CHAPTER II

THE EVOLUTION OF THE SLEEPING CAR

The history of improved railway travel may be said to date from the year 1836, when the first sleeping car was offered to the traveling public. In the years which followed the actual inception of the railroad in the United States, railway travel was fraught with discomfort and inconvenience beyond the realization of the present day. Travel by canal boat had at least offered a relative degree of comfort, for here comfortable berths in airy cabins were provided as well as good meals and entertainment, but the locomotive, by its greatly increased speed over the plodding train of tow mules, instantly commanded the situation, and as the mileage of the pioneer roads increased, travel by boat proportionately languished.

The first passenger cars were little better than boxes mounted on wheels. Over the uneven track the locomotive dragged its string of little coaches, each smaller than the average street car of today. From the engine a pall of suffocating smoke and glowing sparks swept back on the partially protected passengers. Herded like cattle they settled themselves as comfortably as possible on the stiff-backed, narrow benches. The cars were narrow and scant head clearance was afforded by the low, flat roof. From the dirt roadbed a cloud of dust blew in through open windows, in summer mingled with the wood smoke from the engine. In winter, a wood stove vitiated the air. Screens there were none. By night the dim light from flaring candles barely illuminated the cars.

In addition to these physical discomforts were added the dangers attending the operation of trains entirely unprotected by any of the safety devices now so essential to the modern railroad. No road boasted of a double track; there was no telegraph by which to operate the trains. The air brake was unknown until 1869, when George Westinghouse received his patent. The Hodge hand brake which was introduced in 1849 was but a poor improvement on the inefficient hand brake of the earlier days. The track was usually laid with earth ballast and the rail joints might be easily counted by the passengers as the cars pounded over them. Add to these discomforts the necessity of frequent changes from one short line to another when it was necessary for the passengers each time to purchase new tickets and personally pick out their baggage, due to the absence of coupon tickets and baggage checks, and the joys of the tourist may be realized.

As early as 1836 the officers of the Cumberland Valley Railroad of Pennsylvania installed a sleeping-car service between Harrisburg and Chambersburg. This first sleeping car was, as was later the first Pullman car, an adaption of an ordinary day coach to sleeping requirements. It was divided into four compartments in each of which three bunks were built against one side of the car, and in the rear of the car were provided a towel, basin, and water. No bed clothes were furnished and the weary passengers fully dressed reclined on rough mattresses with their overcoats or shawls drawn over them, doubtless marveling the while at the fruitfulness of modern invention. As time went on other similar cars, with berths arranged in three tiers on one side of the car, were adopted by various railroads, and occasional but in no manner fundamental improvements were made. Candles furnished the light, and the heat was supplied by box stoves burning wood or sometimes coal. For a number of years these makeshift cars found an appreciative patronage, and temporarily served the patrons of the road.

In the next ten years similar "bunk" cars were adopted by other railroads, but improvements were negligible and their only justification existed in the ability of the passengers to recline at length during the long night hours. The innovation of bedding furnished by the railroad marked a slight progress, but the rough and none too clean sheets and blankets which the passengers were permitted to select from a closet in the end of the car, must have failed even in that day to give satisfaction to the fastidious.

But in the early fifties these very inconveniences fired the imagination of a young traveler who had bought a ticket on a night train between Buffalo and Westfield, and in his alert mind was inspired, as he tossed sleepless in his bunk, the first vision of a car that would revolutionize the railroad travel of the world and of a system that would present to the traveling public a mighty organization whose first purpose would be to contribute safety, convenience, luxury and a uniform and universal service from coast to coast.

George Mortimer Pullman was born in Brockton, Chautauqua County, New York, March 3, 1831. His early schooling was limited to the country schoolhouse, and at the age of fourteen his education was completed and he obtained employment at a salary of $40 a year in a small store in Westfield, New York, that supplied the neighboring farmers with their simple necessities. But the occupation of a country storekeeper failed to fix the restless mind of the boy, and three years later he packed his few possessions and moved to Albion, New York, where an older brother had developed a cabinet-making business.

Here Pullman found a wider field for his natural abilities, and at the same time acquired a knowledge of wood working and construction that was soon to afford the foundation for larger enterprises. During the ten years that followed there were times when the demands on the little shop of the Pullman brothers failed to afford sufficient occupation for the two young cabinet makers, and the younger brother, eager to improve his opportunities, began to accept outside contracts of various sorts. The state of New York had begun to widen the Erie Canal which passed through Albion. Clustered on its banks were numerous warehouses and other buildings, and the young man soon proved his ability to contract successfully for the necessary moving of these buildings back to the new banks of the canal. The venture was successful. An opportunity fortuitously created was seized, and not only was an increased livelihood secured, but the wider scope of this new activity gave the young man an increased confidence in himself on which to enlarge his future activities.

