Chapter 38

Marcellus, B.C. 23.

Donatus, 'Cui [Augusto] multo post perfectaque demum materia tres omnino libros recitavit, secundum quartum sextum, sed hunc notabili Octaviae adfectione, quae cum recitationi interesset ad illos de filio suo versus, "Tu Marcellus eris," defecisse fertur atque aegre focillata est.'

Virgil, writing to the emperor, insists on the magnitude of the task he had rashly undertaken.

Macrob. _Saturn._ i. 24, 11, 'Tanta incohata res est, ut paene vitio mentis tantum opus ingressus mihi videar, cum praesertim, ut scis, alia quoque studia ad id opus multoque potiora impertiar.'

Although in his will Virgil left instructions to Varius (and Tucca) to destroy all his unpublished manuscripts, Varius was expressly desired by Augustus to revise and publish the _Aeneid_.

Donatus, 'Egerat cum Vario, priusquam Italia decederet, ut si quid sibi accidisset Aeneida combureret; sed is facturum se pernegarat ... Edidit autem auctore Augusto Varius, sed summatim emendata, ut qui versus etiam imperfectos sicut erant reliquerit.'

This account is corroborated by Pliny the elder, _N.H._ vii. 114, Gellius, and Macrobius.

The rules laid down to the editors by the Emperor were, according to Servius, 'ut superflua demerent, nihil adderent tamen.'

It seems probable that the _Aeneid_ was published B.C. 17, for it is in the _Carmen Saeculare_ of that year that Horace first alludes to the story of Aeneas (cf. l. 50, 'clarus Anchisae Venerisque sanguis'), and in the fourth Book of the _Odes_ (four years later) it is more than once introduced.

The _choice of the subject_ was influenced (1) by the personal desire of the Emperor; (2) by the connexion of the Caesarian house with Venus, through Iulus;[51] cf. the invention of Atys (_Aen._ v. 568) by Virgil to please Augustus, whose mother was Atia; (3) by Virgil's design to write an epic on the greatness of Rome, in the manner of Homer.

_The Aeneas Legend._--Stesichorus of Himera, among other writers, made Aeneas, a Homeric hero (cf. _Il._ xx. 307-8), settle in Italy; and Naevius is said to have adopted the legend in the form given by Timaeus, the Sicilian historian of the third century B.C. The legend probably arose from the worship of Aphrodite on the coasts of Italy, and was disseminated by the Greeks of Cumae to please the Romans. The connexion of Rome with Troy had been officially recognized for two hundred years (cf. Sueton. _Claud._ 25), and, though not a popular belief, had been accepted in literature from the time of Naevius.

_Sources of the Aeneid._--1. Earlier Roman poets as Naevius, Ennius, Pacuvius, Accius, Lucilius, Hostius, Varro Atacinus, Lucretius. For details see under these names.

2. Cato's _Origines_ and Varro's _Antiquitates_, for Italian legends and peoples.

3. _Ius pontificium_ and _ius augurale_, as found in the books of sacred colleges (Macrob. i. 24, 16). Cf. the ritual meaning of _porricio_ (v. 776), _porrigo_ (viii. 274), the habit of praying with veiled head (iii. 405), prayer to Apollo of Soracte (xi. 785).

4. Greek sources: (_a_) particularly the _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_, but also the Homeric Hymns and Cyclic Poems. Thus the games in Book v. = the games in honour of Patroclus in _Il._ xxiii.; the shield of Aeneas (viii. 626-731) = the shield of Achilles in _Il._ xviii.; (_b_) Apollonius Rhodius, for the passion of Dido = that of Medea; (_c_) Greek tragedies, _e.g._ the lost _Laocoon_ of Sophocles for ii. 40 _sqq._

_Religion in the Aeneid._--1. The mythology is mainly from Homer. From Latin myths come Faunus, Saturnus, Janus, Picus. Euhemerism is shown by the last three being represented as originally kings of Rome.

2. The power of the gods is denoted by _fatum_ or _fata_; cf. x. 112-3,

'rex Iuppiter omnibus idem: fata viam invenient.'

