CHAPTER II

MILK SUPPLY AND CREAMERY PRODUCTS

In the first chapter the composition of cow’s milk and the nature of its constituents have been considered, the most important tests for its richness and purity have been described, and the ferments have been mentioned which instigate changes for good or for bad, together with the means at disposal for regulating their activity. To use these means intelligently in handling milk and its products is the key to the dairyman’s success.

We shall now briefly consider the various steps that are of importance in modern dairy industry.

MILK SUPPLY

In the first place, the farmer must furnish pure, clean, unadulterated milk, fresh from the cow and cooled immediately after milking. His cows must be healthy.

=Bovine Tuberculosis.=—Many milk-cows, for the very reason that they have been bred with the one purpose in view of turning all their food into milk and wasting as little as possible in building up the body, are more or less weak-chested and apt to suffer from tuberculosis. Unless this disease is so far advanced as to affect the general health of the cow, or it has spread to the milk organs, the udder and the teats, it is not so dangerous as has heretofore been supposed. It is now held by the great majority of physicians that bovine tuberculosis is hardly ever transmitted to grown persons and seldom to children. Neither is it hereditary. Nevertheless, wherever it is possible to have the herd tested with tuberculin, segregating, if not killing, the animals which show by reaction that they are somewhat tuberculous, it should be done. Milk from such cows should always be pasteurized.

=Milk as a Disease Carrier.=—A greater danger lies in the fact that, warm as it comes from the cow, milk is an ideal medium for human disease germs to grow in, and may thus become a great conveyor of such germs. For this reason it is of the greatest importance that the milkers are healthy and clean, that the udders and teats be free from dirt, and the milk pail covered as far as possible; the barn must be clean, and every source of infection excluded. This fact also points to the advisability of pasteurization. On page 23 a chart is shown, published by the Toronto Board of Health and indicating the temperatures at which various germs of disease are made harmless.

=Bacterial Count.=—The test for clean milk now mostly used is the “Bacterial Count,” the number of bacteria—or rather colonies of bacteria—found in a cubic centimeter of the milk. It would be better if the nature or quality of the bacteria could be taken into consideration as well as the quantity, but that being as yet impracticable, the next best thing is to depend upon the number. Ordinary good milk often contains hundreds of thousands of bacteria in a cubic centimeter, but where the greatest cleanliness is observed the number may be less than 1,000.

=Certified Milk= is now sold in many cities which, according to varying city ordinances, is guaranteed to have less than 10,000 or 20,000 or 30,000 bacteria, as the case may be.

The cost of producing certified milk places it beyond the reach of the great majority of consumers. But such care and cleanliness as can be observed by the farmer and the milkman without extra expense should be insisted upon, and milk which nevertheless contains a large number of bacteria can be made safe by pasteurization.

=The Sanitary Code.=—The regulation of the production and delivery of milk in cities and towns as well as at creameries and cheese factories, the “Sanitary Code” established by state and municipal health authorities, has been very effective in improving the quality of the supply. So enormous have been the improvements in caring for and handling the products by the large establishments engaged in the delivery of milk as to make the increase in cost seem trifling compared with the great benefit to the public health secured by these agencies.

=New York State Milk Grading.=—The New York State Board of Health prescribes a grading for milk offered for sale, the most important features of which are as follows:

_Certified._—Must be produced under specially sanitary conditions approved by a county medical commission.

_Grade A Raw._—Cows must be tuberculin tested and milk must not contain over 60,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter.

_Grade A Pasteurized._—Cows must be subjected to physical examination and milk must not contain more than 200,000 bacteria before, nor more than 30,000 after pasteurization.

Other grades permitted under the rules, all subject to inspection and approval of the authorities, are:

_Grade B Raw._ _Grade B Pasteurized._ _Grade C Raw._ _Grade C Pasteurized._

Deliveries must be made within a certain time after production or pasteurization, barns and milk stations are inspected, and altogether such safeguards are employed as to make the supply exceedingly safe and reliable.

=City Delivery.=—In villages and small cities the milk supply is still to a large extent in the hands of farmers who come to town early in the morning peddling their milk, often at considerable waste of time for horse and man. Or a number of peddlers go over the same route so that it takes a dozen wagons to cover a town where three or four could do it.

As long as there was no efficient regulation as to price and quality such waste was perhaps unavoidable, as competition on the part of the producers and distributors was the only means of protection for the consumers. But lately state and municipal control is being exercised to such an extent as to largely eliminate the danger of poor milk and exorbitant prices. Further development of organized delivery systems so much to be desired for sanitary as well as for economical reasons, may be looked for as soon as normal conditions return after the close of the war. The delivery of milk is one of the things that in the interest of public health must be under the strictest official control, and _co-operation_ between farmers and consumers is the logical system for elimination of unnecessary expenses of distribution and for prompt and satisfactory service. Their interests are or should be identical and both classes are hurt by inefficient and wasteful delivery.

In the large cities there has grown up an industry which largely monopolizes the milk supply and which until lately was powerful enough to dictate prices and conditions both for producers and consumers. Several attempts have been made from time to time by farmers to combine to regulate prices and dictate the terms to the middlemen. Such attempts have, however, invariably failed as long as they were built on false economic principles and prompted by selfish interests only. No farmers’ association can be strong enough to ignore the law of supply and demand, and it is only quite recently that the _Dairymen’s League_ has succeeded in influencing the market by taking into consideration the actual cost of production of milk as worked out by the agricultural colleges, and fixing the price on a scientific basis. There is one other element entering into the causes on which the price to the consumers depends, namely, _Transportation_, and while municipal boards of health are looking after the sanitary conditions and prevention of adulteration, State and Federal authorities are stepping in as moderators or arbitrators to reconcile the interests of the _Producers_, the _Railroad Companies_, the _Distributors_ and the _Consumers_. The next step in the development will no doubt be towards full co-operation between producers and consumers and, to a large extent, elimination of the “middlemen.”

