Chapter 61

10, 7,

'Cui senex contra Lacon: "Non te destituit animus, sed vires meae. Quod fuimus, lauda, si iam damnas, quod sumus." Hoc cur, Philete, scripserim, pulchre vides.'

Martial is the only classical writer who refers to Phaedrus; iii. 20, 5,

'An aemulatur improbi iocos Phaedri?'

SENECA THE YOUNGER.

(1) LIFE.

L. Annaeus Seneca, the son of Annaeus Seneca, the rhetor, was born at Corduba in Spain. For information about his family see under 'Seneca the elder,' pp. 226-7. He was probably born about the beginning of our era, as he seems to have remembered Asinius Pollio, who died A.D. 5, and had passed his boyhood in A.D. 19, when the Jewish and Egyptian rites were expelled from Rome.

Sen. _de tranquill. animi_, 17, 7, 'Qualem Pollionem Asinium meminimus, quem nulla res ultra decimam [horam] retinuit.'

_Ep._ 108, 22, 'In Tiberii Caesaris principatum iuventae tempus inciderat: alienigena tum sacra movebantur.'

At an early age Seneca was brought to Rome by his mother's sister, who was probably the wife of Vitrasius Pollio, prefect of Egypt for sixteen years.

_Ad Helv._ 19, 2, 'Illius manibus in urbem perlatus sum.'

Seneca's mother took a great interest in his education, which was conducted under Fabianus Papirius (cf. _Ep._ 100, 9, etc.) and Sotion the Pythagorean, of Alexandria, pupils of Sextius (for Seneca's study of whom see _Ep._ 64).

_Ad Helv._ 15, 1, 'Vera vis materni doloris oritur ... "ubi studia, quibus libentius quam femina, familiarius quam mater intereram?"'

_Ep._ 108, 17, 'Dicebat [Sotion] quare ille animalibus abstinuisset, quare postea Sextius ... § 22. His ego instinctus abstinere animalibus coepi et anno peracto non tantum facilis erat mihi consuetudo, sed dulcis.'

The elder Seneca put an end to this abstinence, which was associated in the popular view with foreign superstitions (see _Ep._ 108, 17-23). This must have happened about A.D. 19. The influence of Sotion is seen in passages imitated from his book _de ira cohibenda_ by Seneca. Seneca also studied under Attalus, a Greek Stoic, possibly about A.D. 20.

_Ep._ 108, 13-15, 'Ego certe cum Attalum audirem in vitia, in errores, in mala vitae perorantem, saepe misertus sum generis humani et illum sublimem altioremque humano fastigio credidi ... Inde mihi quaedam permansere, Lucili. Magno enim in omnia inceptu veneram. Deinde ad civitatis vitam reductus ex bene coeptis pauca servavi: inde ostreis boletisque in omnem vitam renuntiatum est.'

Seneca speaks of his change of studies and occupations in _Ep._ 49, 2, 'Modo apud Sotionem philosophum puer sedi. Modo causas agere coepi. Modo desii velle agere, modo desii posse.'

In A.D. 31 Seneca was probably still at Rome; cf. _N.Q._ i. 1, 3, 'Vidimus [prodigium] eo tempore, quo de Seiano actum est.' Lipsius' inference[74] that Seneca made a voyage to Egypt about this time is probable, though Seneca himself gives no direct information about it. According to this theory his host was Vitrasius Pollio, prefect of Egypt. While in Egypt, Seneca was attacked by illness, and escaped death by his aunt's care. Cf. _ad Helv._ 19, 2, 'Illius pio maternoque nutricio per longum tempus aeger convalui.' Seneca accompanied Vitrasius when he resigned his office and returned with his wife to Italy A.D. 32 (Dio, lviii. 19, 6). They suffered shipwreck, and Vitrasius perished.

_Ad Helv._ 19, 4, 'Sed si prudentiam perfectissimae feminae novi, non patietur te nihil profuturo maerore consumi et exemplum tibi suum, cuius ego etiam spectator fui, narrabit. Carissimum virum amiserat, avunculum nostrum, cui virgo nupserat, in ipsa quidem navigatione: tulit tamen eodem tempore et luctum et metum evictisque tempestatibus corpus eius naufraga evexit.'

