Chapter XV

THE NATIONAL PARK SERVICE

Although there were thirteen national parks in 1912, each received a separate appropriation and had separate management. The business of these playgrounds was scattered among three departments, and nowhere in Washington was there a single official or desk wholly devoted to their interest.[335] To this problem Stephen Tyng Mather brought high intelligence, sound philosophy, and supreme endeavor. By 1915 he had achieved administrative experience that ripened into wisdom equal to undertake the preservation of America's scenic and recreational heritage.

With this general proposition in mind, Mr. Mather made two visits to Yellowstone during the season of 1915. There he carefully analyzed the administrative policies and personnel. While it is only fair to state that other federal officials were also planning a new national park organization and procedure it was largely Mr. Mather's Yellowstone report that provided the needed impetus. From then on he supplied the energy, foresight, and devotion to effect a transition.

On August 25, 1916 the National Park Service Bill received President Wilson's signature. This measure placed the control and general supervision of the entire national park activity squarely into the hands of a Director of National Parks. The bill was sponsored by Senator Reed Smoot of Utah and Representative William Kent of California.

Thereafter, on October 1, 1916, the troops of U.S. Cavalry left Fort Yellowstone for duty along the Mexican border. With C. A. Lindsley as Acting Superintendent a fine ranger corps was organized of mountain scouts and released soldiers. Shortly afterwards Congress reversed its action and voted to deny the use of Department of the Interior funds for protective purposes. This forced the return of the soldiers, and the army resumed control on June 30, 1917.

During the next six months National Park Service officials, aided by the army officers, gathered data which proved the inadvisability of continuing the use of troops. It should be noted that the attitude of the officers throughout was cogently expressed by Captain Harris:

And it is believed that to the extent in which the present method of government and protection is an improvement upon former methods it is due to the visible power and force of the National Government as represented by the military garrison in the Park.

It is not to be inferred that the claim is made that a military government is the only one practicable for the Park, or even that it is the best adapted or most suitable. It is believed, however, that no efficient protection can be given to the Park without the support of a well-organized and disciplined police force of some description.[336]

In this spirit, the cost of a military garrison and its lack of opportunities to drill were reviewed. It was clearly demonstrated that a ranger force of a chief ranger, four assistants, twenty-five permanent Park rangers of the first class, and twenty-five seasonal rangers would constitute a "well-organized and disciplined police force" and something else besides. It was also pointed out that the cost would be considerably less. This effort resulted in a second withdrawal of the troops in 1918. At the same time another ranger force was effected with substantially the same personnel as developed in 1916.[337] In due time the members of this new corps acquired a modest attitude of confidence in their own capacity which still abides.

Mr. Mather assumed office as the first National Park Director on May 16, 1917. In a short time the fruits of his vision were disclosed. Under his inspiring leadership the National Park program was steadily expanded. Peace was made with, and a degree of cooperation obtained from, the natural antagonists of the National Park Service. Several wealthy citizens who had acquired vast private estates were induced to donate portions thereof for the general public. Sportsmen who had observed the diminution in numbers of wild creatures were converted to the idea of refuges through self-interest. The positions of the lumber, grazing, irrigation, and water-power interests were less yielding on this all-out conservation issue. They would evidently favor a compromise. The general public gradually responded to the suggestion that the country beautiful was even more alluring than beautiful cities.[338]

In Secretary Lane's third annual report in 1919 the National Park Service policy was announced under three broad principles:

First, that the National Parks must be maintained in absolutely unimpaired form for the use of future generations as well as those of our own time; Second, that they are set apart for the use, observation, health, and pleasure of the people; and Third, that the national interest must dictate all decisions affecting public or private enterprise in the Parks.[339]

Since then the program has made steady progress. Its purposes and policies have been enlarged and clarified. The acceptable qualities of parkhood were defined. Such an area must be supremely significant, having a national appeal whether scenic, archaeological, scientific, or historical. Only such features of natural architecture were to be included as would represent the highest accomplishment within its class. For example, Grand Canyon of the Colorado exemplifies the most extraordinary achievement of stream erosion, whereas Yellowstone is most unique in the realm of thermal activity.[340]

The National Park represents the apex of the conservation program, wherein the principle of optimum use is the dominating force. The twin purposes of enjoyment plus conservation always remain uppermost. Commercialization beyond actual requirements is not to be tolerated, and to this end close supervision is maintained.

Natural species of animals and plants were to abide in normal relationships, free from man's interference, except under urgent circumstances such as were described in the discussion of wild life control. The primitive appearance of Yellowstone forests is distasteful to some people. It was a carping German traveler who said, "Look at your dead trees and burned stumps in the woods ... and your streams are full of driftwood. It is not cared for."[341] In that sense Yellowstone is not a park but a wilderness full of the beauty of natural disorder. All things remain as nature leaves them. No man disturbs landslide, log jam, or wind-swept lodgepole avalanche.

The appearance of the trails, roads, bridges, buildings, and facilities of all kinds is gradually being brought into harmony with the natural environment. Under the guidance of landscape artists, structural design and location are made conformable to maximum scenic advantages while at the same time, being inconspicuous themselves. A few examples will illustrate this trend toward artificial recession. In 1889 Captain Boutelle complained against the statute which prescribed that no hotel shall be erected within four hundred and forty yards of any object of interest. He urged a reduction of one-half the distance.[342] Now, all the accommodations in the immediate Grand Canyon area are being moved a modest distance away, where they will still provide the services which visitors need, but not intrude upon the natural scene. Another case is afforded by the bear shows. Formerly they were provided in several places; then modified to a less artificial presentation on Otter Creek. In 1942 they were discontinued. It is truly exciting for thousands of people to observe thirty or forty grizzlies jostle and cuff each other around a "combination salad" platform. Still, the circumstance is highly artificial, a sort of Roman holiday affair, and therefore inappropriate. It is hoped that the Lord of all American wild life may be allowed to go his way undisturbed, otherwise grizzlies may become "holdup bears and bums." Such an eventuality, on a nocturnal basis of operation, is by no means improbable. That development would consign this magnificent animal to a precipitous disappearance from the earth.

Yellowstone's educational opportunities were early recognized and utilized by the scientists. The passing of time has widened this field-study interest. Supervised groups now come from all parts of America, with individual scientists hailing from both home and abroad. In fact, more than a hundred specialists have spent from a few weeks to several years in the Park. The results of these efforts have run up the volume of scientific titles to approximately five hundred.

By 1920 naturalist activity was in the course of development, the outcome of an avowed purpose to facilitate the real enjoyment of the people. To this work Director Mather brought especial perception, skill, and even personal funds. In fact, he may be considered as the father of the movement. It was in 1918, when visiting Lake Tahoe, that Mather observed the activities of a young man named Harold Bryant, whom the management had employed to interpret nature to their guests. Dr. Bryant's work so impressed the Director that he took him to Yosemite where his success with the public was immediate. Ranger-naturalists were appointed in other parks, and later Dr. H. C. Bryant was placed in charge of the educational branch of the service. Two notable institutions quickly caught the vision and cooperated. In 1925 the Yosemite School of Natural History was founded as a non-profit scientific organization. Courses in botany, zoology, and geology were given. Emphasis was placed on field work, and the final trip lasted two weeks. The instructional staff was composed largely of University of California professors, while the twenty trainees were chosen from a hundred candidates.[343] In 1935 Yale University furthered the naturalist incentive by providing a fellowship. Since 1937 two have been granted. Yellowstone Park has taken advantage of these services.

After a decade of experimentation in field trips, fireside lectures, and exhibits a Research and Education branch was created within the National Park Service. This bureau outlined a policy of portraying certain phases of the American scene in a correlated story. Laboratories were developed in Berkeley, California; Fort Hunt, Virginia; and Washington, D. C. The leading men in this program were H. C. Bryant, F. W. Miller, W. W. Atwood, F. R. Oastler, A. F. Hall, H. C. Bumpus, and C. P. Russell.

In 1920, Superintendent Horace M. Albright, assisted by J. E. Haynes, organized the naturalist program in Yellowstone. M. P. Skinner was the first Park Naturalist. He was succeeded by Edmund J. Sawyer in 1924. Four years later Dorr G. Yeager assumed the office; in 1932 Dr. C. Max Bauer became Park Naturalist and served until 1946, when David de L. Condon was advanced to the position.[344] All of these men have been nature-wise and public-minded. As time passed two assistants to the Chief Naturalist and thirty-five seasonal Park ranger-naturalists completed this organization. Robert N. McIntyre became Chief Park Naturalist in 1959.

Today Yellowstone's Naturalist Division stands as the symbol of America's love for the great out-of-doors. Its philosophy is wise and comprehensive. Its scientists have delved deeply for the facts. Still, there is a spirit of self-abnegation among the personnel. They serve all and sundry in every possible way, and yet they are pledged to the preservation of the natural treasures. Their contribution to protection of park values is shared with that of the ranger staff. The number of public contacts runs into the hundreds of thousands annually. Wise, indeed, is the tourist who avails himself of this free guide service.

The principal points of interest are visited over footpath or by auto caravan. Daily schedules of these activities are posted, and an illustrated lecture is held in an amphitheater each night. Many citizens have expressed their satisfaction with this naturalist service:

He unravelled before our city-wearied eyes the skein of beauty nature has hidden in this great preserve. With skillful phrase he repictured for us the aeons during which the mountains were wrinkling and the cobalt lakes were born. His keen eyes found us mountain sheep ... his wide knowledge compassed the flowers and birds along the way. He knew when and where to take us to see the beaver at work, and where the water ouzel bubbled forth its cascade of song. He answered all our questions with calm courtesy. Around the nightly campfire he brought to us in song and story the romance and exuberance of the west....

The fire of his enthusiasm welded us to the National Park idea and out-of-doors as nothing had ever done. We returned to the east inspired by a new understanding of the greatness of America and the magnificence of its beauty.[345]

In 1928 the Laura Spelman Rockefeller Foundation made a donation to be used by the American Association of Museums in the Park. Under the direction of Dr. Hermon C. Bumpus museums were erected at Old Faithful, Madison, Norris and Fishing Bridge. The main museum at Mammoth was improved and a number of roadside exhibits were established.[346]

Mission 66 was begun by the National Park Service in 1956. It is a conservation program to assure full protection of irreplaceable scenic, scientific and historic treasures and to develop and staff the Parks to permit their wisest possible use for your enjoyment. Completion is scheduled for 1966, the 50th anniversary of the establishment of the National Park Service, hence Mission 66.

Under this program, new roads, bridges, campgrounds and other facilities are being built. A fine new visitor center was opened in 1958 at Canyon Village and a large number of attractive new roadside exhibits and signs interpret the human and natural history of the great natural museum that is Yellowstone.

During the score of years required to develop the naturalist branch, the protective division was not marking time. In 1920 James McBride became the first Chief Ranger. Since then Samuel Tilden Woodring, George F. Baggley, Francis D. LaNoue, Maynard Barrows, Curtis K. Skinner and Otto M. Brown have served. Nelson Murdock became Chief Ranger in 1960. Under their supervision the character of the personnel has been gradually changed. Originally a mountain scout and ex-soldier organization, it is now composed of college graduates. These men divide their time and effort between applying the principles of forest and wild life management with those of public relations. Physically robust, mentally alert, sociable and understanding, they properly exemplify the traditional informality and hospitality of the West.

Of course there have always been a few political appointees present among the seasonal Park rangers. This makes the group quite varied, somewhat in keeping with the universality of the tourists themselves. Many a city lad has had the time of his life in his fleeting role as a "ninety-day wonder." Still there has always been a restraining influence reaching out from the chief ranger's office. A young man is not allowed to become too self-conscious over his uniform or badge of authority.

The Superintendent presides over the protective and naturalist divisions and all other units of the National Park Service in Yellowstone. Only four men have held this position since the army withdrew in 1918. C. A. Lindsley was succeeded by Horace M. Albright in 1919. Mr. Albright served for ten years, after which Roger W. Toll took office. Edmund B. Rogers was appointed May 25, 1936, and served until November 1, 1956, when Superintendent Lemuel A. Garrison succeeded him. The superintendent's office is the nerve center of the Park. From there all activities are co-ordinated. This official is also the liaison man with the National Park Service; he makes all estimates and recommendations; he contends for assistance from cooperating agencies, such as the Civilian Conservation Corps, Emergency Relief Administration, and Public Works Administration.[347] The Public Health Service, the Geological Survey, and the Fish and Wildlife Service each lend cooperation in their special fields. It is also his function to consider many letters of introduction and requests for special favors. He is expected, personally, to welcome numerous delegations and important national and foreign personages. Information and courtesies flow from his presence continuously. He must determine the bounds of concessionaires, hear major complaints, oppose all invasions by mercenary interests, and, if necessary, labor to expand the Park's boundaries.

Beginning early in the twentieth century there were advocates of an extension southward. Many people wanted to have the cathedral-like Tetons incorporated in the Park. A campaign for a Greater Yellowstone was launched, and in 1918 Representative Mondell introduced a measure (H.R. 11661) providing for their incorporation.[348] However, the matter was delayed, and the passing of time resulted in the establishment of the Grand Teton National Park. A national park may only be created by an act of Congress; whereas an executive order is sufficient for the creation of a national monument or a moderate extension of a park boundary. Through a proclamation issued by President Hoover on October 20, 1932, Yellowstone National Park acquired a triangular strip of 7,600 acres of land, now called the Stevens Creek area. It is located northwest of Gardiner townsite, and it was enlarged to the extent of nearly a thousand acres the next year. In affairs of this character the National Park Service and the Superintendent work in close cooperation with the Secretary of the Interior. Indeed, the superintendency of Yellowstone is one of the ranking positions of its kind in the National Park Service. His final obligation is to be sure that the original objective "for the benefit and enjoyment of the people" is still the chief and ever-constant purpose.

