Chapter 68

'Sunt nobis nulla profecto numina; cum caeco rapiantur saecula casu, mentimur regnare Iovem.'

_Rhetorical treatment_ is seen in (1) the vast amount of hyperbole employed; cf. the account of the siege of Massilia, iii. 538-762; (2) the geographical and mythological learning introduced. This is sometimes inaccurate; the best known instance is his confusion of Pharsalus and Philippi; cf. i. 1 and 688.

_Lucan's models._--(1) For diction, chiefly Virgil.[77] Horace and Ovid are also imitated.

(2) For history Lucan is supposed to have used Livy mostly. How far he used other authorities is unknown. His history is sometimes inexact. In ii. 478 _sqq._ the character of L. Domitius Ahenobarbus is falsely portrayed. So the journey of Cato to the shrine of Hammon, ix. 511 _sqq._

(3) Seneca is one of his authorities for science and philosophy. Thus in describing the Nile, x. 194-331, Lucan has used Seneca, _Nat. Quaest._ iv. 1-2. The biographer of the _Codex Vossianus_ ii. attributes (probably wrongly) the first seven verses of Book i. to Seneca.

'Seneca, qui fuit avonculus eius, quia ex abrupto incohabat, hos vii. versus addidit: "Bella per Emathios" usque "et pila minantia pilis."'

_Criticisms of Lucan._--Petronius, in introducing his parody of Lucan, says, § 118, 'Ecce belli civilis ingens opus quisquis attigerit, nisi plenus litteris, sub onere labetur. Non enim res gestae versibus comprehendendae sunt, quod longe melius historici faciunt, sed per ambages deorumque ministeria et fabulosum sententiarum tormentum praecipitandus est liber spiritus.' See p. 275.

Quint. x. 1, 90, 'Lucanus ardens et concitatus et sententiis clarissimus et, ut dicam quod sentio, magis oratoribus quam poetis imitandus.'

PETRONIUS.

The _Satirae_ of Petronius are attributed in the MSS. to Petronius Arbiter. It is practically certain that the author was C. Petronius, once proconsul of Bithynia and afterwards consul, who was long a member of Nero's inner circle, and who, in A.D. 66, when accused by Tigellinus, anticipated execution by suicide.

Tac. _Ann._ xvi. 18, 'Proconsul Bithyniae, et mox consul, vigentem se ac parem negotiis ostendit. Dein revolutus ad vitia, seu vitiorum imitatione, inter paucos familiarium Neroni adsumptus est, elegantiae arbiter, dum nihil amoenum et molle adfluentia putat, nisi quod ei Petronius adprobavisset. Unde invidia Tigellini ... (Ch. 19) Forte ... Campaniam petiverat Caesar, et Cumas usque progressus Petronius illic attinebatur. Nec tulit ultra timoris aut spei moras. Neque tamen praeceps vitam expulit, sed incisas venas, ut libitum, obligatas aperire rursum, et adloqui amicos, non per seria aut quibus gloriam constantiae peteret ... Flagitia principis sub nominibus exoletorum feminarumque et novitatem cuiusque stupri perscripsit, atque obsignata misit Neroni.'

The document mentioned above as sent to Nero has nothing to do with the extant _Satirae_. That C. Petronius is the author of the work is rendered even more certain from the fact that it was obviously written in Nero's time by a man of high culture and knowledge of the world.

The novel contains an account of the adventures of a certain Encolpius, as told by himself. Encolpius comes in contact with Priapus in Massilia, Cumae, and Croton; and probably the wrath of Priapus (a parody of the wrath of Poseidon in the Odyssey) is the leading motive that binds the disjointed parts. Cf. ch. 139,

'Me quoque per terras, per cani Nereos aequor Hellespontiaci sequitur gravis ira Priapi.'