This theory is supported by the fact that Seneca wrote a work 'de ritu (al., situ) et sacris Aegyptiorum' (Serv. _ad Aen._ vi. 154).

Through his aunt's influence Seneca obtained the quaestorship.

_Ad Helv._ 19, 2, 'Illa pro quaestura mea gratiam suam extendit, et quae ne sermonis quidem aut clarae salutationis sustinuit audaciam, pro me vicit indulgentia verecundiam.'

Seneca's quaestorship must have been after the death of his aunt's husband, in A.D. 32, as the above passage shows, and before the death of Tiberius in A.D. 37, as it was with Tiberius that his aunt's influence lay, on account of her husband's services. After his quaestorship Seneca appears to have married (cf. _de ira_, iii. 36, 3, etc.). His wife must have died before A.D. 57, as in that year Seneca married Pompeia Paulina; cf. Dio, lxi. 10, 3, +gamon epiphanestaton egême+. By his first wife he had three sons (_ad Helv._ 2, 5).

While senator, Seneca incurred the jealousy of Caligula, and in A.D. 39 narrowly escaped death.

Dio, lix. 19, 7, +ho de dê Senekas ... diephtharê par' oligon, mêt' adikêsas ti, mête doxas, hoti dikên tina en tô synedriô parontos autou kalôs eipe+. For Seneca's attacks on Caligula cf. _ad Helv._ 10, 4; _Apocol._ 15, etc.

Sueton. _Cal._ 53, 'Peroraturus "stricturum se lucubrationis suae telum" minabatur; lenius comtiusque scribendi genus adeo contemnens, ut Senecam, tum maxime placentem, "commissiones meras" componere, et "harenam esse sine calce" diceret.'

In A.D. 41 Seneca was banished to Corsica, through the agency of Messalina, on the charge of adultery with Iulia Livilla, sister of Caligula, but really because he was suspected of belonging to the faction of Agrippina.

Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 42, 'Nec Suillius questu aut exprobratione abstinebat ... et Senecam increpans infensum amicis Claudii, sub quo iustissimum exilium pertulisset ... Se quaestorem Germanici, illum domus eius adulterum fuisse.'

Seneca was tried before the Senate, and Claudius prevented his execution.

_Ad Polyb._ 13, 2, 'Deprecatus est pro me senatum, et vitam mihi non tantum dedit, sed etiam petiit.'

While in Corsica he devoted himself to literature and science. Cf. _ad Helv._ 20, 1 (written in exile), 'Animus omnis occupationis expers operibus suis vacat et modo se levioribus studiis oblectat, modo ad considerandam suam universique naturam veri avidus insurgit: terras primum situmque earum quaerit.'

The _Consolatio ad Polybium_, written during this time, is full of flattery of Claudius.

Dio, lxi. 10, 2, +tên Messalinan kai tous tou Klaudiou exeleutherous ethôpeuen hôste kai biblion sphisin ek tês nêsou pempsai epainous autôn echon, ho meta tauta hyp' aischynês apêleipse+.

Seneca was recalled at the beginning of A.D. 49, became Nero's tutor (although he wished to visit Athens), and obtained the praetorship through the influence of Agrippina, with whom his name was coupled by popular rumour.

Tac. _Ann._ xii. 8, 'At Agrippina, ne malis tantum facinoribus notesceret, veniam exilii pro Annaeo Seneca, simul praeturam inpetrat, laetum in publicum rata ob claritudinem studiorum eius, utque Domitii pueritia tali magistro adulesceret et consiliis eiusdem ad spem dominationis uterentur, quia Seneca fidus in Agrippinam memoria beneficii et infensus Claudio dolore iniuriae credebatur.'

Schol. on _Iuv._ 5, 105, 'Revocatus ... etsi magno desiderio Athenas intenderet ab Agrippina tamen in palatium adductus.'

Dio, lxi. 10, 1, +ou gar apechrêsen autô tên Ioulian moicheusai, oude beltiôn ek tês phygês egeneto, alla kai tê Agrippinê eplêsiazen.+

For Seneca's tutorship cf. also Sueton. _Nero_, 52, 'Liberales disciplinas omnes fere puer attigit. Sed a philosophia eum mater avertit, monens imperaturo contrariam esse: a cognitione veterum oratorum Seneca praeceptor, quo diutius in admiratione sui detineret.'