It has been pointed out that the fulfillment of this objective is rather difficult, because various interests and groups have their own ideas concerning the purposes and methods of administering national parks. For example, in Idaho, there are some organizations that seek an Idaho entrance to the Park on Fall River. They point to the fact that distance and time would be appreciably reduced in reaching Old Faithful via this route. Besides, they aver, such an entrance would traverse a beautiful scenic area. These contentions are both valid and understandable. So is the demand for landing strips and airport facilities within the reservation boundaries.

The latter project, it is held, is identical to the position raised by motorists in 1915. National Park officials have met these issues squarely. Director Conrad L. Wirth and his Yellowstone representatives have vetoed both proposals. "Surely," they reason, "the Park is for the people, but if it is multisected by highways and airways, what will become of the primitive areas?" Sizeable regions are essential for the propagation and preservation of wild life. In addition, they point to the fact that as of this date most people conceive of the parks as havens of relative quiet and rest.

During the travel season of 1959, Yellowstone was host to 1,489,112 visitors. This multitude exceeded the total of all persons entering the Park in the first half century of its existence. Facilitating their enjoyment and at the same time preserving the domain as a pleasuring ground for their descendants requires a good measure of understanding on the part of the public, together with a high degree of understanding and training upon the part of the officials.

Earth tremors are common in the Yellowstone region. The Hayden Survey reported feeling severe shocks near Steamboat Point on Yellowstone Lake in 1871. They named the site "Earthquake Camp." Other quakes have been reported, mostly of a minor nature. At 11:38 p.m. on August 17, 1959, an earthquake of magnitude 7.1 on the Richter Scale struck the Yellowstone area. The epicenter of the quake was along the western boundary of the Park in the vicinity of Grayling Creek.

The greatest earthquake damage took place in the Madison Canyon about 7 miles below Hebgen Dam and outside Yellowstone. A massive slide of about 80 million tons of earth and rock blocked the canyon and entombed a number of campers along a half-mile stretch of the Madison River. This natural dam has created Earthquake Lake, a feature that will attract attention for years to come.

In Yellowstone National Park dangerous rock slides covered Park roads at several points along the Madison, Firehole, and Gibbon rivers, and at Golden Gate. Tall chimneys toppled from Old Faithful Inn and other Park buildings, and there was structural damage to many roads and buildings.

The hot springs showed a greater change in this one night than had been observed in the entire history of the Park. Close study of the thermal features revealed that most springs had discharged water copiously during the quake and aftershocks, and then ebbed below normal levels. Investigation revealed that at least 298 springs and geysers had erupted the night of the quake, and 160 of these were springs with no previous record of eruption. Other changes occurred slowly. The Fountain Paint Pot did not manifest unusual activity until several days after the quake, but then encroached upon walks and parking areas. Most of the hot springs became turbid, and even cold springs that fed the mountain streams on the west side of the Park discharged an opaque mud which discolored the creeks and rivers.

Equilibrium was gradually restored in the geyser basins. Some of the earthquake changes were permanent, others transitory. All of them make this chapter in the living geology of Yellowstone an intensely interesting one for Park visitors to learn about.

Upon receiving reports about earthquake effects throughout the Park, Superintendent Lon Garrison exclaimed, "The Lord had his arms around us. We had 18,000 people inside Yellowstone that night, and not one person was killed or badly hurt. Think what would have happened if the quake had come during daylight--at Old Faithful Inn, for example, where the chimney fell into the dining room."

Thus, out of Yellowstone's development under scouts, soldiers, and rangers, has come invaluable experience for the good of the whole nation. From its humble origin a service has evolved that now administers more than one hundred and seventy-five national park service areas. Perhaps the value of this program toward the enrichment of American life cannot be assessed. However, something of its breadth has been caught and cast in the bronze plaque at the Madison Junction Museum:

Stephen Tyng Mather July 4, 1867 Jan. 22, 1930

He laid the foundation of the National Park Service. Defining and establishing the policy under which its areas shall be developed and conserved unimpaired for future generations. There will never come an end to the good that he has done.

Yellowstone is one of these irreducible frontiers which should never vanish, but to find a frontier one must first have the spirit of a frontiersman. Therefore within its confines are vast wilderness zones into which people may still go who cherish the elemental conditions of earth and its denizens. Here there may always be a pristine land, reminiscent of the primitive environment of mankind. Here is a temporary refuge for people distraught by the strain and turmoil of modern life. It is becoming increasingly clear that the nation which leads the world in feverish business activity requires playgrounds as well as workshops. If America would maintain its industrial supremacy let her plan not only the conservation of materials but of men.[349] Therefore, let them come to Yellowstone and other national parks and achieve physical, mental, and especially spiritual regeneration for all time to come. In Yellowstone, the National Park Service will be on hand to so direct the experience of the visitors to the end that even from afar and after many years their memories will return again. And, as the deepening twilight seems to bring the earth and the sky together, they may reflect upon a land where white-robed columns of steam ascend from the fissures of geysers long dead, like ghosts revisiting the scenes of their activity.[350]

Such is the desire of all large and generous minds. They are in full agreement with the glowing tribute of the Earl of Dunraven:

All honor then to the United States for having bequeathed as a free gift to man the beauties and curiosities of Wonderland. It is an act worthy of a great nation, and she will have her reward in the praise of the present army of tourists no less than in the thanks of the generations to come.[351]

And so, here is Yellowstone--The Gem of the Mountains. Is she not worthy of the fullest measure of preservation, appreciation, and defense? Surely, the Park is an incomparable heritage in the divine legacy that is America. May her fountains never fail but go dancing eternally along, shedding joy and inspiration upon the hearts of all who seek a certain treasure.

Appendix I YOUNG MEN CAMPING IN YELLOWSTONE WILDERNESS

An adaptation of Rudyard Kipling's "The Feet of the Young Men" By Merrill D. Beal

When Yellowstone Park is opened then the smokes of council rise, Pleasant smokes 'ere yet twixt trail and trail they choose. Then the ropes and girths are tested while they pack their last supplies, Now the young men head for camps beyond the Tetons! Faith will lead them to those altars, hope will light them to that shrine, Pilot knobs will safely guide them to their goal.

They must go, go, go, away from home! On the summit of the world they're overdue. Away! The trail is clear before you, When the old spring fret comes o'er you And the Red Gods call for you!

They will see the beaver falling and hear the white swan calling, They'll behold the fishhawk fumble as bald eagle takes a tumble to rob him of his haul. They will lie alone to hear the wild geese cry. They may watch the blacktail mating as they work the chosen waters where the mackinaw are waiting And the cutthroats jumping crazy for the fly!

They must go, go, go, away from here! On the summit of the world they're overdue. Begone! The way is clear before you When the old spring fret comes o'er you, And the Red Gods call for you!

They will see the lakeside lilies where the bull moose meets the cow, Or maybe silver grizzlies nurse the sow. They must climb the blue-roofed Rockies and observe that windy rift Where the baffling mountain eddies chop and change. They will learn the long day's patience, belly down on talus drift, And hear the thud of bison on the range. It is there that they are going where the bighorn and the ewes lie, To a trusty, nimble ranger that they know; They have sworn an oath to keep it on the brink of Mitsiadazi For the Red Gods call them out and they must go.

Let them go, go, go, away from home! On the summit of the world they're overdue. Be off! The trail is clear before you When the old spring fret comes o'er you, And the Red Gods make their medicine again.

"So it's onward ponies, sally, this is not the place to dally!" For the young men's thoughts are turning to a camp of special yearning, Hidden in a hanging valley. They must find that blackened timber, they must head that racing stream, With its raw, right-angled log jam at the end, And a bar of sun-warmed gravel where a lad can bask and dream To the click of shod canoe poles 'round the bend. It is there that they are going with their rods and reels and traces, With a silent, smoky packer that they know; To their beds of fleecy fir-mat with the star light on their faces, All are ready now to hold the evening show.

So they go, go, go, away from here! On the summit of the world they're overdue. So long! The trail is clear before you, When the old spring fret comes o'er you, And the Red Gods call you forth and you must go!

In the afterglow of twilight, tales of wonder find their voice, Trapping, fighting, robbing, poaching yield a choice: There's John Colter's mighty run and Jim Bridger's towering fun, There's Everts' five-week fast and Ed Trafton's crimson past. There's George Cowan's rugged vim; there's Buckskin Charley, Beaver Dick and Yankee Jim! Nez Percé Joseph's flight and capture will fill each soul with rapture In this camp of keen desire and pure delight.

Let them go, go, go, away from home! On the summit of the world they're overdue. Away! The trail is clear before you When the old spring fret comes o'er you, And the Red Gods mix their medicine again.

When the mountain yarns cease flowing and the night is in the glowing, conversation wanes. Then a sudden clap of thunder makes them huddle up the number to fend against the rains. When the fleeting squalls are over and the clouds ride high and fair, They will hear the lodgepole crackle and inhale the pine-sap air. Then bacon scent and wood smoke will attract an eager bear, He will grunt and sniff and gurgle as he wends nocturnal rounds. As darkness dims youth's vision, so sleep crowds out all sounds, But the eerie detonation of the bull elk's morning call Will waken them from slumber by a singing water fall.

Hence, they go, go, go, away from here! On the summit of the world they're overdue. Carry on! The trail is clear before you When the old spring fret comes o'er you, And the Red Gods call for you!

Unto each the voice and vision, unto each his hunch and sign, Lonely geyser in a basin, misty sweat bath 'neath a pine. Unto each a lad who knows his naked soul! Unto each a rainbow arching through a window in the sky, While the blazoned, bird-winged butterflies flap by. It is there that they are going to a region that they know, Where the sign betrays the badger and the shaggy buffalo. Where the trail runs out in breccia midst rock forests row on row. It is there life glides serenely without conduct that's unseemly, In a land where thoughts and feelings overflow. Quick! Ah, heave the camp kit over! For the Red Gods call them forth and they must go.

Let them go, go, go, away from home! On the summit of the world they're overdue. Farewell! The trail is clear before you When the old spring fret comes o'er you, And the Red Gods mix their medicine once more.

Appendix II THE PROBLEM OF "COLTER'S ROUTE IN 1807"

It may seem unfruitful at this time to attempt a solution of the problem of John Colter's 1807 route of discovery in Yellowstone. Many people require no proof of anything cited in the records of such great scouts as Jedediah S. Smith, Kit Carson, and John Colter. Their integrity need not be questioned. Still, it is within the province of the historian to sift and test all of the evidence until the truth falls into place as elements in a jigsaw puzzle. Even myths and legends should be examined for any implications and bearing they might have upon a fact. It is in this light that the following discussion of the Colter discovery problem is presented. This case is entirely hypothetical, since no specific reference to his route has been found anywhere among source material, except as it is approximated upon the Map of 1814.

Beyond the known facts of Colter's journey in 1807, the Map of 1814, and the "Colter's Hell" legend, there is a complete hiatus, or vacuum. However, the Map of 1814 is certainly a tangible thing; let it tell its own story: It is known that William Clark had a friend in Philadelphia named Nicholas Biddle who arranged for the publication of _The Lewis and Clark Journals_. In order to properly depict the journey, Mr. Biddle secured the services of a prominent Philadelphia cartographer named Samuel Lewis. Twice in 1810 Clark sent sheets of map material to Mr. Biddle.[352] John Colter reached St. Louis in May, 1810. It is certain that he called upon Clark and gave him information, if not sheets, depicting his famous journey of 1807. This data was undoubtedly sent on to Mr. Biddle, either as Colter drew it or as it was accurately redrawn by Clark. At least one of Colter's sheets was incorporated in the final Map of 1814.[353] The first, or eastern prairie, side of the Colter plat traced his journey up Pryors Fork, about fifty miles west of Fort Manuel, through Pryors Gap. Then he crossed over to Clarks Fork, which he ascended, probably to Dead Indian Creek. From this creek Colter crossed over a divide to the North Fork Shoshone River where he first smelled sulphur. This he called Stinking Water River, most probably referring to the present De Maris Mineral Springs near Cody, Wyoming.

On Stinking Water River he encountered the "Yep-pe Band of Snake Indians 1000 souls." This was evidently a clan of the Crow tribe. From these Yep-pe Indians, denizens of both prairie and mountain, he undoubtedly learned of the Yellowstone geysers and other marvels. This accounts for his side trip which brought him back to the Yep-pe camp. It is likely that some of these Indians directed Colter along another route in returning to Manuel's Fort. Obviously they went down the North Fork Shoshone, or Colter's Stinking Water River, to its junction with Shoshone River. This, he followed to Gap Creek (now Sage Creek) which he ascended to Pryors Gap.[354] By this alternate route Colter again reached Pryors Fork where he crossed over to return to Fort Manuel.

From this examination it is obvious that the western boundary of Colter's first map lies east of 110° longitude, and up to that point no difficulty whatever is encountered with either the route or the map. This line undoubtedly defines the west border of Colter's first sheet. It became a part of the Map of 1814 without change. Hence, it is a correct representation of the "Buffalo Bill country" around Cody, Wyoming. Published in 1814, it could only have been the work of John Colter, because no other white man had visited that area. Because of the accuracy of Colter's first plat, or east portion of the map, his course to the Yep-pe Indian camp can be followed like tracks in the snow. Just so, the return route east of 110° can be identified as coming down Sunlight Creek and back up Dead Indian Creek to the Yep-pe Indian camp. From there he followed a shorter route, in returning to the eastern edge of the map sheet, that is to say, the head of Pryors Fork.