The work, the extant parts of which are from Books xv. and xvi., is in form a Satira Menippea,[78] alternately prose and verse. The longer episodes, as the supper of Trimalchio and the story of the matron of Ephesus, are exclusively prose. In the _Cena Trimalchionis_, where Encolpius and his company are entertained by a rich freedman, Petronius has given us a correct account of provincial life in South Italy. Mommsen (_Hermes_, xiii. 106) has shown that Cumae was the town where Trimalchio lived. It is a 'Graeca urbs' (ch. 81), and a Roman colony (ch. 44, etc.), so that it cannot be Naples. The chief magistrates are called _praetores_ (ch. 65), which suits Cumae alone of the towns of this district. The only objection to Cumae being the place is the passage in ch. 48, where an event at Cumae is given as something wonderful and unusual:

'Nam Sibyllam quidem Cumis ego ipse oculis meis vidi in ampulla pendere, et cum illi pueri dicerent: +Sibylla, ti theleis?+ respondebat illa: +apothanein thelo+.'

This, however, may simply be given for comic effect. Friedländer thinks _Cumis_ is a wrong reading. The date of Encolpius' adventures cannot be under Tiberius, for the emperor is called 'pater patriae' (ch. 60), a title which Tiberius refused. Mommsen thinks the dramatic date is under Augustus; Friedländer,[79] towards the end of Claudius' or the beginning of Nero's reign. The cognomen of Trimalchio, Maecenatianus (ch. 71), means that he was a freedman of the well-known Maecenas. Trimalchio, therefore, came to Rome as a boy (ch. 29; 75) before Maecenas' death (B.C. 8), and was probably born about B.C. 18. He is represented as 'senex' (ch. 27), _i.e._ at least sixty, but may have been over seventy. A.D. 57 is probably the later limit of date. Mommsen thinks that the words (ch. 57), 'puer capillatus in hanc coloniam veni: adhuc basilica non erat facta,' mean that when Trimalchio came to Cumae it was not a Roman colony. Now, Cumae became a colony between 43 and 27 B.C., and, on this supposition, the supper of Trimalchio would have to be placed between A.D. 7 and A.D. 23, as it is about fifty years since Trimalchio came to Cumae. Friedländer, however, thinks that the basilica would not have been put up immediately the town became a colony.

The language of the narrative is that of the educated classes of the time, and is in close agreement with the style of Seneca the younger. The diction of Trimalchio and his fellow-freedman is the South Italian popular speech of the time, filled with grammatical mistakes and provincialisms, and rich in proverbial expressions. The longest poems in the work are: (1) _Troiae halosis_ (ch. 89), 65 senarii, supposed to be a parody of Nero's poem of the same name; (2) _De bello civili_ (ch. 119-124), 295 hexameters, in which Lucan's style is imitated and sometimes parodied. Cf. ll. 26-7,

'Et laxi crines et tot nova nomina vestis, quaeque virum quaerunt,'

with Lucan, i. 164-5,

'Cultus gestare decoros vix nuribus rapuere mares';

and ll. 51-2,

'Praeterea gemino deprensam gurgite plebem faenoris illuvies ususque exederat aeris,'

with Lucan, i. 181,

'Hinc usura vorax, avidumque in tempora faenus.'

CALPURNIUS SICULUS.

Eleven eclogues used to be attributed to T. Calpurnius Siculus, but only the first seven are his work, the last four being written by M. Aurelius Olympius Nemesianus in the second half of the 3rd century A.D. A MS. now lost gave before _Ecl._ 1, 'Titi Calphurnii Siculi bucolicum carmen ... incipit'; and before _Ecl._ 8, 'Aurelii Nemesiani poetae Carthaginiensis ecloga prima incipit.'

Some information about Calpurnius' life is got from his works. In 4, 17-8, he (as Corydon) mentions a brother; in 4, 155-6, he speaks of his poverty; and in 4, 29 _sqq._, of Meliboeus as having come to his assistance when about to leave for Spain; cf. _Ecl._ 4, 36-42,

Ecce nihil querulum per te, Meliboee, sonamus; per te secura saturi recubamus in umbra, et fruimur silvis Amaryllidos, ultima nuper litora terrarum, nisi tu, Meliboee, fuisses, ultima visuri, trucibusque obnoxia Mauris pascua Geryonis.