It is probable that Seneca was, like Nero, privy to the murder of Claudius in A.D. 54. Cf. his sarcasms against Claudius in his _Apocolocyntosis_.

Sueton. _Nero_ 33 (of Nero), 'Cuius [Claudi] necis etsi non auctor, at conscius fuit: neque dissimulanter, ut qui boletos, in quo cibi genere venenum is acceperat, quasi deorum cibum, posthac proverbio Graeco conlaudare sit solitus.'

Seneca wrote for Nero a speech which he delivered on the occasion of Claudius' death.

Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 3, 'Die funeris laudationem eius princeps exorsus est; dum antiquitatem generis, consulatus ac triumphos maiorum enumerabat, intentus ipse et ceteri; liberalium quoque artium commemoratio, et nihil regente eo triste rei publicae ab externis accidisse, pronis animis audita. Postquam ad providentiam sapientiamque flexit, nemo risui temperare, quamquam oratio a Seneca composita multum cultus praeferret, ut fuit illi viro ingenium amoenum et temporis eius auribus accommodatum.'

He acted as a check on Nero (Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 6; 11), and baffled Agrippina's vengeance and ambition.

Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 2, 'Ibaturque in caedes, nisi Afranius Burrus et Annaeus Seneca obviam issent. (Ch. 5) Quin et legatis Armeniorum causam gentis apud Neronem orantibus escendere suggestum imperatoris et praesidere simul parabat, nisi ceteris pavore defixis Seneca admonuisset, venienti matri occurreret.'

Seneca interfered to shelter Nero in his amour with Acte, A.D. 55, and used the occasion to stir up feud between Agrippina and Nero (Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 13). Hence followed an attack by Agrippina on Seneca.

Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 14, 'Audiretur hinc Germanici filia, inde debilis rursus Burrus et exsul Seneca, trunca scilicet manu et professoria lingua generis humani regimen expostulantes.'

It is unlikely that Seneca opposed the murder of Britannicus (Feb. A.D. 55). Cf. Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 17, 'Facinus cui plerique iam hominum ignoscebant, antiquas fratrum discordias et insociabile regnum aestimantes.'[75]

Seneca took part shortly afterwards in the trial in which Agrippina was found not guilty (Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 20-21). There are many references to Seneca's great power and wealth at this time.[76]

Cf. Dio, lxi. 4, 1, +autoi+ (Seneca and Burrus) +tên archên hapasan parelabon kai diôkêsan eph' hoson êdynêthêsan arista kai dikaiotata.+

Tac. _Ann._ xiv. 53 (Seneca addressing Nero in A.D. 62), 'Quartus decimus annus est, Caesar, ex quo spei tuae admotus sum, octavus, ut imperium obtines: medio temporis tantum honorum atque opum in me cumulasti, ut nihil felicitati meae desit nisi moderatio eius... At tu gratiam immensam, innumeram pecuniam circumdedisti, adeo ut plerumque intra me ipse volvam, "Egone, equestri et provinciali loco ortus, proceribus civitatis adnumeror? ... Talis hortos extruit, et per haec suburbana incedit, et tantis agrorum spatiis, tam lato faenore exuberat?"'

Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 42 (speech of Suillius, A.D. 58), 'Qua sapientia, quibus philosophorum praeceptis, intra quadriennium regiae amicitiae ter miliens sestertium paravisset?' (Dio, lxi. 10, 2, gives his wealth as 75,000,000 denarii).

Seneca had many estates both in Italy (_Ep._ 123, 1, etc.) and abroad, and lent money abroad, even in Britain. His attraction to finance is seen in the number of metaphors he draws from that subject.

Sen. _vit. beat._ 17, 2, 'Cur trans mare possides? cur plura quam nosti?'

Dio, lxii. 2, 1 (of the rising of the Britons under Boudicca), +ho Senekas chilias sphisi myriadas akousin epi chrêstais elpisi tokôn daneisas, epeit' athroas te hama autas kai biaiôs eiseprassen.+

His attack on usury (_de ben._ vii. 10, 3) is a piece of theoretic philosophy.