It was during these years that George M. Pullman experienced his first night travel and the hardships of the sleeping car accommodations. As Fulton and Watt and Stephenson, in the crude steam engine of their time, saw the locomotive and marine engine of today, so in this bungling sleeper George M. Pullman saw the modern sleeping car and the vast system he was in time to originate. In his mind a score of ideas were immediately presented and on his return to Albion he discussed the possibility of their amplification with Assemblyman Ben Field, a warm friend in these early days.

The contracting business had increased Pullman's field of observation, it had stimulated his invention, it had accustomed him to the management of men. When the widening of the Erie Canal had been accomplished, the field for his new vocation was practically eliminated; and it was but natural that the ambition of youth could not be satisfied to return to the cabinet-making business. Westward lay the future. In the new town of Chicago, which had in so few years grown up at the foot of Lake Michigan, young men were already building world enterprises. Chicago, named from the wild onion that grew in the marsh lands about the winding river, offered promise of greatness. Its romantic growth seized the imagination of the youthful Albion contractor.

Naturally his first thought was to profit by his contracting experience, and again a happy chance favored him. Built on the low land behind the sand dunes and south of the sluggish river Chicago suffered from a lack of proper drainage. Mud choked the streets; cellars were wells of water after every rain. In 1855, the year of his arrival, Pullman made a contract to raise the level of certain of the city streets. It was a bold undertaking, but his confidence knew no hesitation, and the work was satisfactorily accomplished. Other contracts followed, and in a short time Pullman had built himself a substantial reputation and had raised a number of blocks of brick and stone buildings, including the famous Tremont House, to the new level.

Chicago in 1858 was a town of 100,000 population. Here Cyrus H. McCormick had built his reaper factory on the banks of the river. Here R. T. Crane was laying the small foundation for the mighty industry of future years. Here Marshall Field and Levi Z. Leiter were rising junior partners in their growing business, and here the future heads of the meat-packing industry were developing their mighty business. To the country boy from a New York village, its muddy streets and rows of frame and brick buildings savored of a metropolis; in its naked newness he sensed the vital energy that was so soon to place it among the cities of the world.

But even during these years of untiring activity the thought of a radical improvement in railway car construction was constantly working in the brain of the young contractor, and in 1858 he determined to give his ideas the practical test. The story of this first application of these revolutionizing ideas to the railroad coaches then in use is best told in the words of Leonard Seibert, who was at that time an employee on the Chicago & Alton Railroad.

In 1858 Mr. Pullman came to Bloomington and engaged me to do the work of remodelling two Chicago & Alton coaches into the first Pullman sleeping-cars. The contract was that Mr. Pullman should make all necessary changes inside of the cars. After looking over the entire passenger car equipment of the road, which at that time constituted about a dozen cars, we selected Coaches Nos. 9 and 19. They were forty-four feet long, had flat roofs like box cars, single sash windows, of which there were fourteen on a side, the glass in each sash being only a little over one foot square. The roof was only a trifle over six feet from the floor of the car. Into this car we got ten sleeping-car sections, besides a linen locker and two washrooms--one at each end.

The wood used in the interior finish was cherry. Mr. Pullman was anxious to get hickory, to stand the hard usage which it was supposed the cars would receive. I worked part of the summer of 1858, employing an assistant or two, and the cars went into service in the fall of 1858. There were no blue-prints or plans made for the remodelling of these first two sleeping-cars, and Mr. Pullman and I worked out the details and measurements as we came to them. The two cars cost Mr. Pullman not more than $2,000, or $1,000 each. They were upholstered in plush, lighted by oil lamps, heated with box stoves, and mounted on four-wheel trucks with iron wheels. There was no porter in those days; the brakeman made up the beds.

In the construction of these first sleeping cars Mr. Pullman introduced his invention of upper berth construction by means of which the upper berth might be closed in the day time and also serve as a receptacle for bedding. Other improvements and devices were worked out and tested, and from these first experiments were drawn the detailed plans from which the first cars entirely constructed by him were made. Although without technical training himself, Mr. Pullman was quick to recognize the necessity of skilled assistance to express and improve his embryonic ideas. To this end he soon established a small workshop, and employing a number of skilled mechanics set himself to the mastery of the problems which confronted him.

Another interesting personal reminiscence of the first days of the Pullman car is afforded by J. L. Barnes, who was in charge of the first car run from Bloomington to Chicago over the Chicago & Alton.

Mr. Pullman had an office on Madison Avenue just west of LaSalle Street and I boarded with a family very close to his office. I used to pass his office on my to meals, and having read in the paper that he was working on a sleeping car, one day I stopped in and made application to Mr. Pullman personally for a place as conductor. I gave him some references and called again and he said the references were all right and promised me the place. I made my first trip between Bloomington, Illinois, and Chicago on the night of September 1, 1859. I was twenty-two years old at the time. I wore no uniform and was attired in citizen's clothes. I wore a badge, that was all. One of my passengers was George M. Pullman, inventor of the sleeping car.... All the passengers were from Bloomington and there were no women on the car that night. The people of Bloomington, little reckoning that history was being made in their midst, did not come down to the station to see the Pullman car's first trip. There was no crowd, and the car, lighted by candles, moved away in solitary grandeur, if such it might be called.... I remember on the first night I had to compel the passengers to take their boots off before they got into the berths. They wanted to keep them on--seemed afraid to take them off.

The first month business was very poor. People had been in the habit of sitting up all night in the straight back seats and they did not think much of trying to sleep while traveling.... After I had made a few trips it was decided it did not pay to employ a Pullman conductor, and the car was placed in charge of the passenger conductor of the train which carried the sleeping car, and I was out of a job.

The first Pullman car was a primitive thing. Beside being lighted with candles it was heated by a stove at each end of the car. There were no carpets on the floor, and the interior of the car was arranged in this way: There were four upper and four lower berths. The backs of the seats were hinged and to make up the lower berth the porter merely dropped the back of the seat until it was level with the seat itself. Upon this he placed a mattress and blanket. There was no sheets. The upper berth was suspended from the ceiling of the car by ropes and pulleys attached to each of the four corners of the berth. The upper berths were constructed with iron rods running from the floor of the car to the roof, and during the day the berth was pulled up until it hugged the ceiling, there being a catch which held it up. At night it was suspended about half-way between the ceiling of the car and the floor. We used curtains in front and between all the berths. In the daytime one of the sections was used to store all the mattresses in. The car had a very low deck and was quite short. It had four wheel trucks and with the exception of the springs under it was similar to the freight car of today. The coupler was "link and pin;" we had no automatic brakes or couplers in those days. There was a very small toilet room in each end, only large enough for one person at a time. The wash basin was made of tin. The water for the wash basin came from the drinking can which had a faucet so that people could get a drink.

The two remodeled Chicago & Alton coaches were instantly accepted by the public, but despite their popularity, and the popularity of a third car which followed them, their originator considered them merely as experiments and in 1864 plans for the first actual Pullman car were completed which gave promise of a car radically different in its construction, appointments, and arrangement from anything heretofore attempted. Into this car Pullman resolutely cast the small capital that he had accumulated; in its success he placed the unswerving confidence that characterized his clear vision and indomitable determination to succeed. This model car was built in Chicago on the site of the present Union Station in a shed belonging to the Chicago & Alton Railroad, at a cost of $18,239.31, without its equipment, and almost a year was required before it was ready for service. Fully equipped and ready for service it represented an investment of $20,178.14. The "Pioneer" was the name chosen for its designation, and with the faith that other cars would soon be required the letter "A" was added, an indication that even Mr. Pullman's vision failed to anticipate the possible demand beyond the twenty-six letters of the alphabet.

Never before had such a car been seen; never had the wildest flights of fancy imagined such magnificence. Up to the building of the "Pioneer" $5,000 had represented the maximum that had ever been spent on a single railroad coach. It was unbelievable that this $18,000 investment could yield a remunerative return. The "Pioneer" had improved trucks with springs reinforced by blocks of solid rubber; it was a foot wider and two and a half feet higher than any car then in service, the additional height being necessary to accommodate the hinged upper berth of Mr. Pullman's invention. Combined with its unusual strength, weight, and solidity, its beauty and the artistic character of its furnishing and decoration were unprecedented. At one stride an advance of fifty years had been effected.

A further proof of Mr. Pullman's faith in the success of the "Pioneer" type of car is illustrated by the fact that due to its increased height and breadth the dimensions of station platforms and bridges at the time of its construction would not permit its passage over any existing railroad. It is said that these necessary changes were hastened in the spring of 1865 by the demand that the new "Pioneer" be attached to the funeral train which conveyed the body of President Lincoln from Chicago to Springfield. In this way one railroad was quickly adapted to the new requirements, and a few years later when the "Pioneer" was engaged to take General Grant on a trip from Detroit to his home town of Galena, Illinois, another route was opened to its passage.

Other roads soon made the necessary alterations to permit the passage of the "Pioneer" and its sister cars which were now under construction. The "Pioneer" had, by this time, won wide recognition and popularity, and a few months later was put in regular service on the Alton Road. So well were its dimensions calculated by Mr. Pullman that the "Pioneer" immediately became the model by which all railroad cars were measured, and to this day practically the only changes in dimensions have been in increased length.

To secure the continuous use of the "Pioneer" and other similar cars an agreement was effected between Mr. Pullman and the Chicago & Alton which marked the beginning of the vast system which today embraces the entire country and makes possible continuous and luxurious travel over a large number of distinct railroads. Thus in the space of a few years George M. Pullman not only evolved a type of railroad car luxurious and beautiful in design and embracing in its construction patents of great originality and ingenuity, but, in addition, evolved the rudimentary conception of a system by which passengers might be carried to any destination in cars of uniform construction, equipped for day or night travel, and served and protected by trained employees whose sole function is to provide for the passengers' safety, comfort, and convenience.