Thus, it is evident that the eastern courses of Colter's journey, both going and coming, are accurately depicted on the Map of 1814. East of 110° it is an accurate and authentic mapping of the area, just such a one as an intelligent trapper would make. Whatever is depicted corresponds to actual geography. It is factual, tangible, verifiable, and indisputable.

This part of the map proves that Colter did take an extended journey in a southwesterly direction, but it does not prove that he discovered Yellowstone Park. The dependable part of the map simply accounts for the eastern part of the figure eight which is essential to describe the complete journey.[355] The reliable part leads him only to the southeastern border of Yellowstone Park and brings him back from farther north along its eastern boundary.

The western portion of the dotted line on the Map of 1814 is purely fictitious and encompasses an area far beyond that occupied by Yellowstone Park. Indeed, this part of Colter's route winds among a labyrinth of geographical unreality.[356] Therefore, Colter's route, as represented by the western loop of the dotted line, is likewise invalid. Here, then, is the problem of Colter's discovery: How could the map of his exploration, which necessarily described a figure eight, be at once so authentic in the east and so fictitious in the west? The Yellowstone area of the Map of 1814 is certainly one of organized confusion, but it does not follow that Colter drew that portion of the map as it appears.

Actual geography and common sense prove that a trapper on foot could not possibly have seen both the Arkansas and Platte rivers. Just as surely, geography and common sense attest that in traveling a normal western loop of the figure eight he would have seen precisely what the map does not depict, namely: Upper Yellowstone River, Snake River, Yellowstone Lake, and the thermal areas at Thumb of Lake and near Hayden Valley.

Thus, by elimination, an obvious conclusion evolves, namely that the western loop is not as Colter drew it. Instead of actuality, there is fiction; nothing in this part of the map conforms to reality. That geography only exists upon the Map of 1814. John Colter died in 1813 so he never even saw the route as depicted, to say nothing of traveling along it.

The failure of writers to recognize the fictitious character of this portion of the Map of 1814 has led to a comical performance. They have assigned to Colter the role of a human helicopter who hopped over mountains and valleys visiting the drainage basins of all the river systems within a radius of five hundred miles of the Yep-pe Indian village. First they trail him on Teton River, Big Sandy, Gros Ventre, and Greybull. Then they track him over South Pass, Teton Pass, and Union and Twogwotee passes. These authors have never trudged the wilds of which they write nor even measured them on a real map. Where, then, did Colter travel? The answer to that problem largely depends upon a rational interpretation of that fantastic map sheet. Perhaps an investigation of the process by which the map was produced will offer a clue.

As stated before, Clark sent map materials to Biddle, who in turn passed them on to Samuel Lewis, a professional cartographer, to be worked into a map of the Trans-Mississippi West. This was a very difficult assignment because the sheets were of various scales, which necessitated overlapping, crowding, and uncertainty as to latitudes and longitudes.[357] The manner in which Lewis fitted them into a mosaic represents a remarkable work of art. Deficiencies are largely attributable to the inadequate data received, but in the case of Colter's journey another element is involved.

In the course of compilation, between 1810 and 1814, Clark must have sent a redrawing of the route of Colter's journey.[358] By way of review, let it be remembered that Colter reached St. Louis in May of 1810. He called on Clark and evidently presented several sheets of trapper map to him. This was the material which depicted his journey of 1807, and it seemed to be highly appreciated by Clark. That it was given preference by Clark over the contemporary exploration of Zebulon M. Pike simply substantiates the belief that Colter's journey made a profound impression upon Clark at that time.[359] On December 20, 1810, Clark apparently sent the original Colter sheets, or properly redrawn copies of them, to Nicholas Biddle. Clark also inserted, or superimposed, two rivers upon the Colter drawing. They were Clarks Fork and Bighorn rivers.

It is important to remember that Clark had full confidence in Colter's representation of his journey at this time, that is, December, 1810. The following year Andrew Henry returned from his exploration of the Madison and Snake river regions. He had seen only ordinary country. This report seems to have destroyed Clark's belief in Colter's story of marvels. Not wishing to deceive anyone by the delusions of a deranged trapper's mind, Clark apparently directed Samuel Lewis to retain Colter's east plat, that is, the Buffalo Bill country, but suppress the western section, the Yellowstone Lake region. In lieu of Colter's depiction of the western loop of his figure eight Clark evidently sent the draft that now appears on the Map of 1814.

What possible reason can be assigned for this action? It is anybody's guess; no one can now determine what Clark thought, but following is a rational hypothesis: In the close of the year 1811, Andrew Henry and his men returned from their trapping venture in the Upper Snake River basin. They had skirted the western border of Wonderland along the line of the Madison and Gallatin rivers and explored the sources of Henrys Fork of the Snake River. Yet, Henry had not seen any hot springs, geysers, or great lakes. No doubt Henry had heard trappers joke about "Colter's Hell." Personally, he showed no confidence in it. Evidently both he and Clark considered that Henry's and Colter's journeys overlapped. Actually, the Gallatin Range intervened between them. It is reasonable, therefore, that Henry's report and attitude affected Clark's original belief in Colter's story. Where he first believed he now doubted. Perhaps Clark concluded that Colter's terrible experiences had deranged his mind. It is certain that Clark sent his new knowledge of the Henrys Fork country to Biddle in 1812 because it appears on the Map of 1814.[360] It was undoubtedly at this time that Clark sent in his redrawn, guesswork version of the western portion of Colter's map. No one knows exactly what changes Clark made, but the Map of 1814 proves conclusively that Clark did not depict the "Colter's Hell" country which contains the wonders of Yellowstone Park as it was originally presented to him.

It was a valid reaction for Clark to have become suspicious of Colter's reliability, and the substitution of his own geographical speculation for Colter's Yellowstone sketch was probably sincere. Clark was too honest to depict the delusions of an "insane" man. Also he was very anxious to have a reasonably complete and integrated map. The only alternatives were to allow the Colter marvel sheet to appear or else to mark a considerable area "unexplored." He was caught in the bonds of uncertainty and made a compromise. The result was a sheet of bogus geography which is entirely incongruous, not only with the facts, but with Clark's uniformly excellent map work.[361]

Clark's choice of alternatives only complicated the problem of his cartographer. Lewis no doubt recognized the vast discrepancies between Colter's genuine depiction and Clark's counterfeit so he evidently decided upon a compromise of his own. How this expert reconciled the conflicting data of the two map sheets into one pattern is at once a masterpiece in cartography and psychology. The technique he adopted might be called "double entry map making." He used the Yellowstone Lake part of Colter's sketch as an element for a concealed map; it appears as a mountain range. Such a grotesque range cannot be found in any of the surrounding territory, but when visualized as a lake it is amazing how it conforms to what a trapper traveling a logical route would have seen of Yellowstone Lake, namely, the South Arm and Thumb. Lewis shied away from any clear-cut representation of the geyser region. However, besides including the disguised lake portion of Colter's map, he did other things to "poke fun" at Clark's speculations. He drew Lake Eustis in the manner of a gargoyle. It must have been deliberately "satanized." Nothing with such a preposterous shape was ever known among men. Why didn't Clark revolt at this representation? Surely he never drew anything like that himself. That is not all of Lewis' "fun making." He drew still another lake and gave it the shape of a deformed piece of liver. Its appearance is ridiculous in the other extreme,[362] but, as if to add insult to injury, Mr. Lewis raised a question as to this lake's legitimacy. Clark named it Biddle in honor of his patron, Nicholas Biddle, whereas, upon the English version, the name appearing is Riddle! Lewis was able to "get away" with this performance because Clark did not see any proofs, only the published work.

Remembering that Samuel Lewis was employed to reproduce a map conforming to data and specifications furnished by Clark, what more could he do to manifest his skepticism, if not displeasure, over the incorporation of fictitious geography upon this super-important map of the West? Remember, Lewis was a professional cartographer; he had seen, and had already drawn, Colter's sheet of real country. On the original draft the southwest Arm and Thumb of Lake Yellowstone undoubtedly appeared. Now he was asked to redraw it into counterfeit geography. Disturbed by the substitution of Clark's sheet of "Gulliver's geography" for Colter's journey, he disguised a lake in a mountain range, drew a gargoylian lake (Eustis), and raised the enigma of Biddle-Riddle.[363] After all, cartography is simply a scientific refinement of pictography, or storytelling. The message of Samuel Lewis, as revealed in the Yellowstone segment of the Map of 1814, might reasonably be: "This portion of the map is bogus. I do not know what the true conditions are. Colter's data appears all right; Clark's later information says it isn't. It's all a Riddle; I leave a clue." Against this background, with the fiction cut away, it may now be possible to explore the problem of Colter's route through the Yellowstone country.

Did Colter make a western loop trip beyond the Yep-pe Indian camp? Of that there can be no doubt. Clark's representation does not impugn Colter's word in respect to the reality of the journey itself but only as to where he went and what he saw. If an approximation of his route can be reproduced, the question of what he saw will automatically fall into place like the pieces of a jigsaw puzzle. The problem, then, is to correctly reconstruct the west loop of the figure eight. This procedure has become possible by reason of the proposition that has been established in this discussion, particularly when it is remembered that Colter knew his way around and could be relied upon to make a proper orientation to the total environment. Now his course can be followed by segregating another feature from what has been referred to as "Lewis' Concealed Colter Map."

West of longitude 110° it will be noted that two features stand out in bold relief, namely, a mitten-shaped mountain labeled FOSSIL (probably the Trident) and the crude outline of South Arm and Thumb of Yellowstone Lake. These two landmarks may be used as guide posts in following Colter's reconstructed loop through Yellowstone. Colter's authentic east loop journey, already described, brought him approximately to the 110° meridian. Colter's mitten-shaped landmark lies about seventy-five miles due west of the border on his second map sheet, but Clark's dotted line depicts Colter's route fifty miles south of the mountain shaped like a mitten and marked FOSSIL. It is valid to inquire how Colter could discern its shape or know of its fossils from that distance. His Indian friends knew nothing about fossils. The dotted line does not cross or even skirt this mountain. To reach the "Fossil Mountain" from Salt Fork, Colter could ascend by Elk-Wapiti or Fishhawk creeks. Each meets the requirements of direction and distance, and there is a good chance that somewhere along one of these routes a large petrified fish, or something like a fish, was seen then and may be eventually found. Such a discovery would remove all doubt about the direction in which he traveled.[364]

From the "Fossil Mountain" Colter probably descended Pass Creek to Thorofare Creek, which he followed to the Upper Yellowstone River. Then he might have ascended either Falcon, Lynx, or Atlantic creeks, preferably the latter, to Two Ocean Pass. Crossing the Continental Divide, he would then descend Pacific Creek, skirting Big Game Ridge, and cross the South Fork of Snake River, within the present confines of the Park. Thence he could go along Chicken Ridge, from where he would frequently view South Arm, headed toward Flat Mountain Arm. After crossing Solution Creek he would strike West Thumb.[365] The validity of this itinerary is wholly sustained by the genuine features of this area as they appear upon the Map of 1814. Indeed, the route seems obvious and indisputable in view of the actual conditions existing. On a crude map, where there are numerous, similar streams, various combinations are, of course, possible.

Leaving West Thumb, Colter would have circled the lake to its outlet and followed it to the Hayden Valley thermal area. Dragons Mouth and Mud Volcano were undoubtedly features that contributed to the vivid impression he carried away and transmitted to others. Even the "Hot Spring Brimstone" characterization on the Map of 1814 mildly suggests explosive thermal activity. The phrase also suggests that Colter mapped a geyser basin.[366]

Colter's return route from the area near the outlet of Yellowstone River supplies the final link in the figure eight. To reach the Yep-pe Indian camp he might have veered to the northeast, crossed Yellowstone River at the ford below Mud Volcano, and ascended Pelican Creek or one of the tributaries of the Lamar River. After crossing the Absarokas he evidently descended one of the creeks that empty into Clarks Fork. No one on earth can be certain about this part of his journey. There is no reference anywhere, and the Map of 1814 gives no clue. Still he did reach a tributary of Clarks Fork which he followed to its junction with Dead Indian Creek, thence to the Yep-pe band.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE

In the preparation of the first four chapters the use of explorer and trapper journals was imperative. The _Journals of Lewis and Clark_, Patrick Gass's _Journal_, and Robert Stuart's _Discovery of the Oregon Trail_ are basic.

Trapper activities and Indian life are effectively treated by Stallo Vinton in _John Colter_; Alexander Ross, _The Fur Hunters of the Far West_; Hiram Chittenden, _The American Fur Trade_; John Neihardt, _The Splendid Wayfaring_; J. Cecil Alter, _Jim Bridger, Trapper, Frontiersman, Scout and Guide_; Bernard De Voto, _Across the Wide Missouri_; and Robert Vaughn, _Then and Now_. A correct conception of original Indian life and character will reward the student of Rudolph Kurz's _Journal_ and Washington Irving's two volumes: _The Adventures of Captain Bonneville_ and _Astoria_. George Catlin's monumental treatise on _North American Indians_ is also a classic on that subject.

Important in the field of writings dealing with the partial and final discovery of Yellowstone are Nathaniel P. Langford, _Discovery of Yellowstone Park 1870_, together with the shorter accounts of his companions as recorded in Louis C. Crampton's _Early History of Yellowstone National Park and Its Relations to National Park Policies_. The Yellowstone explorations of James Stuart and Walter W. DeLacy and others are found in _Contributions to the Historical Society of Montana_, volumes one to five inclusive.

John G. White's scholarly manuscript entitled "A Souvenir of Wyoming" contains much material of a provocative character. Nice points of detail are raised concerning John Colter's route and other trapper visitations.

The chapter on "Travel and Accommodations--New Businesses" was the result of a search through the standard magazines covering the half century from 1870 to 1920. The State College of Washington collection was found adequate for this survey.