3. The description of the lower world in Book vi. is from the descent into Hades in _Od._ xi., but is modified by Pythagorean ideas (vi. 748-751, metempsychosis), Stoic ideas (vi. 724 _sqq._, pantheism, cf. _Georg._ iv. 219-227) and Platonic myths (_e.g._ in the _Gorgias_, _Phaedo_, and _Republic_), and rendered more definite by the introduction of heroes of the Republic. Note that Virgil emphasizes its mythical nature by dismissing Aeneas through the ivory gate (of false dreams).

4. Other beliefs: (_a_) The golden bough (vi. 203-9) compared to the mistletoe, the symbol of the lower world with many Indo-European peoples; (_b_) Divinities attached to special places, _e.g._ viii. 349-354 of the _religio_ attaching to the Capitol, ii. 351-2 guardian deities: cf. Carmentis, pater Tiberinus, etc.; (_c_) Worship of the dead, and belief in their continued influence on human affairs, iii. 66-8, 301-5.

_Political significance._--1. The pre-eminence of the Julian race and of Augustus himself. Cf. i. 286,

'Nascetur pulchra Troianus origine Caesar, imperium Oceano, famam qui terminet astris, Iulius, a magno demissum nomen Iulo.'

So vi. 789 _sqq._

2. The idea of empire: cf. i. 33,

'Tantae molis erat Romanam condere gentem';

and of Rome as the conqueror and civilizer of the world: vi. 851,

'Tu regere imperio populos, Romane, memento: hae tibi erunt artes, pacisque imponere morem, parcere subiectis et debellare superbos.'

3. The unity of Italy with Rome is seen in Aeneas and Turnus, representing respectively the _pietas_ and the martial courage of a past age. This is brought out also by the introduction of local names. Cf. vii. 682-5, 710-7, 797-802.

4. Virgil shows here and there contempt for pure democracy: vi. 815,

'iactantior Ancus nunc quoque iam nimium gaudens popularibus auris.'

Cf. also i. 148-9.

_Authors influenced by Virgil._--Livy, Tacitus, Ovid, Tibullus, Propertius, Manilius, Lucan, Silius Italicus, Statius, Valerius Flaccus, Martial, Juvenal, the author of _Aetna_. See under each.

HORACE.

(1) LIFE.

Our chief source of information about Horace is his own works, and some important details are added in a life of him by Suetonius.

Horace's full name is Quintus (_Sat._ ii. 6, 37) Horatius (_Od._ iv. 6, 44) Flaccus (_Sat._ ii. 1, 18). He was born 8th December, B.C. 65, at Venusia in Apulia, on the frontier of Lucania.

Sueton. _vit. Hor._, 'Natus est vi. Id. Decembr. L. Cotta et L. Torquato coss.'

_Ep._ i. 20, 26-8,

'Forte meum siquis te percontabitur aevum, me quater undenos sciat inplevisse Decembris collegam Lepidum quo duxit Lollius anno.'

_Sat._ i. 1, 34,

'Lucanus an Appulus anceps: nam Venusinus arat finem sub utrumque colonus.'

There are a great many references to Apulia in Horace. So _Od._ iii. 4, 9 _sqq._,

'Me fabulosae Volture in Appulo nutricis extra limina Pulliae' (his nurse's name), etc.

All Roman virtues are attributed to the Apulians, as in _Od._ i. 22, 13; iii. 5, 9; _Epod._ ii. 39-42.

Horace, though free-born (_Sat._ i. 6, 7) was the son of a freedman, who was by profession a collector of debts, or, according to others, a fishmonger. To this last story Horace probably refers with proud humility in _Ep._ ii. 2, 60,

'Bioneis sermonibus et sale nigro.'

Sueton. _vit. Hor._, 'Patre, ut ipse tradit, libertino et auctionum coactore, ut vero creditum est, salsamentario.'

_Sat._ i. 6, 6,

'Ut me libertino patre natum';

_ibid._ 85,

'Nec timuit, sibi ne vitio quis verteret olim, si praeco parvas aut, ut fuit ipse, coactor mercedes sequerer.'