The old theory was that Calpurnius lived in the time of Carus and his sons (in the second half of the 3rd century A.D.), but the facts fit in best with the view that he lived at the beginning of Nero's reign. (1) Meliboeus in _Ecl._ 4 probably stands for Seneca (others suppose Calpurnius Piso to be meant); 4, 53-7,

Nam tibi non tantum venturos discere nimbos agricolis qualemque ferat sol aureus ortum, attribuere dei, sed dulcia carmina saepe concinis.

These lines agree with the fact of Seneca's being the author of _Naturales Quaestiones_ and of tragedies. (2) _Ecl._ i. 77-83 refers to the comet which appeared at the beginning of Nero's reign. (3) References to Nero's youth and beauty, poetical gifts, the games he gave, and the new era of peace he introduced; 1, 42-5,

Aurea secura cum pace renascitur aetas, et redit ad terras tandem squalore situque alma Themis posito, iuvenemque beata secuntur saecula, maternis causam qui vicit in ulnis

7, 6,

quae patula iuvenis deus edit harena.

Cf. also 1, 84-8; 4, 84-9; 7, 83-4. _Ecl._ 7 used to be taken as referring to the Colosseum, which was not commenced till about A.D. 77; but the games may be those mentioned in Sueton. _Nero_, 11, and the wooden amphitheatre in 7, 23-4, may be that mentioned by Sueton. _Nero_, 12, and Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 31.

The difference of authorship of _Ecl._ 1-7 and of _Ecl._ 8-11 is shown by the following: (1) Final _o_ shows classical usage in 1-7, but in 8-11 we have _expecto_ (9, 26), _coniungo_ (10, 14), _ambo_ (9, 17), and the like; (2) 1-7 show only eight elisions, 7-11 show thirty-nine; (3) no ending like _montivagus Pan_ (10, 17) is found in 1-7; (4) _fateor_ and _memini_ used parenthetically are common in 1-7, and not found in 8-11; (5) there are no allusions to the emperor in 8-11; (6) _Ecl._ 9 shows imitations of _Ecl._ 2 and 3; (7) 8-11 agree in many points with Nemesianus' _Cynegetica_.

The _Eclogues_ are modelled chiefly on Virgil and Theocritus, _e.g._ _Ecl._ 3 on Verg. _Ecl._ 7 and Theocr. 3, 14, and 23.

The poem _de laude Pisonis_ is now generally attributed to Calpurnius Siculus. One point of similarity with Calpurnius' other poems is the rareness of elision, there being only two instances (ll. 24, 259). The description of Piso's liberality and eloquence (ll. 32, 88, 97 _sqq._) and of his skill in draughts (ll. 178-96) corresponds with the information given by Tac. _Ann._ xv. 48 and the Schol. on Iuv. 5, 109, about Calpurnius Piso, who flourished under Claudius.

AETNA.

This poem, in 645 hexameter lines, is attributed to Virgil in the MSS., but is probably by Lucilius Iunior, to whom Seneca addresses his _Epistulae Morales_, _De Providentia_, and _Quaestiones Naturales_. Lucilius was younger than Seneca (Sen. _Ep._ 26, 7, 'iuvenior es'), and was born at Naples or Pompeii.

Sen. _Ep._ 49, 1, 'Ecce Campania et maxime Neapolis ad Pompeiorum tuorum conspectum incredibile est quam recens desiderium tui fecerint.'

Lucilius had held procuratorial offices in Alpes Graiae et Poeninae, Epirus, Creta et Cyrene, and Sicily.

_Ibid._ 44, 2, 'Eques Romanus es et ad hunc ordinem tua te perduxit industria.' _Ibid._ 31, 9, 'Quo modo, inquis, isto pervenitur? Non per Poeninum Graiumve montem, nec per deserta Candaviae, nec Syrtes tibi nec Scylla aut Charybdis adeundae sunt, quae tamen omnia transisti procuratiunculae pretio.'[80]

Sen. _N.Q._ iv. praef. 1, 'Delectat te, Lucili, Sicilia et officium procurationis otiosae.'

For his life cf. also the words put into his mouth by Sen. _N.Q._ iv. praef. 15-17, which show his loyalty to his friends, 'Non mihi in amicitia Gaetulici (died A.D. 39) vel Gaius fidem eripuit, non in aliorum persona infeliciter amatorum Messalla et Narcissus ... propositum meum avertere potuerunt ... videbam apud Gaium tormenta, videbam ignes.'[81]

Seneca speaks of him as a pupil in philosophy in _Ep._ 34, 2, 'Adsero te mihi: meum opus es.'