It would be impossible to write the story of the Park's administration without a review of all the _Annual Reports of the Acting Superintendents, and Superintendents of Yellowstone National Park_. The Park Library has a complete file from 1872 to the present time. In addition, the _Reports of the Secretary of the Interior_ and the _Reports of the Director of National Parks_, covering the same period, were essential cross references in this effort. A complete set of these reports is available at the State College of Washington. A perusal of the soldier (scout) diaries in the Park Library gave the substance for the discussion of that interesting phase.

Among guide books _The Haynes Guide_ is in a class by itself. It is not only an invaluable hand book to the casual tourist, but it is an excellent encyclopedia for research.

The Earl of Dunraven's _Hunting in the Yellowstone_ affords an excellent narrative from the standpoint of measuring the progress of all phases of Park activity.

_Yellowstone Nature Notes_ is the best source for those sprightly experiences that make life so interesting and pleasant in the Park.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

MANUSCRIPT MATERIAL

Anderson, E. C. Diary 1909. Park Library, Mammoth, Wyoming.

Anderson, Henry. Diary 1910, 1911. Park Library.

Brown, Jesse R. Diary 1909, 1910. Park Library.

Burgess, Felix. Diary 1898, 1899. Park Library.

Cook, C. W. "Remarks of C. W. Cook, Last Survivor of the Original Explorers of the Yellowstone Park Region." Park Library.

Dorrity, Mrs. James. "Story of the Battle of Bear's Paw." M. D. Beal Collection, Idaho State College, Pocatello, Idaho.

Fitzgerald, S. M. Diary 1907. Park Library, Mammoth, Wyoming.

Graham, S. D. Diary 1906, 1907, 1908. Park Library.

Harlan, W. B. "The Fiasco at Fort Fizzle--1936." M. D. Beal Collection.

Holmes, W. H. Extracts from the Diary 1872, 1878. Park Library, Mammoth, Wyoming.

Langford, Nathaniel P. Diary, Second Trip to Yellowstone 1872. Park Library.

Little, Raymond G. Diary 1911, 1912. Park Library.

Louck, D. J. Journal in Manuscript. State Historian's Office, Laramie, Wyoming.

Martin, Louis. Diary 1900, 1901. Park Library, Mammoth, Wyoming.

Mason, John E. Diary 1909. Park Library.

Matlock, Jesse M. "Dictation." M. D. Beal Collection.

Morrison, James. Diary 1897, 1898, 1899. Park Library, Mammoth, Wyoming.

McBride, James. Diary 1908, 1909, 1910, 1911, 1912. Park Library.

Peale, A. C. Diary of Field Operations, U. S. Geological Survey 1872. (Three volumes.) Park Library.

Phillips, Ulrich B. "Lectures on Early America." (Notes taken by the author at the University of California in 1933.)

Rubin, Walter. Diary 1911. Park Library, Mammoth, Wyoming.

Shambow, Louie. "Story of the Battle of Bear's Paw." M. D. Beal Collection.

Titus, N. C. "Story of Colonel Miles' Attack on the Nez Percé Camp." M. D. Beal Collection.

Thompson, Captain. U. S. A. "Memorandum of a Trip from Fort Ellis, Montana Territory to Yellowstone Park." (Sept. 1882.) Park Library, Mammoth, Wyoming.

Trischman, Harry. Diary 1909, 1910, 1912. Park Library, Mammoth, Wyoming.

Wall, M. J. Diary. Park Library.

White, John G. "A Souvenir of Wyoming." (One of eight typed copies of a trip made in 1916.) Park Library.

White, Mable McClain. "Dictation." M. D. Beal Collection.

Wilson, Charley. Diary 1910. Park Library, Mammoth, Wyoming.

Wilson, James. Diary 1907, 1908. Park Library.

Whittaker, George. Diary 1897, 1898, 1899, 1900. Park Library.

PRINTED JOURNALS, DIARIES AND AUTOBIOGRAPHIES

Bradbury, John. _Travels in the Interior Of America, 1809, 1810, and 1811._ London: Sherwood Neeley, and Jones, 1819.

Carson, Kit. _Autobiography._ Chicago: Lakeside Press, 1935.

_Contributions_, Historical Society of Montana, I, II, III, IV, V. Helena, Montana: Rocky Mountain Publishing Co., 1876.

Dunraven, The Earl of. _Hunting in the Yellowstone._ New York: The Macmillan Co., 1925.

Egan, Howard. _Pioneering the West._ Egan Estate. Richmond, Utah.

Ferris, Warren A. _Life in the Rocky Mountains, 1830-35._ Salt Lake City: Rocky Mountain Book Shop, 1940.

Folsom, David E. _The Folsom-Cook Exploration of the Upper Yellowstone._ St. Paul: H. L. Collins Co., 1894.

Gass, Patrick. _Journal._ Edited by James K. Hosmer, Chicago: A. C. McClurg and Co., 1904.

Guie, Heister D. and McWhorter, L. V., editors. _Adventures in Geyser Land_ by Frank D. Carpenter. Caldwell, Idaho: Caxton Printers, 1935.

Howard, General O. O. _Chief Joseph, His Pursuit and Capture._ Boston: Lee and Shephard, 1881.

Jackson, William H. _Time Exposure._ New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1940.

Kurz, Rudolph. _Journal._ Washington, D. C.: United States Government Printing Office, 1937.

Langford, Nathaniel P. _The Discovery of Yellowstone Park 1870._ St. Paul: J. E. Haynes Publisher, 1923.

Larocque, Francis Antoine. _Journal._ Sources of Northwest History, No. 20, University of Montana, Missoula.

McWhorter, Lucullus V. _Yellow Wolf: His Own Story._ Caldwell, Idaho: Caxton Printers, 1940.

Norton, Harry J. _Wonderland Illustrated, or Horse Back Rides._ Virginia City, Montana: Harry J. Norton, 1873.

Osmond, Mabel C. _Memories of a Trip Through Yellowstone National Park._ St. Louis, 1874.

Raftery, John H. _The Story of the Yellowstone._ Butte, Montana: McKee Printing Co., 1912.

Ross, Alexander. _The Fur Hunters of the Far West._ London: Smith, Elder & Co., 1855.

Russell, Osborne. _Journal of a Trapper, 1834-1843._ Boise, Idaho: Syms-York Co., 1921.

Smith, Willard E. "An Excerpt from the Journal of Willard E. Smith, 1839-1840." Edited by J. Neilson Barry. _Annals of Wyoming_, Vol. XV, No. 3, July, 1943.

Spalding, Elizabeth. _Memories of the West._ Portland, Oregon: March Printing Co.

Stanley, Edwin J. _Rambles in Wonderland._ New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1878.

Stuart, Granville. _Forty Years on the Frontier._ Cleveland, Ohio: A. H. Clark, 1925.

Stuart, Robert. _The Discovery of the Oregon Trail._ New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1935.

Synge, Georgina. _A Ride Through Wonderland._ London: Sampson Low, Marston & Co., 1892.

Turrill, Gardner S. _A Tale of the Yellowstone._ Jefferson, Iowa: G. S. Turrill Publishing Co., 1901.

Vaughn, Robert. _Then and Now._ Minneapolis: Tribune Printing Co., 1900.

Wingate, George W. _Through Yellowstone Park on Horseback._ New York: O. Judd Co., 1886.

Wislizenus, F. A. _A Journey to the Rocky Mountains in 1839_. St. Louis, Mo.: Missouri Historical Society, 1912.

ARTICLES IN MAGAZINES AND PERIODICALS

Baker, Ray S. "A Place of Marvels," _The Century Magazine_, LXVI (August, 1903).

Bauer, C. Max. "Notes on Indian Occupancy," _Yellowstone Nature Notes_, Vol. XII, No. 6 (June, 1935).

Bryce, James. "National Parks the Need for the Future," _The Outlook_, CII (Dec. 14, 1912).

Cook, C. W. "Valley of the Upper Yellowstone," _Western Monthly_, IV (July, 1870).

Cook, C. W. and Folsom, D. E. "Cook-Folsom Expedition to the Yellowstone Region 1869," _Haynes Bulletin_, Jan., 1923.

Elmendorf, Dwight L. _The Mentor_, II (May 15, 1915).

Everts, Truman C. "Thirty Seven Days of Peril," _Scribner's Monthly_, III (Nov., 1871).

Freeman, L. R. "Protect the Game in Yellowstone Park," _Recreation_, XV (Dec. 1901).

Ghent, W. J. "A Sketch of John Colter," _Wyoming Annals_, Vol. X, No. 3 (July, 1938).

Gibbon, Colonel John. "The Battle of the Big Hole," _Harper's Weekly_ (Dec. 21, 1895).

Hague, Arnold. "Soaping Geysers," _Science_, XIII (May 17, 1889).

Hague, Arnold. "The Yellowstone National Park," _Scribner's_, XXXV (May, 1904).

Hayden, F. V. "More About the Yellowstone," _Scribner's Monthly_, III (February, 1872).

Hayden, F. V. "The Yellowstone National Park," _American Journal of Science_, III (March, 1872; April, 1872).

Haynes, Jack Ellis. "The Expedition of President Chester A. Arthur to Yellowstone National Park in 1882," _Annals of Wyoming_ (January 1942.).

Heffelfinger, C. H. "The Man Who Turned Back," _The Washington Historical Quarterly_, Vol. XXVI, No. 3 (July, 1935).

Hough, Emerson. "Forest and Stream's Yellowstone Park Game Exploration," _Forest and Stream_, XLIII (A series of thirteen articles in the issues during the spring and summer of 1894).

Jackson, W. Turrentine. "The Creation of Yellowstone National Park," _The Mississippi Valley Historical Review_, Vol. XXIX, No. 2 (September, 1942).

Jackson, W. Turrentine. "The Cook-Folsom Exploration of the Upper Yellowstone 1869," _The Pacific Northwest Quarterly_, XXXII, 1941.

Jagger, T. A. "Death Gulch, A Natural Bear Trap," _Popular Science_, LIV (February, 1899).

Joseph, Chief. "Own Story," _North American Review_ (April, 1879).

Kearns, William E. "A Nez Percé Chief Revisits Yellowstone," _Yellowstone Nature Notes_, XII (July-August, 1935).

Knowlton, F. H. "The Tertiary Flowers of the Yellowstone National Park," _American Journal of Science_, No. 7 (July, 1896).

Knowlton, F. H. "The Standing Fossil Forests of the Yellowstone National Park," _Plant World_, I (January, 1898).

Koch, P. "Discovery of the Yellowstone National Park," _Magazine of American History_, II (June, 1884).

Langford, Nathaniel P. "The Ascent of Mount Hayden," _Scribner's Monthly_, III (June, 1873).

Lewis, Henry H. "Managing a National Park," _The Outlook_, LXXIV (August, 1903).

Lewis, Lucien M. "To the Old Stage Driver," _Overland Monthly_, LXIX (July, 1917).

Linton, Edwin. "Overland Sounds in the Vicinity of Yellowstone Lake," _Science_, No. 561 (Nov. 3, 1893).

Muir, John. "The Yellowstone National Park," _The Atlantic Monthly_, LXXXI (January, 1898; April, 1898).

Phillips, Paul C., editor. "The Battle of the Big Hole," _Sources of Northwest History_, No. 8, University of Montana, Missoula.

Rollins, Alice W. "The Three Tetons," _Harper's_, LXXIV (May, 1887).

Russell, Carl P. "Rendezvous Period of American Fur Trade," _Oregon Historical Quarterly_, XLII (March, 1941).

Russell, Carl P. "Scientists and Scientific Investigations in Yellowstone National Park," Department of the Interior, 1933.

Sedgwick, Henry D. "On Horse Back Through Yellowstone," _World's Work_, VI (June, 1903).

Smith, George O. "The Nation's Playgrounds," _Review of Reviews_, XL (July, 1909).

Staffer, Alvin P. and Porter, Charles W. "The National Park Service Program of Conservation for Areas and Structures of National Historical Significance," _The Mississippi Valley Historical Review_, XXX, 1 (June, 1943).

Warner, Charles D. "The Yellowstone National Park," _Harper's_, XCIV (January, 1897).

GOVERNMENT REPORTS AND PUBLICATIONS

Barlow, J. W. and Heap, D. P. _Report of Barlow and Heap 1871_. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1872.

_Congressional Globe._ 42 Congress, 2nd Session, 1871-72. Part I, Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1872.

_Congressional Record._ 43 Congress, Session I, Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1874.

_Laws and Regulations_ relating to the Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming, by the Secretary of the Interior. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1908.

Ludlow, William. _Report to the War Department 1875._ Washington, D.C., 1876.

Mather, Stephen T. "Report of the Director of the National Park Service," _Report of the Department of Interior 1918_. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1918.

Norris, P. W. _Annual Report of the Superintendent of Yellowstone National Park._ Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1878, 1879, 1880, 1881.

_Reports of the Acting Superintendent of the Yellowstone National Park._ Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1885 to 1915.

_Reports of the Secretary of the Interior._ Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1872 to 1941.

_Reports of the Superintendents of Yellowstone National Park._ Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1917 to 1943.

_Rules, Regulations and Instructions_ for the officers and enlisted men of the United States Army, and of the scouts doing duty in the Yellowstone National Park. Department of Interior, Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1907.

Sherman, W. T. and Sheridan, P. H. _Reports of Inspection Made in the Summer of 1877._ Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1878.

_Yellowstone National Park Bulletins._ Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1914, 1915, 1916, 1918, 1923, 1939, 1940, 1941.

SPECIAL BOOKS AND BULLETINS

Allen, Eugene T. and Day, Arthur L. _Hot Springs of the Yellowstone National Park._ Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Institution, 1935.