In A.D. 57 Seneca was consul suffectus (Ulpian, _Dig._ xxxvi. 1). In A.D. 58 he brought about the downfall of the former delator, P. Suillius. Cf. Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 42, 'Variis deinde casibus iactatus et multorum odia meritus reus, haud tamen sine invidia Senecae damnatur. Is fuit P. Suillius.' Seneca is thought to have been implicated in Agrippina's murder in A.D. 59. He wrote to the Senate for Nero an account of her death.

Tac. _Ann._ xiv. 7 (Nero says after the fruitless attempt of Anicetus to kill Agrippina), 'Quod contra subsidium sibi nisi quid Burrus et Seneca expedirent? Quos statim acciverat, incertum an aperiens, et ante ignaros. Igitur longum utriusque silentium, ne inriti dissuaderent; an eo descensum credebant, ut, nisi praeveniretur Agrippina, pereundum Neroni esset? Post Seneca, hactenus promptius, ut respiceret Burrum, ac sciscitaretur an militi imperanda caedes esset. (Ch. 11) Ergo non iam Nero, cuius immanitas omnium questus anteibat, sed Seneca adverso rumore erat, quod oratione tali confessionem scripsisset.'

The death of Burrus in A.D. 62 weakened the power of Seneca, who resolved to retire. His request, however, was not granted by Nero (Tac. _Ann._ xiv. 55-6), but he reduced his establishment, and lived in semi-privacy.

Tac. _Ann._ xiv. 52, 'Mors Burri infregit Senecae potentiam, quia nec bonis artibus idem virium erat altero velut duce amoto, et Nero ad deteriores inclinabat. Hi variis criminationibus Senecam adoriuntur ... Certe finitam Neronis pueritiam, et robur iuventae adesse. Exueret magistrum, satis amplis doctoribus instructus maioribus suis. (Ch. 56) Instituta prioris potentiae commutat, prohibet coetus salutantium, vitat comitantis, rarus per urbem, quasi valetudine infensa aut sapientiae studiis domi attineretur.'

Later in A.D. 62, came an unsuccessful attempt to ruin Seneca. Tac. _Ann._ xiv. 65, 'Romanus secretis criminationibus incusaverat Senecam ut Gai Pisonis socium; sed validius a Seneca eodem crimine perculsus est.'

In A.D. 64, on the occasion of the burning of Rome by Nero, Seneca wished to retire. He is said to have offered money to repair the disasters of the fire.

Tac. _Ann._ xv. 45, 'Ferebatur Seneca, quo invidiam sacrilegii a semet averteret, longinqui ruris secessum oravisse, et postquam non concedebatur, ficta valetudine, quasi aeger nervis, cubiculum non egressus.'

Dio, lxii. 25, 3, +pasan autô tên ousian epi tê tôn oikodomoumenôn prophasei kecharismenos.+

The story given in Tac. _Ann._ xv. 45 of the attempt to poison Seneca probably arose from his abstemious habits.

'Tradidere quidam venenum ei per libertum ipsius cui nomen Cleonicus paratum iussu Neronis, vitatumque a Seneca proditione liberti seu propria formidine, dum persimplici victu et agrestibus pomis, ac si sitis admoneret, profluente aqua vitam tolerat.'

In A.D. 65 Seneca was implicated in the conspiracy of Piso, and was forced to commit suicide. His wife wished to die with him, but was prevented by Nero's orders.

Tac. _Ann._ xv. 60, 'Sequitur caedes Annaei Senecae, laetissima principi, non quia coniurationis manifestum compererat, sed ut ferro grassaretur, quando veneno non processerat ... (Ch. 63) Post quae eodem ictu brachia ferro exsolvunt. Seneca, quoniam senile corpus et parco victu tenuatum lenta effugia sanguini praebebat, crurum quoque et poplitum venas abrumpit. Saevisque cruciatibus defessus, ne dolore suo animum uxoris infringeret atque ipse visendo eius tormenta ad impatientiam delaberetur, suadet in aliud cubiculum abscedere. Et novissimo quoque momento suppeditante eloquentia advocatis scriptoribus pleraque tradidit ... (Ch. 64) At Nero nullo in Paulinam proprio odio, ac ne glisceret invidia crudelitatis, inhibere mortem. ... Seneca interim, durante tractu et lentitudine mortis, Statium Annaeum, diu sibi amicitiae fide et arte medicinae probatum, orat, provisum pridem venenum, quo damnati publico Atheniensium iudicio exstinguerentur, promeret; adlatumque hausit frustra, frigidus iam artus, et cluso corpore adversum vim veneni. Postremo stagnum calidae aquae introiit, respergens proximos servorum, addita voce, libare se liquorem illum Iovi liberatori. Exin balneo inlatus, et vapore eius exanimatus, sine ullo funeris sollemni crematur.'