A literary work of his is spoken of by Seneca, also a poem in which he mentions Alpheus and Arethusa:

_Ep._ 46, 1, 'Librum tuum, quem mihi promiseras, accepi. Levis mihi visus est, cum esset nec mei nec tui corporis, sed qui primo adspectu aut T. Livi aut Epicuri posset videri ... Non tantum delectatus, sed gavisus sum.'

_N.Q._ iii. 26, 6, 'Hoc et a te traditum est ut in poemate, Lucili carissime, et a Vergilio, qui adloquitur Arethusam.'

A poem on Aetna is referred to in _Ep._ 79, 5-7, 'Donec pudor obstet, ne Aetnam describas in tuo carmine et hunc sollemnem omnibus poetis locum adtingas; quem quo minus Ovidius tractaret, nihil obstitit, quod iam Vergilius impleverat ... Aut ego te non novi aut Aetna tibi salivam movet: iam cupis grande aliquid et par prioribus scribere.'

Some authorities think that Lucilius had meant to incorporate this description in a larger poem, but changed his mind, and wrote a poem on Aetna alone.

As regards the date of the poem: (1) It was written at a time when imitation of Ovid was common. Cf. Sen. _N.Q._ iv. 2, 2, 'Quare non cum poeta meo iocor et illi Ovidium suum impingo?' (2) There is no mention of Vesuvius in the list of volcanoes in 1. 425 _sqq._ The poem must therefore have been written before A.D. 79.

The following are the arguments for Lucilius having been the author:

(1) The poem was written by one who knew Aetna and the vicinity. Now Lucilius was long procurator of Sicily.

(2) Military metaphors, as ll. 464-74, would fit in with his having been a soldier.

(3) The author speaks as if he knew the neighbourhood of Naples well.

(4) However, the argument that the writer shows Epicurean views, and that Lucilius was an Epicurean, has little weight. (_a_) There are Stoical doctrines in the poem. Cf. ll. 33-5, 68-70, on the divinity of the stars; ll. 173-4, which maintain that the world would come back to its former state; ll. 536-9, where Heraclitus' doctrine of fire is recommended. (_b_) The _Epistulae Morales_ only show that Lucilius had a leaning to Epicureanism, not that he was an Epicurean. Cf. _Ep._ 23, 9, 'Vocem tibi Epicuri tui reddere,' and other playful references.

(5) The views on natural science given in the poem are sometimes the same as those in Sen. _N.Q._ This would fix the date of the poem between 65 and 79 A.D. Cf. _Aetna_, 123,

'Flumina quin etiam latis currentia rivis occasus habuere suos: aut illa vorago derepta in praeceps fatali condidit ore aut occulta fluunt tectis adoperta cavernis atque inopinatos referunt procul edita cursus';

and Sen. _N.Q._ iii. 26, 3, 'Quaedam flumina palam in aliquem specum decidunt et sic ex oculis auferuntur, quaedam consumuntur paulatim et intercidunt. Eadem ex intervallo revertuntur recipiuntque et nomen et cursum.' Cf. also _Aetna_, 96,

'Defit namque omnis hiatu, secta est omnis humus penitusque cavata latebris exiles suspensa vias agit';

and Sen. _N.Q._ v. 14, 1, 'Non tota solido contextu terra in imum usque fundatur, sed multis partibus cava et caecis suspensa latebris.' So the story of the Catanian brothers (ll. 624-45) is told by Sen. _De Benef._ iii. 37, 2-3.

Imitations of Lucretius abound. Cf. ll. 219 _sqq._,

'Nunc quoniam in promptu est operis natura solique, unde ipsi venti, quae res incendia pascit,' etc.

For the author's attacks on superstition, cf. ll. 91-3,

'Debita carminibus libertas ista; sed omnis in vero mihi cura: canam quo fervida motu aestuet Aetna novosque rapax sibi congerat ignes.'