Alter, J. Cecil. _James Bridger, Trapper, Frontiersman, Scout and Guide._ Salt Lake City: Shepard Book Co., 1925.

Arnold, Ross R. _Indian Wars in Idaho._ Caldwell, Idaho: Caxton Printers, 1929.

Bennett, Hugh H. "Thomas Jefferson Soil Conservationist." _U.S. Department of Agriculture_, No. 548. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1944.

Catlin, George. _North American Indians_, I, II. Philadelphia: Leary Stuart and Co., 1913.

Crampton, Louis C. _Early History of Yellowstone National Park and Its Relations to National Park Policies._ Washington, D.C.: United States Printing Office, 1923.

DeSmet, P. J. _Oregon Missions and Travels Over the Rocky Mountains._ New York: Edward Dreneger, 1847.

De Voto, Bernard. _Across the Wide Missouri._ Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1947.

Drew, Benjamin. _Souvenir List of Yellowstone Park Holdup Victims._ Park Library, Mammoth, Wyoming.

Fee, Chester Anders. _Chief Joseph, the Biography of a Great Indian._ New York: Wilson-Erickson, 1936.

Freeman, Lewis R. _Down the Yellowstone._ New York: Dodd, Mead and Co., 1922.

Goad, Edgar F. "Bandelier, Scholar of the Mesas." Washington, D.C.: _Department of Interior Information Service_, 1940.

Haines, Francis. _Red Eagles of the Northwest._ Portland, Oregon: The Scholastic Press, 1939.

Harris, Burton. _John Colter, His Years in the Rockies._ New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1952.

Hebard, Grace R. and Brininstool, E. A. _The Bozeman Trail._ Cleveland, Ohio: Arthur H. Clark Co., 1922.

Hemishunmeres, Mourning Dove. _Coyote Stories._ Caldwell, Idaho: Caxton Printers, 1933.

Hornaday, William T. _Our Vanishing Wild Life._ New York: New York Zoological Society, 1913.

Huth, Hans. Yosemite, _The Story of an Idea._ Reprint from the _Sierra Club Bulletin_, March, 1948.

Kieley, James F. _A Brief History of the National Park Service._ Washington, D.C.: United States Department of Interior, 1940.

Lillard, Richard G. _The Great Forest._ New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1948.

Linderman, Frank B. _Blackfeet Indians._ St. Paul: Brown, Bigelow, 1935.

Lowie, Robert H. _The Crow Indians._ New York: Farrar and Rinehart, 1935.

Mickey, Karl B. _Man and Soil._ Chicago: International Harvester Co., 1945.

Mulford, Walter. _Forest Influences._ New York: McGraw Hill Book Co., 1948.

Neihardt, John G. _The Splendid Wayfaring._ New York: Macmillan Co., 1920.

Norton, Harry J. _Wonderland, or Horseback Rides Through Yellowstone National Park._ Virginia City, Montana, 1873.

Rees, John E. _Idaho, Its Meaning, Origin and Application._ Portland, Oregon: Ivey Press, 1917.

Remington, Fredrick. _Pony Tracks._ New York: Harper and Bros., 1895.

Shields, G. O. _Battle of the Big Hole._ New York: Rand, McNally Co., 1889.

Story, Isabelle F. _Glimpses of Our National Parks._ Washington, D.C.: United States Printing Office, 1941.

Topping, E. S. _Chronicles of the Yellowstone._ St. Paul: Pioneer Press Co., 1888.

Van Tassell, Chas. _Truthful Lies._ Bozeman, Montana, 1921.

Victor, Frances Fuller. _The River of the West._ Hartford, Conn.: Columbian Book Co., 1871.

Vinton, Stallo. _John Colter, Discoverer of Yellowstone Park._ New York: Edward Eberstadt, 1926.

Wagner, Glendolin and Allen, William. _Blankets and Moccasins._ Caldwell, Idaho: Caxton Printers, 1933.

Wellman, Paul I. _The Trampling Herd._ New York: Carrick and Evans, Inc., 1939.

GENERAL SECONDARY REFERENCES

Adams, James Truslow. _The Epic of America._ Boston: Little Brown and Co., 1933.

Bancroft, H. H. _History of Washington, Montana and Idaho._ San Francisco: The History Company, 1896.

Beal, M. D. _History of Southeastern Idaho._ Caldwell, Idaho: Caxton Printers, 1942.

Brockett, L. P. _Our Western Empire._ San Francisco: William Garretson and Co., 1881.

Chittenden, Hiram M. _The American Fur Trade._ New York: Press of the Pioneers, 1935.

Chittenden, Hiram M. _Yellowstone National Park._ Palo Alto, California: Stanford University Press, 1933.

Clark, Dan Elbert. _The West in American History._ New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Co., 1937.

Driggs, Howard R. _Westward America._ New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1942.

Gardiner, Dorothy. _West of the River._ New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Co., 1941.

Guptill, A. B. _Practical Guide to Yellowstone National Park._ St. Paul: F. Jay Haynes and Bro., 1890.

Hafen, LeRoy, and Rister, Carl C. _Western America._ New York: Prentice-Hall, 1941.

Haupt, Herman. _The Yellowstone National Park._ St. Paul: J. M. Stoddart, 1883.

Haynes, Jack Ellis. _Haynes Guide._ St. Paul: Haynes, Inc., 1943.

Hockett, Homer Co. _Political and Social Growth of the United States 1492-1852._ New York: The Macmillan Co., 1933.

Irving, Washington. _Astoria._ New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons.

Kipling, Rudyard. _American Notes._ Issued in several editions. One chapter contains an account of a trip through Yellowstone in 1889.

Nevins, Allen. _Frémont: Pathmaker of the West._ New York: D. Appleton Century Co., 1939.

Paxson, Frederick L. _The Last American Frontier._ New York: Macmillan Co., 1922.

Sanders, Helen F. _History of Montana._ Chicago: The Lewis Publishing Co., 1913.

Walgamott, C. S. _Six Decades Back._ Caldwell, Idaho: Caxton Printers, 1936.

Yellowstone Park Scrap Books I, II, III. Park Library, Mammoth, Wyoming.

FOOTNOTES

[1]The forests are composed principally of conifers. Of these the lodgepole pine predominates. It has a shallow root system, and as a result the area is conspicuous by the amount of fallen timber.

[2]A frontiersman's characterization of the climate in the Park. The statement is usually attributed to James Stuart.

[3]John E. Rees, _Idaho Chronology, Nomenclature, Bibliography_ (Portland, Oregon: Ivey Press, 1917), p. 61.

[4]Teton and Snowy ranges, although partly integrated with Yellowstone, actually lie beyond the south and north borders respectively.

[5]The plateaus are Buffalo, Mirror, Two Ocean, Pitchstone, Madison, and Central. The ranges are Gallatin, Washburn, and Absaroka. The ridges include the Big Game, Chicken, Speciman, and Crowfoot. The Red Mountains form a unit by themselves in the south-central area.

[6]These are Electric, Pollux, Atkins, and Eagle peaks, and Schurz and Humphreys mountains.

[7]Warm River originates west of the Park, but Firehole is the best example of a really warm river. It does not freeze over in temperatures 50° below zero. There are literally thousands of hot springs in Yellowstone. Dr. A. C. Peale estimated three thousand, while Dr. Arnold Hague said the number probably exceeded twenty-five hundred.

[8]Reference to this stream is made again in relation to the "Overland Astorians" in Chapter II. See also, Dee Linford's "Wyoming Stream Names," _Annals of Wyoming_, XV, 2 (April, 1943), 165-70.

[9]These sources are the Firehole and Gibbon, respectively.

[10]This is the lowest temperature ever recorded on an official United States Weather Bureau thermometer in Continental United States.

[11]John E. Rees, _op. cit._, p. 61.

[12]Homer C. Hockett, _Political and Social Growth of the United States 1492-1852_ (New York: Macmillan Co., 1933), p. 368.

[13]_Ibid._, p. 369.

[14]_Ibid._, p. 371.

[15]Fridtjof Nansen, "The Norsemen in America," _The Geographical Journal_, XXXVIII, 6 (Dec. 1911), 558.

[16]Reuben G. Thwaites, _Original Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition 1804-1806_ (New York: Dodd Mead and Co., 1905), p. 262. Clark reached Yellowstone River on July 15, 1806.

[17]Francis Antoine Larocque, _Journal_ (Sources of Northwest History No. 20, University of Montana), p. 20. Dee Linford says the name Yellowstone was used by David Thompson in 1798, but that Americans did not learn about the river until about 1805. See "Wyoming Stream Names," _Annals of Wyoming_, XV, 3 (July, 1943), 269.

[18]Patrick Gass, _Journal_ (Chicago: A. C. McClurg, 1904), p. 253. In 1832 a steamboat named the "Yellowstone" arrived at Fort Union.

[19]P. Koch, "Discovery of Yellowstone National Park," _Magazine of American History_, II (June, 1884), 498.

[20]Just how far Coronado penetrated the Rockies is a disputed point. It is certain that Verendrye reached Pierre, South Dakota. Some contend that he came as far as the Little Bighorn River. It is probable that some of Henry's men were free trappers, which accounts for the fact that they split in groups when the fort was abandoned.

[21]Others to participate in this discovery were Milton Mangum, Clifford Mangum, John T. Elliott, Budge Elliott, William Thornock, and David Beal.

[22]Robert Stuart, _The Discovery of the Oregon Trail_ (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1935), p. CXXXVI. Etienne Provot and Thomas Fitzpatrick have both been credited with the discovery of South Pass. Certainly the latter's visit in 1824 marks the date of effective discovery.

[23]W. J. Ghent, "A Sketch of John Colter," _Wyoming Annals_, X, 3 (July, 1938).

[24]Stallo Vinton, _John Colter, Discoverer of Yellowstone Park_ (New York: Edward Eberstadt, 1926), p. 27.

[25]W. J. Ghent, _op. cit._ The copious journals of Lewis, Clark and Sergeant Ordway make repeated mention of Colter, and Whitehouse names him six times. Floyd does not mention him by name nor does Gass, although the latter refers to him specifically.

[26]Reuben G. Thwaites, _op. cit._, V, 314.

[27]Stallo Vinton, _op. cit._, p. 24.

[28]_Ibid._, p. 43. Colter's strange behavior in turning back to the wilderness after three successive starts toward home, is analyzed by C. H. Heffelfinger in his article, "The Man Who Turned Back," _The Washington Historical Quarterly_, XXVI, 3 (July, 1935).

[29]_Ibid._, p. 45. Lisa had a son named "Remon" for whom the fort was named, but different documents bear the name Raymond, Manuel, and Lisa.

[30]Judge Henry M. Brackenridge (1786-1871) was educated in Missouri and Maryland. As a lawyer, he specialized in international affairs and served as a federal judge in New Orleans. In 1810 he made a trip up the Missouri in the company of Manuel Lisa. Six years later (1814) Brackenridge's account of this journey was published. On page 91, of _Views of Louisiana_, we find the first reference to Colter's wilderness journey. Obviously the source of this information was Manuel Lisa since he asked Colter to make the trip. That Colter started on such a journey is indisputable. Where he went, what he saw, and how he returned are matters of opinion. Brackenridge confuses Colter's return from this trip with that of another one.

[31]_Ibid._, p. 91.

[32]John Colter's discovery of Yellowstone has caught the imagination of many people. Probably a hundred authors have written about it. Each one disagrees with the other, until poor Colter has been turned into a human grasshopper, hopping around from place to place without either rhyme or reason.

[33]Stallo Vinton, _op. cit._, p. 195.

[34]Some writers tell that an early winter overtook him, and he was obliged to make snowshoes. This is probably an error. He undoubtedly secured a horse from the Yep-pe Indians.

[35]This particular story is verified by the fact that members of the Wilson Price Hunt Expedition called on Colter at his farm near St. Louis to get information upon this specific point. See Reuben G. Thwaites, "Bradbury's Travels in the Interior of America in the years 1809-1811," _Early Western Travels_, 1748-1840, V, xliv.

[36]The Map of 1814 does not disclose anything unusual. It merely designates "Boiling Spring" and "Hot Springs Brimstone," which were widespread and general.

[37]Washington Irving, _The Adventures of Captain Bonneville_ (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1843), p. 252. The first edition was entitled, _Rocky Mountain Scenes and Adventures_.

[38]It is a remarkable thing that historical research has not more satisfactorily probed the Colter problem. Obviously his journey is so obscure as to warrant scientific investigation.

[39]Its legend reads: "A Map of Lewis and Clark's Track, Across the Western Portion of North America, From the Mississippi to the Pacific Ocean; By Order of the Executive of the United States in 1804, 5, 6. Copied by Samuel Lewis from the Original Drawing of Wm. Clark."

[40]There are two fictitious lakes on the Map of 1814 of such grotesque shape as to arouse one's skepticism. One of them has a shape that resembles a gargoyle.

[41]The date of this communication was December 20, 1810.

[42]Colter's first sheet is readily identifiable, and part of another sheet may be segregated with the use of imagination and understanding.

[43]Many writers have failed to identify Gap and Sage as the same creek. They also befuddle Wind and Shoshone rivers. There is no evidence that Colter ever heard the name Bighorn River.

[44]The figure eight results from the fact that he went to the Yep-pe camp, left it, came back, and left it again at the appropriate angles.

[45]In 1941, Paul J. Shamp, a U.S. forester, reported the discovery of numerous petrifications in the vicinity of Pass and Scatter creeks in the Thorofare country. This is the line of Colter's route.

[46]Colter did not see Southeast Arm of Yellowstone Lake. He probably supposed the Upper Yellowstone flowed into South Arm. Hence, his conception of Yellowstone River would have been ten miles farther west than it is. Neither could he have visualized the serpentine character of Snake River, since he knew it at only one place.