It should not be forgotten, however, that while the much abused middlemen in time past have been able to dictate terms and prices and have often abused the privilege; they have at the same time used their influence and power to improve the milk supply. As the supply of oil and gasoline has been perfected and cheapened by the all-powerful Standard Oil Co. as a monopoly crushing all competition, so the “Milk Trust” has improved the distribution of milk and has built up the magnificent sanitary plants in which milk is handled, pasteurized, bottled and distributed in a way that might not have been possible without the monopoly. It has served a good purpose, but has at the same time acquired such power that official control has become necessary for the protection of producers and consumers alike, and the time may be near when these two classes will combine and take the matter into their own hands so that the distribution may be done at actual cost.

=Milk Stations= are plants erected in dairy sections in the country either by the city milk supply houses or by co-operating farmers, where the milk is delivered and handled so as to make it ready for shipment to the city. As in the creamery and the cheese factory, the milk is carefully examined and, if it is not sweet and pure, it is rejected and sent back to the farm. Any impure flavor remains in the cover for some time and is easily detected by smelling of the cover as soon as it is removed from the can.

A sample is taken and put aside for the Babcock test and perhaps another for the Fermentation test. Each farmer’s milk is weighed in the _Weigh Can_ and run through a cheese-cloth strainer. The further treatment varies in different plants. The milk may simply be cooled by running it over a cold water or brine cooler and placing it in shipping cans in the refrigerator or in ice water until the milk-train comes along to pick up the cans. Or it may be clarified by running it through a centrifugal machine, the same as a separator, in which, however, cream and milk are not separated, but impurities are thrown out by the centrifugal force and deposited on the wall of the bowl, and the purified milk may then be pasteurized and bottled before being shipped to the city.

Arriving in the city in iced cars the milk is taken to one of the elaborate plants in which it is pasteurized and bottled, if that has not been done at the country station. The machinery used in these plants is getting more and more perfect and expensive and leaves little to be desired as to sanitary requirements and economy in handling. Pasteurizers, bottling machines, bottle-washing machines, conveyors, etc., are wonders of ingenuity, and one needs only to see one of these modern plants to understand that in a large city milk can only be handled to advantage in expensive establishments.

=Skim Milk= is one of the cheapest of foods and under proper regulations its sale should not be prohibited. The reason why in times past skim milk has been discredited and excluded from sale was that, as produced by the old methods of raising the cream, before the advent of the separator, it was always more or less old and sour before it was available and certainly before it could be distributed to consumers. Under such conditions it was hardly ever fit for human food. But when produced by the separator and pasteurized and cooled immediately after—within a few hours after milking, which is entirely feasible—it is an excellent and nutritious food for adults and even for children over two years of age. Ripened with a pure culture of lactic acid bacteria, it makes a healthful, refreshing drink, like buttermilk. Only when it is allowed to sour without proper care or control does skim milk, as whole milk does, become unfit for food or drink. On a cold winter morning when men are going to work (or perhaps are looking for work which they cannot find), and children are on their way to school, often underfed, a street-corner wagon or stand where boiling hot, fresh, sweet skim milk might be distributed at a cent or two a glass would be a blessing in any city.

CREAM

When new milk is left at rest the cream will rise to the top and after 12 to 24 hours a cream-line can be seen in the bottle. This cream-line is sharper and more easily seen in raw milk than in pasteurized milk and its absence is not always a sure sign of lack of richness or purity of the milk. By cooling the milk thoroughly so that it will keep, almost all the cream will be at the top in forty-eight hours and can be skimmed off. The cream can be used for coffee or on cereals or fruits or puddings; the skim milk left will still hold ½% or more of butter-fat and can be used to drink or for cooking.

=The Separator.=—On the farm or in the creamery the cream is no longer raised by gravity, that is, by letting the milk “set” either in shallow pans on the kitchen shelf or in deep cans in ice water, but the fresh, warm milk is run through the separator in a continuous stream.

It was noticed that the rising of the cream due to the difference in specific gravity between the butter-fat and the milk-“serum” (the watery solution of the other constituents) might be greatly hastened by subjecting the milk to centrifugal force. This physical phenomenon was taken advantage of in the first conception of the separator where it was shown that if a pail of milk was whirled around like a stone in a sling the heavier milk-serum would be thrown towards the bottom of the separator pail with so much greater force than the lighter cream (butter-fat mixed with a small part of the serum) that the separation which would take 48 hours in the milk at rest, could be accomplished in a few minutes when exposed to centrifugal force. From this early crude attempt the continuous _bowl-separator_ was developed and still later a number of divisions in the bowl were designed which increased the capacity and efficiency of the machine wonderfully. The most successful separator was designed by Dr. Gustaf De Laval of Sweden and the machines bearing his name are used all over the world where butter is made. But there are many other excellent separators on the market.

In the machine the milk is separated instantaneously by centrifugal force and runs out through two tubes, one for cream and the other for skim milk. A small modern hand machine will take care of from 200 to 1,000 lbs. of milk an hour, and power machines are built to separate 6,000 lbs. or more. By regulating the cream-outlet a heavier or lighter cream can be produced.

Suppose we are separating some milk containing 4% butter-fat. If ⅛ of this milk is separated out as cream and contains all the butter-fat, the cream will be eight times as rich in butter-fat as the original milk; 32% of the cream will be butter-fat. Such cream is called “32% cream.” If we take ¼ as cream, we get a cream four times as rich as the milk, a “16% cream.” So out of 100 lbs. of milk we can take 12½ lbs. (⅛) of 32% cream, 25 lbs. (¼) of 16% cream, etc.

Although the skim milk is really valuable as a food, it is worth but little commercially; the cream containing the butter-fat is the expensive part of the milk, and we must be prepared to pay for the cream all that the milk would have cost.

=Percentage of Butter-Fat.=—The “richness” of cream or milk and their value depend upon the amount of butter-fat in them. So cream or milk is often called “30% cream” or “20% cream” or “4% milk” according as 30% or 20% or 4% of the fluid is butter-fat; 30% cream is quite rich; ordinary market cream varies between 18% and 40%, though it may fall below 18%, or it may be sold as a very expensive article as high as 60%. Rich milk may contain more than 6% of butter-fat and skim milk less than 0.1 of one per cent. The average for good whole milk is between 3% and 4½%.

For a long time scientists and scientific dairymen were the only ones to speak of milk and cream in terms of percentage of butter-fat. Now, however, people are beginning to realize how valuable a part of the milk the butter-fat is and are paying more attention to the actual percentage of butter-fat in the cream or milk they use. So it is no longer unusual to see a dairyman advertise cream of a certain percentage or to hear a housewife ask for it specifically.