A version of the _Phaenomena_ of Aratus is extant, the author of which is called in the MSS. 'Claudius Caesar,' or 'Germanicus.' He is generally identified with Germanicus, the adopted son of Tiberius (so Jerome and Lactantius), though in modern times the poem has been ascribed to Domitian, who had the title of 'Germanicus' from A.D. 84. There are also fragments of _Prognostica_, which are independent of Aratus.

PLINY THE ELDER.

(1) LIFE.

There is a very brief life of Pliny by Suetonius, but most of our information about him is derived from his own writings and the letters of his nephew (Plin. _Ep._ iii. 5; v. 8; vi. 16; vi. 20).

C. Plinius Secundus was born A.D. 23 or 24, for at the time of his death in A.D. 79 he was in his fifty-sixth year (Plin. _Ep._ iii. 5, 7, 'decessisse anno sexto et quinquagesimo'). His birthplace was Comum in Cisalpine Gaul, according to Sueton. _vit. Plin._ In an anonymous Life he is styled 'Veronensis,' probably on account of the phrase in _N.H._ praef. 1, 'Catullum conterraneum meum,' where, however, _terra_ means Gallia, the province, not the city.

Pliny was the son of an _eques_, and had a sister married to L. Caecilius of Novum Comum (see p. 139). He came to Rome not later than A.D. 35 (_N.H._ xxxvii. 81, 'Servilii Noniani quem consulem vidimus'), and was trained in poetry and literature, probably by P. Pomponius Secundus[82]; his instructors in rhetoric are not known, but he mentions as rhetoricians Remmius Palaemon (xiv. 49) and Arellius Fuscus (xxxiii. 152). In botany he learned much from Antonius Castor (xxv. 9).

At the beginning of the reign of Claudius, Pliny was an eye-witness of the building operations at the harbour of Ostia, A.D. 42 (ix. 14): in 44 he practised in the law courts. Having decided on a military career, he would begin, according to the regulation of Claudius (Sueton. _Claud._ 25), with the command of a cohort of infantry. He was next _praefectus alae_ (Plin. _Ep._ iii. 5, 3) under Corbulo, who was _legatus_ of Germania Inferior, A.D. 47, in his campaign against the Chauci: cf. _N.H._ xvi. 2, 'Sunt vero in septemtrione visae nobis Chaucorum [gentes]'; and in A.D. 50 fought under Pomponius against the Chatti. His 'castrense contubernium' with Titus (born A.D. 41) was probably in 55 or 56, when he was in the army of Pompeius Paulinus: cf. xxxiii. 143, 'Pompeium Paulinum XII pondo argenti habuisse apud exercitum ferocissimis gentibus oppositum scimus.' Personal knowledge of Germany appears in several passages of the _N.H._, e.g. xii. 98, 'extremo in margine imperii, qua Rhenus adluit, vidi'; xxii. 8, 'quem morem etiam nunc durare apud Germanos scio.'

Pliny was present at the festivities at Lake Fucinus in A.D. 52 (xxxiii. 63). During Nero's reign he spent some time in Campania (ii. 180) and Cisalpine Gaul (xxxv. 20), was a spectator at the Vatican games in A.D. 59, and saw the building of Nero's golden house after the fire of A.D. 64 (xxxvi. iii).

Under Vespasian Pliny was procurator in Italy, and in several of the provinces: Sueton. _vit._, 'Procurationes splendidissimas et continuas summa integritate administravit.' (_a_) Hispania Tarraconensis: Plin. _Ep._ iii. 5, 17, 'cum procuraret in Hispania'; (_b_) Gallia Narbonensis: _N.H._ ii. 150, 'ego vidi in Vocontiorum agro'; (_c_) Gallia Belgica: xviii. 183, 'nec recens subtrahemus exemplum in Treverico agro tertio ante hoc anno compertum'; (_d_) Africa: vii. 36, 'ipse in Africa vidi.' For his intimacy with Vespasian cf. Plin. _Ep._ iii. 5, 9, 'ante lucem ibat ad Vespasianum imperatorem ... inde ad delegatum sibi officium.'

In A.D. 79 Pliny was in command of the fleet at Misenum, when his scientific interest in the eruption of Vesuvius led him to approach too near the volcano, with the result that he was suffocated by the ashes (24th August). For a detailed account of his death, see Plin. _Ep._ vi. 16 (to Tacitus). Cf. Sueton. _vit._, 'Periit clade Campaniae. Cum enim Misenensi classi praeesset, et flagrante Vesuvio ad explorandas propius causas liburnica pertendisset, neque adversantibus ventis remeare posset, vi pulveris ac favillae oppressus est, vel, ut quidam existimant, a servo suo occisus, quem aestu deficiens ut necem sibi maturaret oraverit.'

(2) WORKS.

A chronological list of Pliny's writings is given by his nephew (_Ep._ iii. 5).

1. _De iaculatione equestri_.--'Hunc, cum praefectus alae militaret, pari ingenio curaque composuit.' This manual on the javelin as a cavalry weapon is mentioned by Pliny himself, _N.H._ viii. 162, 'Nos diximus in libro de iaculatione equestri condito.'

2. _De vita Pomponii Secundi_, in two Books, a tribute to the memory of a valued friend, the tragic poet Pomponius. Cf. _N.H._ xiv. 56, 'referentes vitam Pomponii Secundi vatis.'

3. _Bella Germaniae_, in twenty Books, a narrative of the Roman wars in Germany; begun by Pliny when serving in that country, the apparition of Drusus having besought him to rescue his name from oblivion (so Pliny the younger). Cf. Tac. _Ann._ i. 69, 'Tradit C. Plinius, Germanicorum bellorum scriptor.'

4. _Studiosus_, in three Books or six parts, a treatise on rhetoric from the very rudiments. Quintilian, though surprised at some of Pliny's views (xi. 3, 143; 148), numbers him among the more careful exponents of the subject (iii. 1, 21, 'accuratius scripsit'). The book contained models of good style: Gell. ix. 16, 1, 'refert plerasque sententias quas in declamandis controversiis lepide arguteque dictas putat.'

5. _Dubius Sermo_, in eight Books, published A.D. 67, towards the end of Nero's reign, when purely technical subjects alone could be treated without danger to an author. Cf. _N.H._ praef. 28, 'libellos quos de grammatica edidi.'

6. _A fine Aufidii Bassi_, in thirty-one Books. At what point Bassus' history ended and Pliny's began is not known: but the latter certainly dealt with the closing years of Nero's reign (_N.H._ ii. 199, 'anno Neronis principis supremo, sicut in rebus eius exposuimus'), as well as with the times of Vespasian and Titus (_N.H._ praef. 20, 'Vos omnes, patrem te fratremque diximus opere iusto, temporum nostrorum historiam orsi a fine Aufidii Bassi'). The work was completed in A.D. 77, but not published till after the author's death. His nephew says he wrote with scrupulous care: _Ep._ v. 8, 5, 'historias et quidem religiosissime scripsit.' The book was used by Tacitus (_Ann._ xiii. 20; xv. 53; _Hist._ iii. 28).

7. _Naturae Historiae_, in thirty-seven Books, is Pliny's only extant work. As he speaks of Titus as 'sexies consul,' the date of its presentation to him was A.D. 77. Book i. consists of a dedicatory epistle to Titus and a table of contents. The body of the work is arranged as follows: Book ii., the universe and the elements; iii.-vi., geography of Europe, Asia, and Africa; vii., anthropology and human physiology; viii.-xi., zoology; xii.-xix., botany; xx.-xxvii., the use of vegetable substances in medicine; xxviii.-xxxii., the use of animal substances in medicine; xxxiii.-xxxvii., mineralogy applied to medicine and the fine arts.

This work, which was meant not for continuous perusal, but for consultation as a book of reference, contained twenty thousand facts; and its preparation involved the reading of about two thousand volumes by one hundred authors (see _N.H._ praef. 17). The extracts he had made from these sources Pliny bequeathed to his nephew in one hundred and sixty volumes. He makes a point of acknowledging his obligations to other writers (praef. 21, 'in his voluminibus auctorum nomina praetexui, est enim benignum ... et plenum ingenui pudoris fateri per quos profeceris'); cf. the lists of authorities, Roman and foreign, prefixed to the work. Such devotion to natural science was unusual in men of Pliny's class, and not generally appreciated; cf. xxii. 15, 'Plerisque ultro etiam irrisui sumus ista commentantes atque frivoli operis arguimur.' As a scientific writer Pliny fails because he is not an original investigator, and because he lacks the critical faculty. For his method of working see Plin. _Ep._ iii. 5.