[47]Colter may have reached Chicken Ridge by Fishhawk, Mountain, or Lynx creeks or via Falcon, Mink, or Crooked streams. It must be remembered that this map sheet has been much messed up. It is impossible to know what has been erased; yet, enough of Colter's map remains to provide a logical basis for the above itinerary. It is relatively unimportant which creeks he negotiated to reach Chicken Ridge. The vitally important fact is that he drew a sketch of South Arm from that angle which added to the Thumb makes an accurate map of what a trapper would have seen of Yellowstone Lake.

[48]J. Neilson Barry has made the most intensive study of the Map of 1814. It is his opinion that Colter drew other map sheets besides the one of the Buffalo Bill country. He also has hope that these sheets may be discovered among the Lewis-Clark-Biddle papers.

[49]In E. Willard Smith's journal entry for December 20, 1839, there is an item that suggests a possible clue to mystery of Colter's petrified fish story: "There is a story told by an Arapahoe Chief of a petrified buffalo standing in the lake ... in a perfect state of preservation, and they worship it as a great medicine charm.... Nothing would induce this Indian to tell where this sacred buffalo is to be found. Great presents were offered him in vain." It is possible that Colter saw something he was not free to divulge. See "An Excerpt From the Journal of Willard E. Smith," _Annals of Wyoming_, XV, 3 (July, 1943), 287-97.

[50]John G. White, "A Souvenir of Wyoming," Vol. I, p. 56. This is a fine work of research in manuscript. It was written in 1916. There are five volumes in the Yellowstone Park library. The time of this Indian episode was in the autumn of 1808.

[51]_Ibid._

[52]Upon the details of this episode, the three basic authorities on this period of Western adventure, are in agreement. They are Henry M. Brackenridge, _Views of Louisiana_; Thomas James, _Three Years Among the Indians and Mexicans_; and John Bradbury, _Travels In the Interior of America_.

[53]Concerning Colter's part in this battle, Henry M. Brackenridge wrote, "On his return a party of Indians in whose company he happened to be was attacked and he was lamed by a severe wound in his leg; Notwithstanding which he returned to the establishment entirely alone and without assistance." This incident is almost invariably associated with Colter's return from the discovery of Yellowstone Park. The error logically arises from the compressed character of the Brackenridge narrative. Perhaps the facts were not clear in his own mind. Actually he has confused two different experiences.

[54]P. Koch, "The Discovery of Yellowstone National Park," _Magazine of American History_, II (June, 1884), 499.

[55]Hiram M. Chittenden, _Yellowstone National Park_ (Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 1933), pp. 22-31.

[56]Frank Triplett, "Colter's Race for Life," _Conquering the Wilderness_, No. 16, Chapter 10, Washington State College Library; Pullman, Washington. This plant is also called "ground-apple." It is an edible root found in that region.

[57]W. J. Ghent, _op. cit._, p. 113.

[58]John G. White, "A Souvenir of Wyoming," I, 28. This fact is affirmed by James in his _Three Years Among the Indians and Mexicans_.

[59]W. J. Ghent, _op. cit._, p. 115.

[60]Stallo Vinton, _op. cit._, p. 110.

[61]W. J. Ghent, _op. cit._, p. 115. The evidence is not conclusive as to whether or not Colter gave his account to Bradbury and Brackenridge in person. It is certain that he had personal dealings with Thomas James, and it is certain that he spent a half day in conversation with members of Hunt's party on May 18, 1811. See "Robert Stuart's Narratives" in Philip Ashton Rollin's _The Discovery of the Oregon Trail_ (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1935), p. CV.

[62]_Ibid._, p. 66. It should be pointed out that Colter did not say "everywhere."

[63]Rudolph Kurz, _Journal_ (Washington, D. C.: United States Government Printing Office, 1937), p. 37.

[64]Frank B. Linderman, _Blackfeet Indians_ (St. Paul: Brown, Bigelow, 1935), p. 9.

[65]_Ibid._, p. 12.

[66]Elizabeth Spalding, _Memories of The West_ (Portland, Oregon: March Printing Company), p. 78.

[67]Robert Vaughn, _Then and Now_ (Minneapolis, Minnesota: Tribune Printing Co., 1900), p. 197.

[68]Mourning Dove, _Coyote Stories_ (Caldwell, Idaho: Caxton Printers, 1933). p. 46.

[69]Rudolph Kurz, _op. cit._, p. 154.

[70]_Ibid._, p. 34.

[71]Alexander Ross, _The Fur Hunters of The Far West_ (London: Smith, Elder & Co., 1855), p. 249.

[72]H. M. Chittenden, _The American Fur Trade_ (New York: Press of the Pioneers, 1935), II, 877.

[73]P. Koch, "The Discovery of Yellowstone National Park," _Magazine of American History, II_ (June, 1884), 497.

[74]Helen F. Sanders, _History of Montana_ (Chicago: Lewis Publishing Co., 1913), I, 681.

[75]_Contributions_, Historical Society of Montana (Helena, Montana: Rocky Mountain Publishing Co., 1876), I, 168.

[76]Indian reservations nearest the Park are the Crow at Hardin, Montana; Shoshone, Fort Washakie, Wyoming; and Bannock, Fort Hall, Idaho. Other agencies are located at Fort Peck, Poplar, Tongue River, and Lame Deer, all in Montana. The Blackfeet and Flathead reservations are near Glacier Park.

[77]Alexander Ross, _op. cit._, p. 48.

[78]John G. Neihardt, _The Splendid Wayfaring_ (New York: Macmillan Company, 1920), pp. 265-6.

[79]Alexander Ross, _op. cit._, pp. 228-9.

[80]Francis Fuller Victor, _The River of the West_ (Hartford: Columbian Book Co., 1871), pp. 64-5.

[81]Cecil Alter, _James Bridger, Trapper, Frontiersman, Scout and Guide_ (Salt Lake City: Shepard Book Co., 1925), p. 355.

[82]Helen F. Sanders, _op. cit._, p. 141.

[83]Earl of Dunraven, _Hunting in the Yellowstone_ (New York: Macmillan Co., 1925), pp. 184-5.

[84]Frances Fuller Victor, _op. cit._, p. 238.

[85]F. A. Wislizenus, _A Journey To The Rocky Mountains In 1839_, (St. Louis: Missouri Historical Society, 1912), pp. 87-8.

[86]Alexander Ross, _op. cit._, II, 236.

[87]C. Max Bauer, "Notes on Indian Occupancy," _Yellowstone Nature Notes_. XII, 6 (June, 1935), 1.

[88]P. W. Norris, _Annual Report 1879_ (Washington D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1880), p. 10.

[89]P. W. Norris, _Annual Report 1880_, p. 605.

[90]Some of these places were specifically listed: Bunsen Peak, Willow Creek, Stinking Water Pass east of Yellowstone Lake, Barlow Fork of Snake River, Bridgers Lake, and, the best one of all, three miles below Mary Lake. See _Fifth Annual Report 1881_, p. 36.

[91]P. W. Norris, _Fifth Annual Report 1881_, pp. 32-8.

[92]_Ibid._, p. 38.

[93]P. W. Norris, _Annual Report 1878_, p. 982.

[94]Experienced rangers who have reported these finds to the author include David deL. Condon, Lee L. Coleman, John W. Jay, John Bauman, Rudolf L. Grimm, Wayne Replogle, Lowell G. Biddulph, George Marler, and William Sanborn.

[95]William E. Kearns, "A Nez Percé Chief Revisits Yellowstone," _Yellowstone Nature Notes_, XII (June-July, 1935), 41.

[96]Edwin Linton, _Science_, No. 561 (Nov. 3, 1893), pp. 244-5.

Mr. Linton and Prof. S. A. Forbes heard the sounds upon two occasions. Each gave a scientific presentation. Elwood Hofer, Dave Rhodes, and F. H. Bradley have written accounts of similar experiences.

[97]_Report of the Secretary of the Interior_ (Washington: Government Printing Office, Nov. 30, 1880), p. 573.

[98]Frederick Bottler discovered a trapper's cabin at the head of Antelope Creek in 1878. The advanced decay of its timbers indicated that it was forty or fifty years old. See P. W. Norris, _Annual Report 1880_, p. 606.

[99]_Niles Weekly Register_, Third Series, IX, 6 (Oct. 6, 1827), p. 90. Also, _Yellowstone Nature Notes_, XXI, 5 (Sept.-Oct., 1947), p. 52. Sweet Lake is now known as Bear Lake, Idaho.

[100]P. W. Norris, _Annual Report 1878_, p. 987. Smith was killed by a band of Comanches in 1831, when leading a caravan across the Cimarron Desert toward Santa Fe.

[101]Meek's experience was published by Mrs. Frances Fuller Victor in _The River of the West_ (Hartford, Conn.: Columbian Book Co., 1871), pp. 75-7.

[102]Warren A. Ferris, _Life in the Rocky Mountains 1830-35_ (Salt Lake City: Rocky Mountain Book Shop, 1940), pp. 204-6.

[103]Osborne Russell, _Journal of a Trapper, 1834-1843_ (Boise, Idaho: Syms-York Co., 1921), p. 32.

[104]Helen F. Sanders, _op. cit._, p. 657.

Mr. Ducharme, Joe Power, L'Humphrie, Louis Anderson, and Jim and John Baker were members of this group. Remains of horses have been found on this battleground.

[105]J. Cecil Alter, _James Bridger_, p. 107.

[106]Walter W. DeLacy, "A Trip Up the South Fork of Snake River," _Contributions_, Historical Society of Montana, I, 132.

[107]James Stuart, "The Yellowstone Expedition of 1863," _Ibid._, I, 191.

Montana mineral production vaulted to $18,000,000 by 1865. Thereafter a gradual decline began, but a strong revival came in the eighties when deep mining of silver and copper ore bodies proved profitable. The combined mineral output in 1889 was $41,000,000.

[108]P. Koch, "The Discovery of Yellowstone National Park," _Magazine of American History_, II, 511.

[109]E. S. Topping, _Chronicles of the Yellowstone_ (St. Paul: Pioneer Press Co., 1888), p. 44.

[110]P. W. Norris, _Annual Report 1880_, p. 7. Miller Creek was named for Adam Miller's retreat in this instance.

[111]Grace R. Hebard and E. A. Brininstool, _The Bozeman Trail_ (Cleveland: Arthur H. Clark Co., 1922), II, 229.

[112]Robert Vaughn, _Then and Now_, p. 165.

[113]Hebard and Brininstool, _op. cit._, II, 229.

[114]_Ibid._, p. 230.

[115]_Ibid._, p. 244.

[116]Anonymous. The quotations used in the Bridger stories represent the author's organization of existing folk lore. Some of these stories and others are given in H. M. Chittenden's _Yellowstone National Park_.

[117]John G. White, "Souvenir," I, 134.

[118]Hiram M. Chittenden, _op. cit._, pp. 39-40.

[119]Hebard and Brininstool, _op. cit._, II, p. 243.

[120]This information was obtained by the author from Jesse M. Matlock, formerly Mrs. William Peterson and Mabel M. White, an adopted daughter, in an interview at Salmon City, June 7, 1943. The latter remembers hearing Mr. Peterson express regret that the Folsom-Cook-Peterson Expedition was not given more recognition for its discovery. Mr. Peterson died in 1918.

[121]C. W. Cook and D. E. Folsom, "Cook-Folsom Expedition to the Yellowstone Region 1869," _Haynes Bulletin_ (Jan. 1923).

[122]C. W. Cook, "Remarks of C. W. Cook, Last Survivor of the Original Explorers of the Yellowstone Park Region," Yellowstone Park Library, Mammoth, Wyoming. Two sons of Cornelius Hedges were present at the celebration which was sponsored by The National Editorial Association.

[123]W. T. Jackson, "The Cook-Folsom Exploration of the Upper Yellowstone 1869," _The Pacific Northwest Quarterly_, XXXII (1941), 320-21.

[124]Hiram M. Chittenden, _Yellowstone National Park_, p. 60.

[125]Nathaniel P. Langford, _The Discovery of Yellowstone Park 1870_ (St. Paul, Minn.: J. E. Haynes, 1923), p. 80.

[126]Louis C. Crampton, _Early History of Yellowstone National Park and Its Relations to National Park Policies_ (Washington, D. C.: United States Government Printing Office, 1923), p. 14.

[127]Yellowstone Park Scrap Book, I, 33. Park Library, Mammoth, Wyoming.

[128]L. P. Brockett, _Our Western Empire_ (San Francisco: William Garretson and Co., 1881), p. 1247.

[129]_Ibid._, p. 1243.

[130]Cornelius Hedges, "Yellowstone Lake," Crampton's _Early History_, p. 110.

[131]Truman C. Everts, "Thirty Seven Days of Peril," _Scribner's Monthly_, III (Nov. 1871), 1-17.

[132]Cornelius Hedges, "Journal," _Contributions_, Montana Historical Society, V, 387.

[133]Nathaniel P. Langford, _op. cit._, p. 158.

[134]Gustavus C. Doane, "Report Upon the Yellowstone Expedition," Crampton's _Early History_, p. 138.

[135]Henry D. Washburn, "The Yellowstone Expedition," _Ibid._, p. 96.

[136]Rudyard Kipling, _American Notes_, p. 159.

[137]L. P. Brockett, _op. cit._, p. 1254.

[138]F. V. Hayden, _American Journal of Science_, III (March, 1872), 174.

[139]Arnold Hague, "The Yellowstone National Park," _Scribner's Magazine_, XXXV (May, 1904), 519.

[140]W. Turrentine Jackson, "The Creation of Yellowstone Park," _The Mississippi Valley Historical Review_ XXIX, 2 (September, 1942), 189-90.