There was a rumour that some of the conspirators intended to make Seneca emperor.

Tac. _Ann._ xv. 65, 'Fama fuit Subrium Flavum cum centurionibus occulto consilio, neque tamen ignorante Seneca, destinavisse, ut post occisum opera Pisonis Neronem Piso quoque interficeretur, tradereturque imperium Senecae, quasi insontibus claritudine virtutum ad summum fastigium delecto.'

(2) WORKS.

The following prose works are extant:

1. _Dialogorum libri_ xii.

(1) _ad Lucilium: quare aliqua incommoda bonis viris accidant cum providentia sit; sive de providentia_. This was probably a late work.

(2) _ad Serenum: nec iniuriam nec contumeliam accipere sapientem; sive de constantia sapientis_: written in the first years of Nero's reign.

(3-5) _ad Novatum de ira libri_ iii., probably written in the first year of Claudius' reign.

(6) _ad Marciam de consolatione_: written to console Marcia, the daughter of Cremutius Cordus, for the death of her son Metilius. The work may have been written in A.D. 41, as Caligula's name is studiously avoided.

(7) _ad Gallionem de vita beata_. This book, addressed to Seneca's brother Gallio (Novatus), was probably written shortly after A.D. 58, and justifies his having wealth though a philosopher.

(8) _ad Serenum de otio_. This work, like the next, was addressed to Annaeus Serenus, and was written probably about A.D. 62. Only a part of it is extant. The book discusses whether a wise man should engage in state affairs.

(9) _ad Serenum de tranquillitate animi_, probably written soon after Seneca's recall.

(10) _ad Paulinum de brevitate vitae_. For the date cf. 13, 8, 'Sullam ultimum Romanorum protulisse pomoerium.' Now, Claudius extended the pomoerium in A.D. 50, so this must have been written in A.D. 49, as the book was brought out after Seneca's return from exile.

(11) _ad Polybium de consolatione_. This book was addressed in A.D. 43 or 44 to Polybius, a favourite of Claudius, on the occasion of his brother's death. The date is fixed by the reference to Claudius' expedition to Britain in 12, 2-3. Cf. § 3, 'Non desinam totiens tibi offerre Caesarem. Illo moderante terras et ostendente, quanto melius beneficiis imperium custodiatur quam armis, illo rebus humanis praeside non est periculum, ne quid perdidisse te sentias.' For similar flattery of Claudius, cf. 7,4; 12,5.

(12) _ad Helviam matrem de consolatione_, written during his banishment.

2. _ad Neronem Caesarem de clementia_, in three Books, two of which are extant. The work was written in A.D. 55-6, doubtless to show the public what sort of instruction Seneca had given Nero, and what sort of emperor they had to expect (cf. i, 1, 1). The date is settled by i. 9, 1, '[divus Augustus] cum hoc aetatis esset quod tu nunc es, duodevicesimum egressus annum,' Nero having been born 15th December, A.D. 37. The flattery contained in ii. 1, 1-2, and elsewhere, can be justified to some extent by Nero's conduct at that time. Cf. Sueton. _Nero_, 10, 'Neque liberalitatis, neque clementiae, ne comitatis quidem exhibendae ullam occasionem omisit.'

3. _De Beneficiis_ in seven Books, addressed to Aebutius Liberalis of Lugdunum. It is probable that Books i.-iv. were published first, shortly after the death of Claudius (who is sneered at in i. 15, 6). Books v.-vii. are probably a later addition. Cf. v. 1, 1, 'In prioribus libris videbar consummasse propositum ... Quidquid ultra moror, non servio materiae, sed indulgeo ... Verum quia ita vis, perseveremus peractis.' The eulogy of Demetrius the Cynic in vii. 8-12, makes it probable that Book vii. at least was written in Seneca's last years.