Politically, Pliny recognizes the necessity of the empire, but his heroes are old Romans such as Cincinnatus and Cato. His Roman and Italian feeling is intense: cf. xxxvii. 201, 'In toto orbe ... pulcherrima omnium est in rebusque merito principatum naturae obtinet Italia, rectrix parensque mundi altera.'

His view of life is gloomy (_N.H._ ii. 25, 'nec quidquam miserius homine'), and through the _Naturae Historiae_ there runs a monotonous strain of condemnation of the immorality of his day. He is uncertain as to divine providence, but considers the belief in it salutary, and he accepts portents (ii. 92). His tendency is, in the main, Stoic; he was probably acquainted with Paetus Thrasea, who corresponded with Pomponius.

VALERIUS FLACCUS.

His full name is given in the Vatican MS. as C. Valerius Flaccus Setinus Balbus. It is doubtful (even if the last two names really belong to the poet) whether _Setinus_ means from Setia in Italy or from Setia in Spain. The poet's Latinity gives no evidence on the point. Quintilian is the only Roman writer who refers to him; x. 1, 90, 'Multum in Valerio Flacco nuper amisimus'; which shows that he must have died about A.D. 90. In the beginning of the first Book of the _Argonautica_ (written shortly after A.D. 70), Valerius addresses Vespasian, referring to his exploits in Britain, and to the capture of Jerusalem by Titus; i. 7 _sqq._,

'Tuque o, pelagi cui maior aperti fama, Caledonius postquam tua carbasa vexit oceanus Phrygios prius indignatus Iulos, eripe me populis et habenti nubila terrae, sancte pater, veterumque fave veneranda canenti facta virum. Versam proles tua pandet Idumen (namque potest), Solymo nigrantem pulvere fratrem spargentemque faces et in omni turre furentem.'

i. 5 _sqq._ probably shows that Valerius was a quindecimvir sacris faciundis,

'Phoebe, mone, si Cymaeae mihi conscia vatis stat casta cortina domo, si laurea digna fronte viret.'

Cf. the allusion in viii. 239 _sqq._ to Cybele's bath, which was under the management of the xv.viri; and to the rites of lustration, iii. 417 _sqq._

There are several allusions to the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius in A.D. 79, _e.g._ iv. 507.

The _Argonautica_ is in eight Books, the last being incomplete, and the story breaking off shortly before the death of Medea's brother, Absyrtus. Valerius probably meant to write twelve Books, but it is not known how much farther he actually proceeded in his work. There is evidence to show that the last Books would have differed considerably from the story as given by Apollonius Rhodius; _e.g._ the visit to Phaeacia was probably omitted, as Jason was married at Peuce (Book viii.).

Apollonius is followed very closely, many passages being translated from him; thus iv. 236 = Apoll. ii. 38; vii. 404 = Apoll. in. 966. Valerius, however, amplifies where Apollonius is brief, and vice versa. Thus Apoll. ii. 948 _sqq._ is dismissed by Valerius v. 110 _sqq._ in a few words. The character painting of Valerius is superior to that of the original, cf. the character of Jason and of Aeetes. So for his artistic work; thus his portraiture of the gradual progress of Medea's love is superior to Apollonius' description, and to Virgil's of Dido.

The obligations to Virgil are paramount.

(1) Verbal; as i. 55,

'Tu, cui iam curaeque vigent animique viriles,'

from _Aen._ ix. 311,

'Ante annos animumque gerens curamque virilem.'

Cf. 'horrentem iaculis, nec credere quivi, heu quid agat, libans carchesia, summa dies, miscere polum, rumpere questus,' in Book i.[83]

(2) In matter. The description of Fame, ii. 116 _sqq._, is from _Aen._