=Standardizing Cream.=—For ice cream or for preparing modified milk for babies, it is often desirable to dilute rich cream to a certain lower standard. The following simple steps can be taken to find out how much milk to add for diluting:

1. From the test—fat-percentage—of the rich cream subtract the test desired.

2. From the test desired subtract the test of the milk used for diluting.

3. Divide the first difference by the second, and the result will be the number of pints (or pounds) of milk to be added for each pint (or pound) of the rich cream.

For instance, you may want to thin some 30% cream to 10% for making ice cream. The milk to be added is skim milk. Then:

1. 30 - 10 = 20.

2. 10 - 0 = 10.

3. 20 divided by 10 = 2. So for each pint of rich cream you may add 2 pints of skim milk.

Or you may wish to thin the 30% cream with whole milk, which has 4% butter-fat. Again:

1. 30 - 10 = 20.

2. 10 - 4 = 6.

3. 20 divided by 6 = 3⅓. So you may add 3⅓ pints of the whole milk to each pint of the 30% cream and still have a 10% cream.

=Pasteurized Cream= does not look as rich as raw cream, and fresh, sweet cream appears to be thinner than when it is 24 hours old and slightly ripened. So it is well, when buying cream, not to judge by appearances. Demand of the milkman that he furnish you cream of a certain percentage of butter-fat and see to it that you get what you pay for. If you have no Babcock tester the milk inspector will test the cream for you.

=Whipped Cream.=—For whipping, cream must be fairly rich, from 24% to 32%, and it must be cold. Fresh, sweet cream does not whip as readily as that which has been kept for 12 or 24 hours in ice water. There is no other secret connected with the process. Use a rich cream, suitably cooled and aged, and with a good beater there can be no trouble in getting a fine, stiff whipped cream. If the cream is too thin or too warm it may not become stiff. Sometimes, when it is beaten too long, it turns into butter and buttermilk.

=Emulsified Cream.=—One of the recent additions to the already elaborate machinery used in the creamery, the milk supply or the ice cream business, is the _Emulsifier._ To be sure, emulsifiers were used thirty to forty years ago to mix animal and vegetable fats—oleomargarine oil, lard and cottonseed oil—into skim milk for “Filled Cheese” or for Butterine, but lately they are serving new purposes in the milk industry. By forcing melted butter-fat or oil mixed with water or skim milk through exceedingly small apertures under high pressure, or otherwise breaking up the mixture, an emulsion can be formed in which the fat globules are much finer even than those in natural milk or cream, and separation can be prevented. The force used in these emulsifiers may be produced by powerful pumps, or a steam jet, or centrifugal force under high speed; whichever system is used the machines answer the same purpose, to produce a permanent emulsion in which the oil or fat will stay in suspension even after cooling. In some milk supply plants and ice cream factories all the cream is emulsified and the system has especially been applied since the advent of the milk powder. It is now a not infrequent practice to run the new milk through the separator, make sweet, unsalted butter from the cream, and milk powder from the skim milk, and to ship or store these products separately where or until cream is wanted and then bring them together again by running them through the emulsifier with a suitable amount of water. At first thought this process would seem impractical and uneconomical. But it has proven good business because in many cases and places skim milk powder and butter keep better separately or can be shipped at long distance to better advantage than new milk or cream or condensed milk. In ice cream factories business may be dull in cold weather and cream is perhaps not provided and not available, when suddenly a hot spell brings orders for large quantities. With a stock of skim milk powder and butter on hand in the refrigerator, and an emulsifier to mix these products, cream can be produced on short notice and there will be no danger of shortage.

ICE CREAM

Ice cream has fast become the national dessert served on all festive occasions, winter and summer. Originally it meant a frozen mixture of sweetened and flavored milk and cream, but the name has long been applied to all kinds of frozen delicacies in which cream enters as a constituent. Not even there has the line been drawn, but gums, gelatine, cornstarch, eggs and other “fillers” have been substituted or added to thicken the mixtures and give “body” to “creams,” which have but little relation to the genuine emulsion of butter-fat from cow’s milk. Standardization has been attempted by National and State food authorities with varying success of enforcement. While the application of the name to a great variety of frozen desserts has no doubt become legitimate by long usage it may properly be demanded that as an article of merchandise “ice cream” shall contain at least 8% to 12% butter-fat and that no ingredients dangerous to health enter into its manufacture.

=Freezers.=—The freezing is usually done by contact of the material with metal cooled on the other side by a “freezing mixture” of salt and ice which produces temperatures far below the freezing point of water while air is whipped into the cream by the rapid motion of the beater. A great variety of excellent freezers of this kind for hand or for power are on the market which answer the purpose for making ice cream at home or at the ice cream parlor.

Coarse-grained salt and crushed ice, mixed in the proportion of 1 part salt to 4 parts of ice, are constantly filled into the space surrounding the ice cream can, and the brine produced by the melting of the mixture is gradually drawn off from the tub. In a good freezer the operation should not take over fifteen minutes. When the cream is frozen to a soft mush, stop the beater and scrape down the hard particles which may have accumulated on the sides of the can, add any ingredients which may be better incorporated at this stage than mixed into the original material, such as crushed fruit or preserves, and finish the freezing without carrying it too far.

Remove the beater, stir the cream which should still be soft enough to handle, and pack in ice with only a little salt. Or the cream may be transferred from the freezer can to the shipping can and packed in it. If bricks are wanted the soft cream is packed in molds of the desired shape and size and buried in the freezing mixture to harden.

In modern ice cream factories _Brine Freezers_ are generally used. In a _Refrigerator Plant_ intensely low temperatures are produced by the vaporizing of compressed ammonia or carbonic acid in an ice machine, and brine circulating in iron pipes is cooled by such medium and may, in turn, cool the air in the _Cold Storage_ room, or the cream in the freezer, or pure water in metal boxes for the manufacture of _Artificial Ice._ It has been attempted to make the brine freezers _continuous_, the cream mixture being fed into the machine at one end and discharged frozen at the other. But this system has not so far been successful, and intermittent or batch freezers are most practical yet both for hand and for power.