4. _Apocolocyntosis_, a political satire on Claudius, written shortly after his death in A.D. 54. The explanation of the title is given by Dio, lx. 35, 2, +Agrippina kai ho Neron ... es ton ouranon anêgagon hon ek tou symposiou phoradên exenênochesan. hotheuper Loukios Iounios Galliôn ho tou Seneka adelphos asteiotaton ti apephthenxato; synethêke men gar kai ho Senekas syngramma, apokolokyntôsin auto hôsper tina apathanatisin onomasas, ekeinos de en brachytatô polla eipôn apomnêmoneuetai ... ephê ton Klaudion ankistrô es ton ouranon anenechthênai+. The work does not bear this title in the MSS., and there is no hint of the witticism in the book itself; the St. Gall MS., however, has 'Divi Claudii +APOTHÊOSIS+ Annei Senecae per Saturam,' which may be a corruption of the proper title. The title is derived from +kolokyntê+, 'a gourd,' which was used to denote a fool. Seneca (_Apocol._ 6) takes the official view that Claudius died of a fever. The work may have been published at the Saturnalia, and written shortly before, as Narcissus is represented as having just arrived in Orcus. The personal animosity of Seneca against Caligula and Claudius is everywhere apparent.

5. _Naturales Quaestiones_ in seven Books, addressed to Lucilius. Book ii. was written after A.D. 57, as in ii. 9, 2 an amphitheatre is mentioned which was built by Nero in that year. The work was finished before the end of A.D. 64, for in Book vii. there is no mention among other prodigies of the comet which appeared again at the end of that year.

6. _Epistulae morales ad Lucilium_. These were addressed to Lucilius Iunior, the author of 'Aetna' (see p. 277). There are extant one hundred and twenty four letters, in twenty Books, but some Books have been lost, as Gell. xii. 2, 3 quotes from Book xxii. Books i.-iii. were probably published by Seneca, the rest after his death, generally in chronological order.

The following poetical works are extant:

1. _Epigrams._--Nine on his exile are given in the editions; probably only Nos. 1, 2, and 7 are genuine.

2. _Tragedies._--Some of these may have been composed during Seneca's exile in Corsica. See _ad Helv._ 20 (quoted p. 243). The metrical treatment is strict, especially in the senarii. Anapaestic, glyconic, sapphic lines, etc., are used in the choral odes. There are only three actors, except in the spurious _Octavia_. The plays are: (1) _Hercules Furens_ and (2) _Troades_ or _Hecuba_, founded on Euripides. (3) _Phoenissae_ or _Thebais_. The two parts do not correspond. In ll. 1-362, Oedipus and Antigone are on their way to Cithaeron; from l. 363 to the end we find Iocasta and Antigone in Thebes while it is besieged by the Seven. (4) _Medea_, founded on Euripides. Ovid has also been imitated; so ll. 56 _sqq._ from Ovid, _Heroides_, 12, 137. (5) _Phaedra_ or _Hippolytus_. (6) _Oedipus_, after Sophocles. (7) _Agamemnon_, after Aeschylus. (8) _Thyestes_. (9) _Hercules Oetaeus_, of which the second part, at least, is spurious. (10) _Octavia_, a praetexta, describing the death of Octavia, Nero's wife (A.D. 62). Seneca himself appears in it. It cannot be by Seneca, as Nero's downfall (A.D. 68) is mentioned in ll. 628-36.

The following works are lost or exist only in fragments:

i. Poems of a light nature (Pliny, _Ep._ v. 3). 2. _De motu terrarum_, afterwards incorporated in _N.Q._ vi. (see _N.Q._ vi. 4, 2). 3. _De lapidum natura_. 4. _De piscium natura_. 5. _De ritu et sacris Aegyptiorum_ (see p. 242). 6. _De situ Indiae_. 7. _De forma mundi_. 8. _Exhortationes_. 9. _De officiis_. 10. _De immatura morte_. 11. _De superstitione dialogus_. 12. _De matrimonio_. 13. _De amicitia_. 14. _De vita patris_, along with an edition of his works. 15. Speeches by himself or by Nero. 16. _Epistulae_ (a) _ad Novatum_, probably written from Corsica, (b) _ad Caesonium Maximum_. 17. A book in praise of Messalina, afterwards withdrawn (see p. 243). 18. _Moralis philosophiae libri_ (see _Ep._ 106, 2). 19. _De remediis fortuitorum_, addressed to Gallio. A synopsis with additions is extant. 20. _De paupertate_. 21. _De formula honestae vitae_, probably founded on one of Seneca's works. 22. _Notae_ (see Sueton. pp. 135-6 R.).