Stories of his childhood are given, _Od._ iii. 4, 9 _sqq._; _Sat._ i. 9, 29 _sqq._; _Sat._ ii. 2, 112 _sqq._

Horace speaks highly of his father, who took him from the village school to Rome for his education. After speaking of his own freedom from vice he says (_Sat._ i. 6, 71 _sqq._),

'Causa fuit pater his, qui macro pauper agello noluit in Flavi ludum me mittere, ... sed puerum est ausus Romam portare docendum artis quas doceat quivis eques atque senator semet prognatos. Vestem servosque sequentis, in magno ut populo, si qui vidisset, avita ex re praeberi sumptus mihi crederet illos. Ipse mihi custos incorruptissimus omnis circum doctores aderat.'

He received instruction, both in Latin and Greek, from Orbilius,[52] a teacher of conservative tendencies. _Ep._ ii. 1, 69,

'Non equidem insector delendave carmina Livi esse reor, memini quae plagosum mihi parvo Orbilium dictare.'

_Ep._ ii. 2, 41,

'Romae nutriri mihi contigit atque doceri iratus Graiis quantum nocuisset Achilles.'

His education was continued at Athens. _Ep._ ii. 2, 43,

'Adiecere bonae paulo plus artis Athenae, scilicet ut vellem curvo dignoscere rectum atque inter silvas Academi quaerere verum.'

His studies were interrupted by the civil war; he joined Brutus (who came to Athens in August, B.C. 44), was by him appointed _tribunus militum_, and took part in the battle of Philippi, B.C. 42. _Ep._ ii. 2, 46,

'Dura sed emovere loco me tempora grato civilisque rudem belli tulit aestus in arma Caesaris Augusti non responsura lacertis.'

_Od._ ii. 7, 9,

'Philippos et celerem fugam sensi, relicta non bene parmula.'

In _Sat._ i. 7 Horace relates a scene at Clazomenae before Brutus and his staff; and in _Ep._ i. 11 he speaks, as if with personal knowledge, of places in Asia Minor and the islands of the Aegean, which he probably visited then. He refers to the hardships of war in _Od._ ii. 6, 7; ii. 7, 1; iii. 4, 26.

After the civil war his paternal property was confiscated, probably in B.C. 41, and his poverty compelled him to seek the post of a clerk in the quaestor's office, and, as he says, to write verses. (Some satires and epodes were then written.)

Sueton. _vit. Hor._, 'Victis partibus, venia inpetrata, scriptum quaestorium comparavit.'

_Sat._ ii. 6, 36,

'De re communi scribae magna atque nova te orabant hodie meminisses, Quinte, reverti.'

_Ep._ ii. 2, 49,

'Unde simul primum me dimisere Philippi, decisis humilem pennis inopemque paterni et laris et fundi paupertas inpulit, audax ut versus facerem.'

In the spring of B.C. 38 Horace was introduced to Maecenas[53] by Varius and Virgil, and became intimate with him in the winter of B.C. 38-7.

Sueton. _vit. Hor._, 'Primo Maecenati, mox Augusto insinuatus non mediocrem in amborum amicitia locum tenuit. Maecenas quanto opere eum dilexerit satis testatur illo epigrammate:

"Ni te visceribus meis, Horati, plus iam diligo, tu tuum sodalem Ninnio videas strigosiorem":

sed multo magis extremis iudiciis tali ad Augustum elogio: "Horati Flacci ut mei esto memor!"'

_Sat._ i. 6, 54,

'Optimus olim Vergilius, post hunc Varius dixere quid essem ... Abeo, et revocas nono post mense iubesque (l. 61) esse in amicorum numero.'

In _Sat._ ii. 6, 40-58 Horace describes how intimate he was socially with Maecenas, who, however, did not make him a confidant in political matters. The most noteworthy event of this period is described in _Sat._ i. 5, viz. Horace's journey to Brundisium in the train of Maecenas and Cocceius, who went to arrange some matters between Augustus and Antony. His companions were Virgil, Varius, Plotius, and the Greek rhetorician, Heliodorus. Plotius, Virgil, and Varius are thus referred to (_Sat._ i. 5, 41):

'Animae quales neque candidiores terra tulit neque quis me sit devinctior alter.'[54]

In B.C. 34 Maecenas gave Horace an estate in the country of the Sabines. The question of its position was settled last century by the abbé Capmartin de Chaupy. The only place that suits Horace's description is east of Tivoli, and in the neighbourhood of Vicovaro, which is the same as the Varia of Horace (_Ep._ i. 14, 3), the market-town of his tenants. Near it is the stream Licenza, the Digentia of Horace, on which stands Bardela (the Mandela of Hor.). _Ep._ i. 18, 104,

'Me quotiens reficit gelidus Digentia rivus, quem Mandela bibit, rugosus frigore pagus.'

The site of his villa may be pretty closely determined from _Ep._ i. 10, 49,

'Haec tibi dictabam post fanum putre Vacunae.'

Vacuna is a Sabine goddess, identified with Victoria: near the village an inscription has been found which was erected by Vespasian, 'Aedem Victoriae vetustate dilapsam sua impensa restituit,' and the natural inference is that this is the temple mentioned by Horace.[55] Horace stayed a great deal at his country-house, and his works contain many references to it.

Sueton. _vit. Hor._, 'Vixit plurimum in secessu ruris sui Sabini aut Tiburtini, domusque eius ostenditur circa Tiburni luculum.'

_Sat._ ii. 6, 16,

'Ubi me in mentis et in arcem ex urbe removi.'

Other references are _Ep._ i. 16, 1-14; _Od._ ii. 18, 14.

Augustus having tried unsuccessfully to induce Horace to become his secretary, was not offended at the poet's refusal, but continued to bestow his favour upon him.

Sueton. _vit. Hor._, 'Augustus epistularum quoque ei officium obtulit, ut hoc ad Maecenatem scripto significat: "Ante ipse sufficiebam scribendis epistulis amicorum, nunc occupatissimus et infirmus Horatium nostrum a te cupio abducere. Veniet ergo ab ista parasitica mensa ad hanc regiam et nos in epistulis scribendis adiuvabit." Ac ne recusanti quidem aut succensuit quicquam aut amicitiam suam ingerere desiit ... unaque et altera liberalitate locupletavit.'

Horace composed for Augustus the _Carmen Saeculare_; _Od._ iv. 4; iv. 14, celebrating the victories of Augustus' step-sons over the Rhaetians and the Vindelici; also _Ep._ ii. 1.

Sueton. _vit. Hor._, 'Scripta quidem eius usque adeo probavit mansuraque perpetuo opinatus est, ut non modo Saeculare carmen componendum iniunxerit sed et Vindelicam victoriam Tiberii Drusique privignorum suorum eumque coegerit propter hoc tribus carminum libris ex longo intervallo quartum addere; post sermones vero quosdam lectos nullam sui mentionem habitam ita sit questus: "Irasci me tibi scito, quod non in plerisque eius modi scriptis mecum potissimum loquaris; an vereris ne apud posteros infame tibi sit, quod videaris familiaris nobis esse?" expresseritque eclogam ad se, cuius initium est:

"Cum tot sustineas et tanta negotia solus,"' etc. (_Ep._ ii. 1).

Horace died 27th November, B.C. 8, and was buried near Maecenas. He appointed Augustus his heir.

Sueton. _vit. Hor._, 'Decessit v. Kal. Decembris C. Marcio Censorino et C. Asinio Gallo coss. lvii. aetatis anno, herede Augusto palam nuncupato; ... et conditus est extremis Esquiliis iuxta Maecenatis tumulum.'

In personal appearance Horace was 'brevis atque obesus,' according to Suetonius, who quotes a joke of Augustus on the subject: 'Vereri autem mihi videris ne maiores libelli tui sint, quam ipse es; sed tibi statura deest, corpusculum non deest.' Cf. Hor. _Ep._ i. 20, 24,

'Corporis exigui, praecanum, solibus aptum, irasci celerem, tamen ut placabilis essem';

_Ep._ i. 4, 15,

'Me pinguem et nitidum bene curata cute vises, cum ridere voles, Epicuri de grege porcum.'

Cf. also _Ep._ i. 7, 25; _Od._ iii. 14, 25.

(2) WORKS.

_Chronology of the Works._--(1) _Satirae_, in two Books (called _Sermones_ in all the MSS.).