Rich material, frozen in a good machine, whether intermittent or continuous, will expand from 50% to 100%, and the original material should not fill the freezer can more than half full.

The manufacture of ice cream has been the subject of study and experiments for years in the Dairy Department of the Agricultural College at Ames, Iowa, where Professor M. Mortensen has worked out a comprehensive classification from which any manufacturer may readily choose his formulas, modifying them to suit his local conditions and special problems. The outline kindly furnished the author by Professor Mortensen is so interesting and instructive as to be well worth copying substantially in full, leaving out the “Ices” in which no milk or cream is used and which are therefore not of special interest in connection with the purpose of this book—the use of more and better milk.

CLASSIFICATION ADOPTED AT IOWA EXPERIMENT STATION

Considering the work of former writers as well as names used by business men, the following classification was worked out by the station:

I. Plain Ice Creams. II. Nut Ice Creams. III. Fruit Ice Creams. IV. Bisque Ice Creams. V. Parfaits. VI. Mousses. VII. Puddings. VIII. Aufaits. IX. Lactos.

Explanation and Formulas

I. _Plain Ice Cream_ is a frozen product made from cream and sugar with or without a natural flavoring.

Formulas are given for making ten gallons of finished ice cream.

_Vanilla Ice Cream_:

5 gallons 25% cream 8 lbs. sugar 4 oz. vanilla extract

_Chocolate Ice Cream_:

5 gallons cream 10 lbs. sugar 1½ lbs. bitter chocolate 4 oz. vanilla extract

_Maple Ice Cream_:

5 gallons 25% cream 6 lbs. cane sugar 2 lbs. maple sugar 2 oz. caramel 4 oz. vanilla extract

_Caramel Ice Cream_:

5 gallons 25% cream 8 lbs. sugar 12 oz. caramel 4 oz. vanilla extract

_Coffee Ice Cream_:

5 gallons 25% cream 8 lbs. cane sugar Extract from 1 lb. coffee

_Mint Ice Cream_:

5 gallons 25% cream 8 lbs. cane sugar 1 pt. concentrated Creme de Menthe syrup Few drops green coloring.

II. _Nut Ice Cream_ is a frozen product made from cream and sugar and sound non-rancid nuts.

_Walnut Ice Cream_:

5 gallons 25% cream 8 lbs. cane sugar 4 oz. vanilla extract 4 lbs. of walnut meats.

According to this general formula the following nut ice creams may be prepared by substituting different kinds of nut meats:

_Chestnut Ice Cream_ _Filbert Ice Cream_ _Hazelnut Ice Cream_ _Pecan Ice Cream_ _Peanut Ice Cream_ _Almond Ice Cream_ _Pistachio Ice Cream_.

At times pistachio ice cream is made from oil of pistachio instead of from the nuts. If thus prepared, it will come under the head of plain ice cream.

III. _Fruit Ice Cream_ is a frozen product made from cream, sugar and sound, clean, mature fruits.

_Strawberry Ice Cream_:

5 gallons 25% cream 8 lbs. sugar ½ gallon crushed strawberries.

Employing the same formula the following creams may be made by merely substituting other fruits and berries for the strawberries. The amount of sugar may be varied according to the acidity of the fruit.

_Pineapple Ice Cream_ _Raspberry Ice Cream_ _Cherry Ice Cream_ _Peach Ice Cream_ _Apricot Ice Cream_ _Currant Ice Cream_ _Grape Ice Cream_ _Cranberry Ice Cream_.

Preparation of _lemon_ and _orange_ ice creams cannot be included under this general rule. These creams may be prepared as follows:

_Lemon Ice Cream_:

5 gallons 25% cream 10 lbs. sugar 2 pts. lemon juice 1 pt. orange juice

_Orange Ice Cream_:

5 gallons 25% cream 10 lbs. sugar 2 qts. orange juice ½ pt. lemon juice.

IV. _Bisque Ice Cream_ is a frozen product made from cream, sugar and bread products, marshmallows or other confections, with or without other natural flavoring.

_Macaroon Ice Cream_:

5 gallons 25% cream 8 lbs. sugar 4 oz. vanilla extract 5 lbs. ground macaroons.

From this formula we can make:

Grape Nut Ice Cream Nabisco Ice Cream Sponge Cake Ice Cream Marshmallow Ice Cream.

V. _Parfait_ is a frozen product made from cream, sugar and egg yolks with or without nuts or fruits and other natural flavoring.

_Walnut Parfait_:

4 gallons 30% cream Yolks of 10 dozen eggs 14 lbs. sugar 4 oz. vanilla extract 4 lbs. walnut meats.

From this formula by substituting the nut meats we can make:

_Filbert Parfait_ _Almond Parfait_ _Peanut Parfait_ _Hazelnut Parfait_, etc.

By substituting the same proportion of fruits as are used for fruit ice cream, for the vanilla extract and nut meats, fruit parfaits such as strawberry, raspberry and cherry parfaits and others may be prepared.

_Coffee Parfait_:

4 gallons 30% cream Yolks of 10 dozen eggs 14 lbs. sugar Extract from 1 lb. coffee

_Maple Parfait_:

4 gallons 30% cream Yolks of 10 dozen eggs 4 lbs. maple sugar 10 lbs. cane sugar 2 oz. caramel paste

_Tutti-Frutti_:

4 gallons 30% cream Yolks of 10 dozen eggs 14 lbs. cane sugar 4 oz. vanilla extract 3 lbs. candied cherries 3 lbs. candied assorted fruit 3 lbs. pineapple.

VI. _Mousse_ is a frozen whipped cream to which sugar and natural flavoring have been added.

_Cranberry Mousse_:

2 gallons 30% cream 4 lbs. cane sugar 1 qt. cranberry juice ¼ pt. lemon juice.

From the same formula combinations may be made with various other fruit juices and natural flavors, such as coffee, vanilla, maple, caramel, pistachio, etc.

_Sultana roll_, as indicated by the name, is made in a round mold. The center of the mold is filled with tutti-frutti, and the outside with pistachio mousse.

VII. _Pudding_ is a product made from cream or milk, with sugar, eggs, nuts and fruits, highly flavored.

_Nesselrode Pudding_:

3 gallons 30% cream 10 dozen eggs 10 lbs. cane sugar 4 oz. vanilla extract 6 lbs. candied cherries and assorted fruits 4 lbs. raisins 4 lbs. macaroons

_Manhattan Pudding_:

3 gallons 30% cream 10 dozen eggs 12 lbs. sugar 2 qts. orange juice 1 pt. lemon juice 4 lbs. walnut meats 4 lbs. pecan meats 4 lbs. cherries and assorted fruits

_Plum Pudding_:

3 gallons 30% cream 10 dozen eggs 10 lbs. sugar 2½ lbs. chocolate 4 lbs. cherries and assorted fruits 2 lbs. raisins 2 lbs. figs 1 lb. walnut meats 3 teaspoonfuls ground cinnamon ½ teaspoonful ground cloves.

VIII. _Aufait_ is a brick cream consisting of layers of one or more kinds of cream with solid layers of frozen fruits.

Fig aufait may be made from three layers of cream of various flavors with two layers of whole or sliced figs. It is most satisfactory to slice the figs lengthwise in halves.

Other aufaits may be made from a variety of preserved fruits and berries and combined with different creams.

IX. _Lacto_ is a product manufactured from skimmed or whole sour milk, eggs and sugar, with or without natural flavoring.

Formulas for lactos may be found in Bulletin No. 140 published by the Ames Station.

As an example, the following mixture will make 5 gallons of

_Cherry Lacto_:

3 gallons lacto milk 9 pounds sugar 12 eggs 1 quart of cherry juice or concentrated cherry syrup 1½ pints lemon juice

“Lacto Milk” is the same as described under “Commercial Buttermilk” and “Thick Milk,” pages 81 and 82.

The sugar is first dissolved in the lacto milk. The eggs are then prepared. The whites and yolks are kept in separate containers and each lot is beaten with an egg beater. Both the yolks and whites are then added to the milk. The mixture is thoroughly stirred and strained through a fine wire gauze. The fruit juices are added last. The freezer is now run until it turns with difficulty when the paddle is removed. The brine is removed and the freezer repacked with ice and salt and left for an hour before the contents are served.

Orange, Mint, Pineapple, Maraschino, Raspberry or Grape Lacto may be prepared by substituting any of these flavors for the Cherry.

X. _Ices_ are frozen products made from water or sweet skimmed or whole milk, and sugar, with or without eggs, fruit juices or other natural flavoring.

Ices may be for convenience divided into _sherbets_, _milk sherbets_, _frappes_, _punches_ and _souffles_.

_Milk Sherbet_ is an ice made from sweet skimmed or whole milk with egg albumen, sugar and natural flavoring, frozen to the consistency of ice cream.

_Pineapple Milk Sherbet_:

6 gallons milk 20 lbs. sugar Whites of 2 dozen eggs 1 gallon pineapple pulp 1 qt. lemon juice.

Milk sherbets of various flavors may be prepared according to above formula by substituting other flavorings.

The formulas presented above have been given mainly for the purpose of making clear the difference between the various groups. Numerous other formulas may be prepared on the same general outline.

* * * * *

Prof. Mortensen’s formulas are mostly made out for ten gallons of ice cream. It is hardly necessary to call attention to the fact that they can easily be adapted to any smaller quantities by reducing each of the ingredients alike. For instance, to make:

_1 gallon of Plain Vanilla Ice Cream_, divide the figures given above by 10 and use:

2 quarts 25% cream ¾ lbs. sugar ½ oz. vanilla extract.

To make:

_1 quart of Strawberry Ice Cream_, divide by 40 and use:

1 pint 25% cream 3 oz. sugar Crushed strawberries to taste.

It will be noticed that in the formulas worked out at Ames as above, very rich cream is used,—with a fat contents of 25% or 30%,—which makes exceedingly rich ice creams and great expansion in freezing. The ordinary ice cream maker will usually employ cheaper material, mixing some milk in the cream and standardizing the material to suit his local trade. Also most housekeepers making ice cream at home will find it convenient and economical to use a mixture of milk and cream and in doing so one must not expect so much expansion.

In many places outside of dairy sections cream is scarce and _condensed milk_ is substituted to a large extent. Lately milk powder has come into use and _Emulsified Cream_ has become popular. Skim-milk powder and unsalted butter may be kept in stock and be available at any time, and by means of an _Emulsifier_ they are united again into a product identical with the milk or cream from which they were originally separated.

=Junket Ice Cream.=—By setting a mixture of milk and cream with a solution of Junket Tablets and allowing it to jelly before freezing, the body of the cream may be improved so that a material of comparatively low fat-percentage will make a very good ice cream, rich enough for most people and especially well suited for invalids and children. Ice-cold milk or cream is rather hard to digest for a weak or delicate stomach because the action of the rennet in the digestive juice is imperfect and slow except at blood-temperature. In Junket Ice Cream, however, such action takes place before it is eaten and the digestive ferment of the stomach is relieved of that function. For that reason Junket Ice Cream is considered healthier than the ordinary frozen products and may be indulged in freely by children and invalids.

The following are examples of tested Junket Ice Creams:

Vanilla Ice Cream

Dissolve two Junket Tablets in a tablespoonful of cold water, heat two quarts of milk and one pint of cream lukewarm in which has been dissolved one cup of sugar and two teaspoonfuls of vanilla flavor, then add the dissolved Junket Tablet, stir quickly for one-half minute and pour into ice cream can, let stand undisturbed ten or fifteen minutes or until set. Pack with ice and salt and freeze.

Pistachio Ice Cream

Excerpt from an article by Alice Bradley in “Woman’s Home Companion”

This is the best ice cream for the money that we know. It may be made ready for the freezer early in the morning, and kept in the ice box until it is convenient to freeze it. It is quite possible to utilize cream that is not perfectly fresh.

Put in the can of the freezer one pint of milk, one-half cup of heavy cream, one-third cup sugar, one teaspoonful vanilla, one-half teaspoon of almond extract, a few grains of salt, and vegetable color paste to make a delicate green color. Set the freezer in a pan of hot water. As soon as the mixture is lukewarm, add one Junket Tablet dissolved in one tablespoon cold water. Mix thoroughly and let stand until firm. Put in the ice box until ready to freeze, then put can in the freezer tub, adjust the crank, put in three small measures of ice that has been crushed in a heavy bag or shaved fine with an ice shaver, cover this evenly with one measure of rock salt, add three measures more of ice and one of salt, let stand five minutes and then turn the crank of the freezer for about ten minutes, when it may be turned a little more rapidly. Continue the turning until the mixture is firm.

Remove the dasher, pack ice cream solidly into the can, surround with four measures of ice to one of salt, cover with heavy burlap bag or newspaper and keep in a cold place until needed. Be sure the opening in the side of the freezer tub is not plugged up, so that any surplus of salt water will drain off instead of getting into the freezer. It may be necessary to repack the freezer if the cream is frozen very long in advance of the meal. The cream may be put into a mold, set in the fireless cooker kettle, surrounded with ice and salt and left in the fireless cooker all day. Peel peaches, cut in thin slices, sprinkle with sugar and set in the ice box to chill. To serve, place peaches in chilled dessert glasses, cover with ice cream and garnish each with a candied cherry.

In the following recipes the cream is added after the junket prepared from mixtures of milk, sugar and flavors has been partly frozen, a method which is preferred by many.

Coffee Ice Cream

Make a cup of very strong coffee, add it to two quarts of warm milk in which one cup of sugar has been dissolved, taste in order to see if the flavor is strong enough, add three dissolved Junket Tablets, stir quickly for one-half minute, pour into ice cream can and let stand undisturbed ten or fifteen minutes or until set. Pack with ice and salt; freeze to a thick mush before adding one pint of cream, then continue freezing.

_Simmons College Peach Ice Cream_

Heat two quarts of milk lukewarm in which has been dissolved one cup of sugar and two teaspoonfuls of vanilla flavor, add two dissolved Junket Tablets, stir quickly for one-half minute and pour into ice cream can, let stand undisturbed ten or fifteen minutes or until set. Pack with ice and salt; freeze to a thick mush before adding one pint of cream and crushed and sweetened peaches, then continue freezing. Save the needed amount of peaches to serve on top of ice cream.

Frozen pudding, strawberries, bananas, or pineapple, may be added in this way when making any Junket Ice Cream.

_Orange Sherbet_

Heat two quarts of milk lukewarm in which has been dissolved two cups of sugar, then add two dissolved Junket Tablets, stir quickly for a minute and pour into freezer can, let it stand ten or fifteen minutes before packing with ice and salt; freeze to a thick mush, then add juice and grated rind of six oranges and continue to freeze.

=Raspberry Sherbet= may be made in the same way by substituting for the juice and rind of oranges one quart of crushed and sweetened raspberries, and

=Pineapple Sherbet= by substituting two cups of grated and sweetened pineapple.

_Custard Ice Cream_

When cream is scarce many housekeepers substitute a mixture of eggs and milk. The following is a good standard recipe which can be varied by using different fruits and flavors the same as in any of the above combinations.

1 quart milk 4 eggs 2 teaspoons vanilla (more if desired) 2½ cups sugar 1 quart cream (or rich milk)

Scald milk, add sugar, then add the well-beaten eggs. Cook until thick, remove from fire and cool. Be careful not to cook too long or it will curdle. Then add the cream and vanilla and freeze.

BUTTER

As everybody knows, butter is one of the oldest and most important products of the dairy industry and since the middle of the nineteenth century, when science was first applied to it, the art of buttermaking has gradually been developed to a high degree of perfection, while the taste for fine butter has grown apace with its manufacture.

Between 1840 and 1850 the large estates in Holstein, then connected with Denmark, were known for their fine dairies and excellent butter, made in a practical way without much attention to the reason for the rules that were gradually worked out.

A class of superior dairymaids was educated on these large farms, many of whom were hired by progressive farmers on the Danish islands where an effort was made at that time to introduce better methods of dairying.

The practical handicraft of these imported expert dairymaids was supplemented and regulated by the scientific work of Professor Segelcke and his pupils and from the Sixties buttermaking became an art in Denmark which was subjected to the most searching study and improvements. Danish butter soon captured the English market where previously Isigny (from Northern France) and Dutch butter had commanded the highest prices, and Danish sweet butter put up in sealed tin cans also became known all over the world as the only butter that would stand export to the Tropics.

In this country Orange County, N.Y., first produced a high-class article and, later, Elgin, Ill., became the center that stood for the top of perfection. Thence the industry soon spread over the middle western states, largely populated by Scandinavian immigrants many of whom were skilled buttermakers, educated in the old countries. Even up to this day it is noticeable that the list of prize winning buttermakers at the National Dairy Shows and other exhibitions is largely made up of Scandinavian names. In Minnesota, for instance, as fine butter is now made as anywhere in the world.

_Dairy Butter._—In the early days of the industry butter was made at home on the farm. The milk was set in shallow vessels,—in the Holstein and Danish dairies in wooden tubs 24 inches in diameter placed on the stone or concrete floor in the milk-vault, a cool cellar partly underground,—or in tin pans on the pantry shelf. After 36 to 48 hours the cream was skimmed off with a flat scoop, often both cream and skim milk being sour.

About 1860 the deep tin can was introduced, set in cold running water or, where ice was available, in ice water. This was a great improvement over the shallow setting system. It was now possible to raise most of the cream in 24 hours leaving not to exceed ½% butter-fat in the skim milk, and to have both cream and skim milk sweet.

_Centrifugal Creaming._—But the climax of perfection was not reached until the separator (see under Cream) was invented about 1879 and cream was raised instantaneously. For a long time it was the object of the manufacturers to produce _power separators_ of larger and larger capacity, handling from 6,000 to 10,000 lbs. of milk an hour.

=Co-operative Creameries= were established, taking in 20,000 lbs. of milk and more a day. But in thinly settled sections where the roads were poor it was expensive to haul the milk a long distance to the creamery and _hand separators_ were introduced, each farmer skimming his own milk fresh from the cows and delivering the cream, only, to the creamery. This system has the advantage of leaving the skim milk on the farm in the very best condition for the calves and hogs and of saving time and expenses in transportation. It has the disadvantage that many farmers can hardly be expected to handle all of these separators as skilfully and cleanly as the creamery expert can run his one or few machines, and consequently that the skimming is more or less imperfect—more butter-fat being left in the skim milk and more impurities in the cream than in the whole-milk creamery. But in practice the advantages of the hand separator and cream-gathering system seem to be greater than the disadvantages and it is rapidly taking the place of the whole-milk creameries.

_Ripening the Cream._—Butter may be made by churning whole milk, but usually it is made from cream that has been “ripened” or soured by standing for about 10 hours at a temperature of from 65° to 75° F. Modern buttermakers often pasteurize the cream and then add a “starter” to sour it. By preparing the starter with a pure culture of lactic acid bacteria one can get the desired acidity and aroma, and exclude undesirable flavors (as to Pure Cultures and Starters, see under “Bacteria” and “Commercial Buttermilk”).

The process of ripening requires considerable skill and attention and is one of the most delicate functions the buttermaker is called upon to perform. In the first place the cream must be faultless, sweet and pure before it is set to ripen, so the buttermaker will have full control of the fermentation. For, if it is already turned or partly fermented, no skill will avail to bring it back to perfection. But with a first class, pure cream the operator has it in his power to turn out perfect butter. In the big western creameries cream is often collected from farms at a distance of a hundred miles or more and in warm weather such cream is likely to arrive at the central plant in more or less advanced condition. It is therefore difficult for the _centralizers_ to make really first-class butter while the “whole-milk creamery” as well as the farmer handling his own milk are in position to control the ripening from the beginning,—starting with pure material and being able to develop the desired flavor and acidity in the cream.

After adding the starter to the cream it must be kept at a uniform temperature of 65 to 75° during the ripening process and it must be watched carefully and occasionally stirred gently until the consistency, aroma and acidity are as desired. Then it should be cooled quickly to stop further fermentation and if it is not to be churned at once it should be kept cold until churning time. Usually it is safer to set the cream in the morning and hasten the ripening so it will be completed in the evening rather than to leave it overnight warm. For, if it is finished in the evening, the cream may be cooled and placed in ice water overnight and one is sure to have it in good condition for churning in the morning. But it is quite feasible for the experienced operator to regulate the process so the cream will not be fully ripened in the morning until he is on hand to watch it and see that the process does not go too far. Taste and smell will tell when it is just right, and the _acid test_ may also be applied to determine when to stop the fermentation. An acidity of .5% is usually desired. When the condition is right, chill the cream, cooling it to below 50°—preferably down towards 40°—and leave it in ice water or in the refrigerator until churning time; then temper it to the proper temperature for churning.

Even if it is to be churned soon after the ripening is completed it is best to chill it and then raise the temperature to the point wanted for churning. This gives a better “grain” and “body” to the butter than if the ripened cream is just cooled to the churning temperature, and is especially desirable when the cream has been pasteurized.

=Coloring.=—When the cream is ready it is poured into the churn and a little butter color is added. Some people prefer butter very light or even uncolored, but usually 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls of a standard butter color[5] to 10 gallons of cream will be found right, varying according to the season and the breed of cows furnishing the milk. The butter-fat in Guernsey and Jersey milk is naturally highly colored, while that in Holstein milk is comparatively white. When the cows are on fresh pasture in the early summer the butter-fat is more highly colored than when they are on dry food. The amount of coloring to be added to the cream is regulated to overcome such variations and make the butter of uniform color all the year round.

=Churning.=—Hundreds of varieties of churns have been constructed from time to time; 2,000 years ago Pliny described the old dash churn much the same as still occasionally used on the farm, and the principle involved in the process has not been changed. The object is to make the fat globules conglomerate into grains that can be collected and leave as little butter-fat as possible in the buttermilk.

The best temperature for churning varies from 48° to 56° and must be determined by local conditions and experience. To allow plenty of room for the cream to shake about, the churn should not be much more than half full. When the globules of fat suspended in the milk stick together and form granules as large as good sized pin-heads it is time to stop the churn and drain off the buttermilk. If the butter fails to “come” in half an hour or forty minutes it may be because the cream in the churn is too warm or too cold. A little cold or warm water, as the case may be, can be added as a simple remedy.

Toward the end of the process care must be taken that the churn is stopped at the right moment, when the butter will separate clear from the buttermilk. After the buttermilk is drawn off pure cold water is poured into the churn and the butter granules are rinsed in it. This water again is drawn off and fresh cold water put in.

=Working the Butter.=—The butter can now be taken out with a sieve and worked on the butter-worker, or it may be worked in the churn. “Working” the butter consists in squeezing out the buttermilk and kneading the butter into a smooth but not “greasy” mass. If it is too warm and if it is worked too much, with a sliding motion instead of just pressing, the butter is apt to become greasy. If there seems to be any danger of greasiness, it is better to stop and put the butter in a cool place for a few hours to recover its elasticity. The working can then be finished safely.

=Salting.=—During this working process salt is added and thoroughly distributed and worked in. About half an ounce of salt is used for a pound of butter.

=Composition of Butter.=—When finished, the butter ought not to contain more than 12% to 15% of water, and there should be at least 80% of butter-fat. If all the butter-fat originally in the milk could be taken out in the butter, 100 lbs. of 4% milk should yield 4.88% (4.88 lbs.) of butter with 82% butter-fat. But a little is lost in the skim milk and more in the buttermilk, which usually contains ½% fat, so that about 4½ lbs. is all the butter that can be expected from 100 lbs. of milk.

=Overrun.=—Creamery men are much interested in the “Overrun” which means the increase from the churn over the amount of fat in the milk. For instance, if a quantity of milk containing 100 lbs. butter-fat as shown by the Babcock Test produces 114 lbs. of finished butter, the overrun is 14%. The buttermaker who gets the largest overrun by reducing the loss of butter-fat in the skim milk and the buttermilk to a minimum, keeping the percentage of water in the butter just below 16%, and yet producing high scoring butter, is considered most efficient.

=Packing.=—For the market, butter is packed in tubs or stone jars. Or it is molded in neat one-pound bricks and wrapped in parchment paper.

=Sweet Butter.=—Real “sweet” butter is churned from fresh, sweet, unsoured cream. But usually the name is given to the _unsalted_ and _uncolored_ butter that many people relish. Without the salt it does not keep as well as ordinary butter, and must be eaten quite fresh. Well-made salted butter will keep for months with ordinary care, and in cold storage it may be kept a year. But when it comes out of cold storage it must be used within a few weeks, for butter, like other cold storage foods, will soon spoil and become rancid when it is exposed to a higher temperature for any length of time.

=Renovated Butter.=—Butter that has become old and rancid can be “renovated.” The butter is melted and the butter-oil washed,—aërated in the renovating plants,—and then churned with fine-flavored sour skim milk. From the sour skim milk it gets back its old butter flavor. The granular physical consistency of fresh butter is gained by pouring the emulsified mixture over cracked ice or into ice water. By the time the excess of “buttermilk” has been removed by working, and salt has been mixed in, the renovated butter may be almost as good as fresh creamery butter.

=Oleomargarine= or =Butterine= is made in much the same way. A mixture of beef-fat (the soft part of beef-tallow) and lard and cottonseed oil is churned with sour milk and worked and granulated like renovated butter. For the better grades, some of the finest creamery butter is mixed with it, so that the mixture can hardly be distinguished from real butter.

=Coco-butter=, =Nut-butter=, etc., in great variety, are now also on the market as substitutes for butter, all prepared in a similar way, but lacking the vital unknown element that makes genuine butter so superior to substitutes.

BUTTERMILK

If the cream has been carefully ripened, with or without a pure culture starter, and it has shown the proper sourness when churned, the buttermilk will be of a pleasing taste and flavor. Its thickness will of course depend upon the amount of water, if any, added to the cream in the churn during the buttermaking. If the buttermilk is to be used for human food care must be taken not to dilute it too much.

=Cooling Essential.=—If buttermilk is left to stand for hours in a warm room, fermentation goes on and may soon spoil the buttermilk by making it sloppy or bitter. It should therefore be cooled at once when drawn from the churn; if kept in ice water it may remain in fine flavor for several days. Well taken care of it is not only a pleasing and refreshing drink but eminently healthful. In cooking, too, it can be used to advantage.

=Commercial Buttermilk= or =Cultured Milk= is simply carefully soured milk. It can be made at home from fresh milk either whole or skimmed or partly skimmed. Partially skimmed milk containing from 1% to 2% butter-fat is plenty rich enough and even better for most purposes than whole milk. The essential qualities of good buttermilk depend upon the proper ripening of the cream or milk, the development of a pure “breed” of healthful bacteria in a clean field free from weeds. Such a plantation or “culture” may be grown in milk as well as in cream. Its function is to turn the sugar of milk into lactic acid under the development of pleasing flavors and whether the butter-fat is removed by the separator or by churning makes little difference. In natural buttermilk there is always a little butter-fat—at least ½%—left, mostly in the form of fine granules, too small to be retained in the butter. If the same amount of butter-fat is left in skim milk and that is ripened and churned, the product will be identically the same as natural buttermilk from ripened cream.

=Ripening.=—For best result the milk should be pasteurized, not necessarily as thoroughly as for starters, but sufficiently so as to destroy all obnoxious bacteria and give those introduced through a pure culture starter a chance to grow. Buttermilk may, however, also be made from good, clean, unpasteurized milk of good flavor. Whether pasteurized or not the milk is set to ripen with from 5 to 10% starter at a temperature of from 65 to 75°. The preparation of starters is described under “Bacteria” and the ripening of the milk for “buttermilk” is essentially the same process (see also under _Ripening_ of cream for butter). When ripened to the desired acidity,—say .5% to .6% by the acid test,—stop further fermentation by thorough cooling.

=Breaking up the Curd.=—After cooling, the ripened milk may be broken up fine and if vigorously shaken or “churned” it will remain smooth and creamy. Otherwise it may separate into curd and whey. If churned long enough for the butter to form, it becomes absolutely identical with real buttermilk. But, for all practical purposes, a vigorous shaking for a few minutes is enough.

=Thick Milk.=—“Thick Milk” as eaten in Scandinavia is made in the same way as commercial buttermilk, except that the milk—rich whole milk—is set to ripen in the bowl in which it is to be served. Instead of being churned or stirred, it is left thick, to be served as a pudding, like Junket made from sweet milk. The rich layer of cream that forms on top is excellent. “Thick Milk” is eaten plain with the oatmeal for breakfast, or as a dessert with grated stale bread and sugar spread over it.

The uses of buttermilk in making pancakes and for many other culinary purposes are mentioned in the chapter on “Milk Cookery.”

=Yoghourt= or =Bulgarian Sour Milk= is prepared with a culture of bacteria originally found in Bulgaria where Metchnikoff, the late director of the Pasteur Institute of Paris, found people living to exceptional old age which he ascribed to the fact that their principal diet is sour milk of very high acidity.

The theory is that a luxurious growth of lactic acid bacilli, acting as a germicide, destroys other fermentations in the lower intestines. The bacilli active in Yoghourt require a somewhat higher temperature for their best growth than the lactic acid bacilli predominant in sour cream for the finest butter, a fact which must be taken into consideration in preparing the various products.

FERMENTED MILK

In the preparation of Koumis, Kefir and other fermented milks of the same class, Yeast plays an important part, changing some of the milk-sugar into the alcohol which is found in these preparations in quantities up to 2%.

=Koumis= was first made from mare’s milk by the Tartars, but is now prepared in this country from cow’s milk by the addition of sugar and yeast. As carbonic acid is developed in the process it is quite effervescent and may be regarded both as a food and a stimulant. It is sometimes prescribed by physicians in cases when the patient cannot retain other food.

=Kefir= is a similar preparation originally made in the Caucasus by a fermentation started by Kefir grains which contain both yeast and various bacteria. The dry Kefir grains are soaked, first in lukewarm water, later in lukewarm milk, for several days, until they develop so much gas as to float on the top. A couple of tablespoonfuls of the grains are then added to a quart of milk which is left to ferment at 70° F. under frequent stirring or shaking. When the fermentation is fully developed the grains are strained off and the milk is bottled and kept for 1 to 2 days at 60°. The grains may be used at once again in fresh milk, and when the manufacture is finished they may be dried and kept, to be used again another time.