The following are spurious works:

1. 'Epistulae Senecae, Neronis imperatoris magistri, ad Paulum Apostolum et Pauli Apostoli ad Senecam.' These letters, fourteen in all, are accepted as genuine by Jerome, _de vir. illustr._ 12. 'Seneca ... quem non ponerem in catalogo sanctorum, nisi me epistulae illae provocarent, quae leguntur a plurimis, Pauli ad Senecam et Senecae ad Paulum.'

2. A work extant under the title of _Sententiae Rufi_ has been wrongly thought to correspond to Seneca's dying words mentioned in Tac. _Ann._ xv. 63.

3. The book _De moribus_ or _Monita_ contains maxims by Christian writers.

_Views and Character._--For Seneca's training in Stoic doctrines see _Ep._ 108, 13 (quoted p. 241). With these views he generally associates himself (cf. _Ep._ 113, 1; 117, 1), but does not bind himself to one school.

Cf. _Ep._ 45, 4, 'Non enim me cuiquam emancipavi, nullius nomen fero. Multum magnorum virorum iudicio credo, aliquid et meo vindico.'

Especially towards the end of his life, he came under the influence of Demetrius the Cynic.

_Ep._ 62, 3, 'Demetrium, virorum optimum, mecum circumfero et relictis conchyliatis cum illo seminudo loquor, ilium admiror. Quidni admirer? vidi nihil ei deesse.'

In _de provid._ 5, 7, after quoting Demetrius' fatalistic views, Seneca adds, 'Fata nos ducunt, et quantum cuique temporis restat, prima nascentium hora disposuit.'

Seneca was one of the few Romans who condemned the butcheries practised in the arena, and his views doubtless influenced Nero's conduct in A.D. 58.

_Ep._ 95, 33, 'Homo, sacra res homini, iam per lusum ac iocum occiditur et quem erudiri ad inferenda accipiendaque volnera nefas erat, is iam nudus inermisque producitur satisque spectaculi ex homine mors est.'

Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 31, 'Edixit Caesar ne quis magistratus aut procurator, qui provinciam obtineret, spectaculum gladiatorum aut ferarum aut quod aliud ludicrum ederet.'

For Seneca's love of wealth see p. 246. For his estimate of riches cf. _De vita beata_, 22, 5. 'Apud me divitiae aliquem locum habent, apud te summum ac postremum. Divitiae meae sunt, tu divitiarum es.'

His simplicity of life has been already dealt with.

Dio, lxi. 10, 2, gives a most unjust account of Seneca's character:

+panta ta enantiôtata hois ephilosophei poiôn êlenchthê. kai gar tyrannidos katêgorôn tyrannodidaskalos egineto, kai tôn synontôn tois dynastais katatrechôn ouk aphistato tou palatiou ... tois te plousiois enkalôn ousian heptakischiliôn kai pentakosiôn myriadôn ektêsato.+

Seneca followed no traditional style. Cf. _Ep._ 100, 6, 'De compositione non constat'; _Ep._ 114, 13, 'Oratio certam regulam non habet.' Quintilian, x. 1, 125-131, attacks his style, though admitting his great powers.

CURTIUS RUFUS.

The full name is Q. Curtius Rufus, given in the MSS. of his work, 'Historiarum Alexandri Magni Macedonis Libri x.', the first two Books of which are lost. Curtius is not referred to by name by any ancient writer, but is probably identical with the Q. Curtius Rufus mentioned in the list prefixed to Sueton. _de claris oratoribus_ between M. Porcius Latro and L. Valerius Primanus. This order favours the view that he belonged to the reign of Claudius, a view supported by the two contemporary references in Curtius: