. _Agr._ 10; and the excessive shortness of the summer nights mentioned in the last clause is especially true of the north of Scotland.

(2) 10, 14,

'Quanto delphinis balaena Britannica maior.'

This is also particularly applicable to the north of Scotland, whales being frequently seen off the Orkney and Shetland Islands.

(3) 4, 141,

'Rutupinove edita fundo ostrea.'

(4) 14, 196,

'Castella Brigantum.'

(5) 15, 111,

'Gallia causidicos docuit facunda Britannos, de conducendo loquitur iam rhetore Thule.'

Cf. Tac. _Agr._ 21.

(6) 15, 124, 'Brittones.' This form is rarely found except in military inscriptions,[100] and could scarcely have been used except by one familiar with the camp in Britain.[101]

That Juvenal came to Rome about A.D. 90 has been shown above. This step he may have taken to forward his promotion in the army and afterwards in the procuratorial service. His failure in this direction may have led to his pessimism. His friendship with Martial (whom, however, he does not mention) is shown by Mart. vii. 24 (cf. vii. 91),

'Cum Iuvenale meo quae me committere temptas, quid non audebis, perfida lingua, loqui?' etc.

That he was still in Rome in B.C. 101, and had the entrée of the atria of rich nobles is shown by Mart. xii. 18, written in that year.

'Dum tu forsitan inquietus erras clamosa, Iuvenalis, in Subura aut collem dominae teris Dianae, dura per limina te potentiorum sudatrix toga ventilat vagumque maior Caelius et minor fatigant, me multos repetita post Decembres accepit mea rusticumque fecit auro Bilbilis et superba ferro.'

From this we see that he lived in the Subura, the plebeian quarter. Cf. 3, 5,

'ego vel Prochytam praepono Suburae.'

While in Rome he still possessed his land at Aquinum and also a property at Tibur; 11, 65,

'de Tiburtino veniet pinguissimus agro haedulus.'

The statement of the _vitae_ that Juvenal studied rhetoric till middle life is, as already stated, improbable, as being inconsistent with his military and municipal career; 'facundus,' applied to him by Mart.