[141]N. P. Langford, Preface to "The Folsom-Cook Exploration of the Upper Yellowstone in the Year 1869," _Contributions_, Historical Society of Montana, V (1904), 312.

[142]Truman C. Everts, _op. cit._, p. 16.

[143]H. M. Chittenden, _Yellowstone National Park_, p. 69.

[144]_Ibid._, p. 70.

[145]Louis C. Crampton, _Early History of Yellowstone_, p. 25.

[146]F. V. Hayden, "More About the Yellowstone," _Scribner's Monthly_, III, 4 (February, 1872), 389. This article contains a summary of the Hayden Expedition.

[147]H. M. Chittenden, _op. cit._, p. 71.

[148]In Dr. Hayden's "Brief Statement of the History of the National Park," which he forwarded to the Secretary of the Interior, Carl Schurz, on February 21, 1878, the following appeared: "I beg permission to state here, that so far as I know, I originated the idea of the park, prepared the maps, designating the boundaries, and in connection with the Hon. W. H. Claggett [sic], then Delegate from Montana Territory, wrote the law as it now stands.... It is now acknowledged all over the civilized world that the existence of the National Park, by law, is due solely to my exertions during the sessions of 1871 and 1872." _House Executive Documents_, Forty-fifth Congress, Second Session, 1877-78, XVII, No. 75, 3. For this item credit is given by the author to W. Turrentine Jackson; see "The Creation of Yellowstone National Park," _The Mississippi Valley Historical Review_, University of Iowa, XXIX, 2 (Sept. 1942), 199.

[149]_Congressional Globe_, Forty-second Congress, Second Session, 1871-72, Part I, p. 520.

[150]_Ibid._, p. 697.

[151]W. T. Jackson, _op. cit._, p. 203.

[152]_Ibid._, pp. 204-5.

[153]Louis C. Crampton, _op. cit._, p. 31.

[154]Senator George G. Vest, a strong friend of Yellowstone, once referred to Mr. Dawes as the father of the Park, "for he drew the law of designation." If not the actual scribe, he was certainly the advocate of the principles involved. See L. C. Crampton, _op. cit._, p. 32.

[155]John Muir, _The Atlantic Monthly_, LXXXI (April, 1898), 509.

Dr. F. V. Hayden's tribute to Congress is equal to John Muir's. Hayden said, "That our legislators, at a time when public opinion is so strong against appropriating the public domain for any purpose, however laudable, should reserve for the benefit and instruction of the people a tract of 3,575 square miles, is an act that should cause universal satisfaction through the land. This noble deed may be regarded as a tribute from our legislators to science, and the gratitude of the nation, and of men of science in all parts of the world, is due them for this munificent donation." See "The Yellowstone National Park," _American Journal_, III (April, 1872), 295-96.

[156]_Congressional Globe_, p. 697.

[157]George Catlin, _North American Indians_ (Philadelphia: 1913), II, 290.

[158]This refers to Chief Joseph's retreat which is described in Chapter XI.

[159]Alexander Ross, _The Fur Hunters of the Far West_, p. 257.

[160]Ulrich B. Phillips, "Lectures On Early America," a series of lectures given in Berkeley, Calif., 1932.

[161]Robert Vaughn, _Then and Now_, p. 156.

[162]_Ibid._, p. 295.

[163]James Stuart, _Contributions_, Montana Historical Society, I, 154.

[164]Edgar F. Goad, "Bandelier, Scholar of the Mesas" (Washington, D. C.: Department of Interior Information Service, 1940), p. 13.

[165]Alexander Ross, _op. cit._, p. 183.

[166]LeRoy R. Hafen and Carl C. Rister, _Western America_ (New York: Prentice-Hall, 1941), p. 6.

[167]The most notorious foreigners to regale themselves among western American adventure scenes were Prince Maximilian of Wied-Neuwied, Sir George Gore of Ireland, and the Earl of Dunraven.

Maximilian spent the summer of 1833 on the upper Missouri. He was a shabby, toothless man, but of first-rate scientific ability. It is said that his accounts, together with Bodmer's paintings, constitute an important record of the period.

Sir George Gore was a millionaire who spent two years in the West. He left a saga of ruthless slaughter and camp-life prodigality in his wake. His parting gesture was the destruction, by fire, of all the wagons, harness, saddles, and similar equipment. This was done to spite the Missouri Fur Company because of their exorbitant river transportation charges.

In 1871 the Grand Duke Alexis of Russia hunted bison on the Nebraska plains.

[168]_Ibid._, p. 572.

[169]Granville Stuart, _Forty Years on the Frontier_, edited by Paul C. Phillips (Cleveland: 1925), II, 104. This view was expressed by Representative James A. Garfield. See _Congressional Record_, Forty-third Congress, First Session, 1874, pp. 2107-9.

[170]Warren A. Ferris, _op. cit._, p. 244.

[171]_Ibid._, pp. 204-6.

[172]Dan E. Clark, _The West in American History_ (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Co., 1937), p. 573.

[173]Fredrick L. Paxson, _Recent American History of the United States_ (Boston: Prentice-Hall Co., 1937), p. 28.

[174]LeRoy R. Hafen and Carl G. Rister, _op. cit._, p. 528.

[175]D. J. Louck, "Journal," State Historian's file, Laramie, Wyoming.

[176]Helen F. Sanders, _op. cit._, p. 313.

[177]Howard R. Briggs, _Westward America_ (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1942), p. 276.

[178]_Ibid._, pp. 279-80. In 1862, Granville Stuart collected a herd and drove them to Bannock. Conrad Kohrs had a butcher shop there at that time.

[179]Dorothy Gardiner, _West of the River_ (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Co., 1941), p. 319.

Forts were located chiefly with an eye to the protection of travel. Some of the principal ones--Cook, on Judith River, Montana; Reno; Phil Kearney; C. F. Smith; and Casper in Wyoming--were built in 1866. D. A. Russell near Cheyenne, Fort Shaw on Sun River, and Fort Buford were established in 1867. Fort Laramie was built in 1849; Fort Bridger, in 1858; Fort Stambaugh at South Pass, 1869; Fort Steele on North Platte Crossing, 1868; and Fort Assiniboine near Havre, 1879.

[180]Granville Stuart, _op. cit._ Other prominent stockmen were C. D. Duncan, Robert Coburn, N. J. Dovenspeck, Amos Snyder, Adolf Baro, W. C. and G. P. Burnett, Pat Dunlevy, James Dempsey, Chas. Ranges, Edward Regan, N. W. McCaulley, and F. E. Lawrence.

[181]Dan E. Clark, _op. cit._, p. 596.

[182]Helen F. Sanders, _op. cit._, p. 316.

[183]Nathaniel P. Langford, _The Discovery of Yellowstone Park_, p. 181.

[184]Cornelius Hedges, _Contributions_, Montana Historical Society, V, 391.

[185]Dan E. Clark, _op. cit._, p. 625.

[186]Chief Joseph, "Chief Joseph's Own Story," as told by him on his trip to Washington, D. C., p. 3.

[187]Francis Haines, _Red Eagles of the Northwest_ (Portland, Ore.: The Scholastic Press, 1939), p. 234.

[188]_Ibid._, p. 238.

[189]Chief Joseph, _op. cit._, p. 9.

[190]Helen A. Howard and Dan L. McGrath, _War Chief Joseph_ (Caldwell, Idaho: The Caxton Printers, Ltd., 1941), p. 145.

[191]Chester Anders Fee, _Chief Joseph, the Biography of a Great Indian_ (New York: Wilson-Erickson, 1936), p. 168.

[192]Francis Haines, _op. cit._, p. 262.

[193]Helen F. Sanders, _op. cit._, p. 268.

[194]_Ibid._, p. 282.

[195]W. T. Sherman, _Reports of Inspection Made in the Summer of 1877_ (Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1878), p. 34.

[196]Heister D. Guie and L. V. McWhorter, editors, _Adventures in Geyser Land_, by Frank D. Carpenter (Caldwell, Idaho: The Caxton Printers, Ltd., 1935), p. 279.

George F. Cowan was born in Ohio in 1842. He was with the first volunteers during the Civil War. He attained the rank of Sergeant. At this time he was one of Montana's leading attorneys.

[197]Chester A. Fee, _op. cit._, p. 218.

[198]Francis Haines, _op. cit._, p. 287.

[199]Heister Guie and L. V. McWhorter, _op. cit._, p. 223.

[200]Edwin J. Stanley, _Rambles in Wonderland_ (New York: D. Appleton and Co., 1878), p. 166.

[201]Chester A. Fee, _op. cit._, p. 223.

[202]Heister D. Guie and L. V. McWhorter, _op. cit._, p. 225.

George F. Cowan's experiences were so peculiar that one is puzzled to know whether he was the most lucky or unlucky of men. A train of incidents followed his suffering in the Park. Near Fort Ellis the neck yoke broke, and the Cowan party was thrown out of the carriage. At Bozeman, when Mr. Arnold was dressing Cowan's wounds in the hotel room, the bedstead gave way and down went the injured man.

[203]Andrew J. Weikert, "Journal of a Tour Through Yellowstone National Park in August and September 1877," _Contributions_, Historical Society of Montana, IV (1900), 185-99.

[204]H. M. Chittenden, _Yellowstone National Park_, p. 142. Stewart was relieved of $260.00 and a watch.

[205]_Ibid._, p. 143.

[206]Heister D. Guie and L. V. McWhorter, _op. cit._, pp. 194-5.

Near the top of Mt. Everts, and toward its southern end, there is a cliff formed by an ancient flow of lava. Upon a flat space, at the foot of the cliff, one may find an inscription that reads, "Ben Stone 1877."

[207]_Ibid._, p. 145.

[208]O. O. Howard, _Chief Joseph, His Pursuit and Capture_ (Boston: Lee and Shephard, 1881), p. 243.

[209]Helen A. Howard and Dan L. McGrath, _op. cit._, p. 258.

[210]_Ibid._, pp. 260-1.

[211]Chester A. Fee, _op. cit._, pp. 248-9.

[212]Helen A. Howard and Dan L. McGrath, _op. cit._, pp. 271-2.

[213]This was Joseph's understanding, as revealed in all subsequent statements.

[214]Chester A. Fee, _op. cit._, pp. 262-3.

[215]_Ibid._, p. 270.

[216]_Ibid._, p. 272.

[217]Helen A. Howard and Dan L. McGrath, _op. cit._, p. 183.

[218]Chester A. Fee, _op. cit._, p. 287.

[219]The Hayden and other government expeditions did quite a lot of trail work in an informal manner. That is to say, they had large parties and considerable baggage. In order to get through the forest quite a lot of trail building became necessary.

[220]Jack E. Haynes, "The Expedition of President Chester A. Arthur to Yellowstone National Park in 1883," _Annals of Wyoming_, January, 1942, p. 2.

[221]J. J. Leclercq, _La Terre des Marveilles_. An excerpt containing this story is in Mercer Cook's _Portraits of Americans_ (New York: D. C. Heath and Co., 1939), pp. 47-8.

[222]John Muir, _The Atlantic Monthly_, LXXXI (Jan. 1898), 15.

Edwin J. Stanley's _Rambles in Wonderland_ describes conditions as of that time.

[223]P. W. Norris, _Annual Report 1880_, p. 584. See also Elno's "The Lord of Hard Luck," _Dillon Examiner_, June 12, 1940.

[224]Heister D. Guie and L. V. McWhorter, _Adventures in Geyser Land_, p. 71.

Texas Jack served as a guide for the Earl of Dunraven in 1874.

[225]Jones Bros. and McGill of Cody and Hougan and Phillips of Salt Lake City, along with many others, conducted tours varying in duration and cost. The fee varied from five to ten dollars a day per person.

[226]C. S. Walgamott, _Reminiscences_ (Twin Falls, Idaho, 1926), II, 78.

[227]John Muir, _The Atlantic Monthly_, LXXXI (April, 1898), 515.

[228]Alice W. Rollins, "The Three Tetons," _Harper's_, LXXIV (May, 1887), 876.

[229]_Ibid._

[230]Rudyard Kipling, _American Notes_, p. 126. "Buckskin Charley" was Charles Marble; Yankee Jim's name was James George; Hofer's name was Thomas Elwood Hofer.

[231]Yellowstone Park Scrap Book, II, 52. There are three volumes of newspaper and magazine clippings in the Park Library at Mammoth, Wyoming.

[232]_Ibid._, pp. 60, 123. See also I, 33, and III, 33.

[233]Alice W. Rollins, _op. cit._, p. 74.

[234]Silas S. Huntley was the guiding mind of the organization from 1892 to 1901, when H. W. Child succeeded to the management, which he held until 1917. E. W. Bach was an active partner.

[235]The transportation setup as of 1914: Yellowstone Park Transportation Company, Gardiner, Round Trip $25.00; Yellowstone Western Stage Company, Yellowstone, Montana, $20.00; Holm Transportation Company, Cody, Wyoming, five days $25.00; Wylie Permanent Camping Company maintains permanent camps and operates a line from Gardiner, also West Yellowstone and Camp Cody (East Gate). The camps: Swan Lake Basin, Riverside, Upper Geyser Basin, Outlet of Lake, Grand Canyon, Camp Cody and Tower Falls. Lunch stations at Gibbon Geyser Basin and Thumb. Six day tour $40.00.

[236]Yellowstone Park Scrap Book, III, 20. Also Henry D. Sedgwick, Jr., "On Horse Back Through Yellowstone," _World's Work_, VI (June, 1903). Two of Yancey's buildings are still standing.

[237]Scrap Book, II, 4.

[238]_Report of the Secretary of the Interior 1884_, I, 73.

[239]A corrupt and incompetent concern called The Improvement Company started a hotel in Mammoth. In 1884 this firm attempted to secure private ownership of land in important localities through Congressional action. When the move failed the firm went under. Its interests were bought by the Yellowstone Park Association which was financed by the Northern Pacific Railway.

[240]The Norris Hotel was replaced by a camp hotel and eating house, which served until 1900, when a new one was completed. The hotel at Old Faithful had not been profitable and was not replaced until 1903, when Old Faithful Inn was built.

[241]J. E. Rickards, ex-Governor of Montana, to the editor of _The Salt Lake Tribune_, July 17, 1897.

[242]Scrap Book, II, 56.

[243]_Report of the Department of the Interior 1907_, p. 533. The Boat Company charged three dollars for a ride from Thumb to Lake Fishing Bridge.

[244]Henry D. Sedgwick, _op. cit._, p. 3572.

[245]Scrap Book, I, 61.

[246]_Ibid._, Captain George S. Anderson earnestly prophesied that there would not be a square mile of forest left standing in six months if railroads were permitted to enter.

[247]Charles D. Warner, "Yellowstone National Park," _Harper's_, XCIV (January, 1897), 323.

[248]_Annual Report 1907._ Several wells had to be dug between Norris and Canyon.

[249]Horace M. Albright, _Park Service Bulletin_, April 14, 1934, p. 46.

[250]Lucien M. Lewis, "To the Old Stage Driver," _Overland Monthly_, LXIX (July, 1917), 52.

[251]Yellowstone Park Automobile Regulations for the Season of 1916. Department of the Interior _Bulletin_. Here is an example of the procedure:

SCHEDULE A Gardiner to Norris Miles Not earlier than Not later than Leave Gardiner Entrance 0 6:00 A.M. 6:30 A.M. Arrive Mammoth Hot Springs 5 6:20 7:00 Leave Mammoth Hot Springs 0 6:45 7:15 Leave 8 Mile Post 8 8:00 Arrive Norris 20 8:30 9:00

Schedule B was for the P.M.

Bicyclists were also closely regulated. Upon meeting a team the rider was required to stop and stand between his cycle and the team. He could not pass a team from the rear without a signal.

People on horseback were expected to observe every precaution in passing teams of all sorts.

[252]_Reports of the Department of the Interior 1917_, p. 812.

[253]Chas. Van Tassell, _Truthful Lies_ (Bozeman, Montana, 1921).

[254]_Reports of the Secretary of the Interior 1936_, p. 132. The firms combined in this consolidation were The Yellowstone Park Hotel Co., The Yellowstone Park Transportation Co., The Yellowstone Park Lodge and Camps Co., and The Yellowstone Park Boat Company.

[255]_Ibid._, 1939, p. 300.

[256]There are two service stations in Old Faithful Camp. Some people complain because they cannot get their favorite gasoline. However, it would be both unsightly and impractical to allow each company a half-dozen representatives. There are no pumps at all at Madison and Norris stations.

[257]_Park Service Bulletin_, Nov., 1936, p. 12.

[258]Richard G. Lillard, _The Great Forest_ (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1948), p. 32.

[259]_Ibid._, p. 68.

[260]_Ibid._, p. 9.

[261]Hans Huth, _Yosemite, the Story of an Idea_. Reprint from the _Sierra Club Bulletin_, March 1948, p. 48.

[262]Richard G. Lillard, _op. cit._, p. 85.

[263]Richard G. Lillard, _op. cit._, p. 256.

[264]Hugh H. Bennett, "Thomas Jefferson Soil Conservationist," U. S. Department of Agriculture, No. 548 (1944).

[265]Karl B. Mickey, _Man and Soil_ (Chicago: International Harvester Co., 1945), p. 17.

[266]Hans Huth, _op. cit._, p. 73.

[267]George Catlin, _The Manners, Customs, and Conditions of the North American Indians_ (London, 1841), I, 262.

[268]Hans Huth, _op. cit._, p. 52.

[269]Walter Mulford, _Forest Influences_ (New York: McGraw Hill Book Co., 1948), p. 15.

[270]Hans Huth, _op. cit._, p. 68.

[271]_Ibid._, p. 69.

[272]_Ibid._

[273]Hans Huth said Frederick Law Olmstead admitted failure in his attempt to discover the origin of public parks in this country. He attributed it to "a spontaneous movement of that sort which we conveniently refer to as the genius of our civilization." _Ibid._, p. 60.

[274]Richard G. Lillard, _op. cit._, p. 260.

[275]This agency was later transferred to the Department of Agriculture.

[276]Richard G. Lillard, _op. cit._, p. 264.

[277]_Ibid._, p. 270.

[278]_Ibid._ National Legislation Executive Almanac in Brief:

1876--$2,000.00, appropriated to employ a competent man to investigate timber conditions in the United States. June 30, 1886--Act creating Division of Forestry in Department of Agriculture. March 3, 1891--President authorized to establish Forest Reserves; Yellowstone Park Timberland Reserve proclaimed by President Harrison on March 30, 1891. June 4, 1897--Present National Forest Act passed. July 1, 1901--Division of Forestry becomes Bureau of Forestry. February 1, 1905--Bureau of Forestry becomes Forest Service. March 1, 1911--Weeks Law passed. April 11, 1921--Snell Bill introduced in Congress. May 2, 1921--Capper Bill introduced in Congress. June 7, 1924--Clarke-McNary Bill signed by President. April 30, 1928--McNary-Woodruff Act signed by President. May 22, 1928--McSweeney-McNary Act signed by President. Jan. 1, 1931--Creation of the Timber Conservation Board. 1937--The Norris-Doxey Act. 1944--The Cooperative Sustained Yield Act.

Other Acts closely related to the Forestry program include, Civilian Conservation Corps, the Agricultural Adjustment Administration, Public Works Administration, Taylor Grazing Control Act, Farm Security Act, and Tennessee Valley Authority.

[279]"National Parks and National Forests," a statement by the National Park Service, Department of the Interior and the Forest Service, Department of Agriculture.

[280]Earl of Dunraven, _op. cit._, p. 34.

[281]William T. Hornaday, _Our Vanishing Wild Life_ (New York: New York Zoological Society, 1913), p. 2.

[282]_Ibid._, p. 63.

[283]Earl of Dunraven, _op. cit._, p. 6.

[284]_Ibid._, p. 15.

[285]Extinct species include: great auk, Pallas's cormorant, Labrador duck, Eskimo curlew, passenger pigeon, Carolina parakeet, yellow-winged green parrot, heath hen, whooping crane, upland plover. Other effective wild life conservation advocates were Dr. Theodore S. Palmer, Edward H. Forbush, T. Gilbert Pearson, John B. Burnham, and William T. Hornaday.

[286]Earl of Dunraven, _op. cit._, p. 181.

[287]_Ibid._, pp. 182-3.

[288]Nathaniel P. Langford, "The Ascent of Mount Hayden," _Scribner's Monthly_, III (June, 1873), 133-40. The author does not necessarily imply that Langford reached the summit.

The author has possession of a part of Mr. Leigh's diary, numerous dictations, and items relative to "Beaver Dick."

[289]F. H. Knowlton, "The Tertiary Flowers of the Yellowstone National Park," _The American Journal of Science_, No. 7 (July, 1896).

[290]Chittenden says that Norris Geyser Basin was discovered from the top of Bunsen Peak in 1872. E. S. Topping and Dwight Woodruff saw a large column of steam ascending far to the south. They made an investigation and reported their find. The next day Mr. and Mrs. H. H. Stone, of Bozeman, Montana, visited the basin. Mrs. Stone was one of the first white women to enter the Park. Perhaps she was the first excepting certain members of earlier missionary parties.

[291]N. P. Langford's Diary, Second Trip To Yellowstone 1872. MS. in Yellowstone Park Library, Mammoth, Wyoming. Dr. Hayden and his co-workers returned in 1878. In this investigation they made detailed reports upon many hot springs and geysers. The season's study, richly embellished with engravings and colored plates, was published in Hayden's _Report_ in 1883.

[292]Lewis R. Freeman, _Down the Yellowstone_ (New York: Dodd, Mead and Co., 1922), p. 57.

[293]P. W. Norris, _Annual Report 1880_, p. 7.

[294]R. Kipling, _American Notes_, p. 174. Also see T. A. Jagger's article, "Death Gulch, A Natural Bear Trap," _Popular Science_, LIV (February, 1899), 5-6.

[295]Jack Ellis Haynes states that A. F. Norris, C. M. Stephens, and J. Davis spent the winter of 1879-80 in the headquarters building at Mammoth.

[296]William Ludlow, _Report to the War Department 1875_, pp. 36-7. Mr. Ludlow made a reconnaissance from Carrol, Montana to Yellowstone Park and returned.

[297]Yellowstone Scrap Book, II, pp. 37, 56.

[298]_Report of the Secretary of the Interior 1884_, II (Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1885), p. 565.

[299]_Ibid._, 1889, III, p. 133.

[300]Some of these territorial officials, known in local parlance as "rabbit catchers," formed an alliance with the assistant superintendent. By this means the latter shared, as informers, the fines levied by themselves. H. M. Chittenden, _op. cit._, p. 113.

[301]_Ibid._, p. 134. See also _Report_ for 1906, p. 522 and _The Independent_, Butte, Montana, Nov., 1895.

[302]H. M. Chittenden, _op. cit._, p. 114.

[303]_Report of the Secretary of the Interior_, II, 873.

[304]_Report of the Secretary of the Interior_, III (1889), 134.

[305]_Ibid._, p. 133.

[306]Henry H. Lewis, "Managing a National Park," _The Outlook_, LXXIV (August, 1903), 1037.

[307]_Report of the Secretary of the Interior 1889_, III, 129.

[308]_Ibid._, p. 130.

[309]Jack Ellis Haynes, _Haynes Guide_, p. 160.

[310]Emerson Hough, "Yellowstone Park Game Exploration," _Forest and Stream_, XLIII, Nos. 8-12. A series of articles covering this exploration appeared in each issue from March until August 25, 1894.

[311]T. J. Patterson, Yellowstone Park Scrap Book, I, 124.

[312]S. B. M. Young's _Annual Report 1897_, p. 779.

[313]Benjamin Drew, _Souvenir List_, Mammoth, Wyoming. One of the victims was struck over the head with the Winchester; whereas a Chicago lady was able to get a snapshot of the desperado. Rewards offered aggregated $1,100.00.

[314]Heister D. Guie and L. V. McWhorter, _Adventures in Geyser Land_, p. 64. Also Earl of Dunraven, _op. cit._, p. 206.

[315]Frederick Remington, _Pony Tracks_ (New York: Harper and Bros., 1895), p. 192.

[316]Arnold Hague, "Soaping Geysers," _Science_, XIII (May 17, 1889), 384. Dr. Arnold Hague and John H. Renshawe of the Geological Survey studied the Park in 1883.

[317]John Muir, "The Yellowstone National Park," _The Atlantic Monthly_, LXXXI (April, 1898), 520.

[318]Land in the reserves adjacent to the Park yield 30¢ per acre from lumbering and 50¢ for grazing; whereas the water storage value alone is $12.50. Then, too, there are extensive agricultural improvements contingent upon the water supply. These would approximate $30.00 per forest acre. Statement made to the author by range supervisor, Faber Eaton, on August 9, 1943.

[319]_Annual Report of the Acting Superintendent 1894_, p. 661.

[320]There have been exceptions to the rule. Certain animals have been classed as predators at given times and thinned out.

[321]The average sagebrusher (camper) considers bears as an unmitigated nuisance. Because of them, he must exercise vigilance at all times or his food will be carried away.

[322]_Reports of the Department of the Interior 1918_, p. 827.

Strong demands were also made to open the Park for sheep grazing.

[323]_Report of the Secretary of the Interior 1938_, p. 6.

[324]Yellowstone Scrap Book, I, 57.

[325]_Ibid._

[326]_Report of the Acting Superintendent of Yellowstone National Park 1895_, p. 824.

[327]These stations were located at Norris, Riverside, Fountain, Upper Geyser Basin, Thumb, Snake River, Lake Sylvan Pass, Soda Butte, Tower Falls, Fort Yellowstone, and Gardiner.

[328]There are more than thirty of these journals in the Park Library at Mammoth, Wyoming.

[329]Yellowstone Scrap Book, II, 105.

[330]R. Kipling, _op. cit._, p. 153.

[331]John Muir, _op. cit._, April, 1898, p. 510.

[332]Charles D. Warner, "Yellowstone National Park," _Harper's_, XCIV (January, 1897), 94.

[333]_Annual Report 1894_, p. 133.

[334]Eugene T. Allen and Arthur L. Day, _Hot Springs of the Yellowstone National Park_ (Washington, D. C.: Carnegie Institution, 1935). Although Dr. Day was the director, the work was regarded as the valedictory of Dr. Allen.

[335]Theodore Roosevelt, "A National Park Service," _Outlook_, C (Feb. 3, 1912).

[336]S. T. Mather's "Report of The Director of The National Park Service," _Report of the Department of the Interior 1918_, pp. 842-3.

[337]_Reports of the Secretary of the Interior 1918_, pp. 842-3.

An interesting experiment, contrary to this principle, was an attempt in 1906 to raise twelve Sequoia _gigantea_ trees near the arch at Gardiner entrance. All of the trees died.

[338]James Bryce, "National Parks the Need of the Future," _The Outlook_, CII (December 14, 1912), 811.

[339]_Reports of the Secretary of the Interior 1918_, pp. 813-4.

[340]_Ibid._

[341]Ray S. Baker, "A Place of Marvels," _The Century Magazine_, LXVI (August, 1903), 487.

[342]F. A. Boutelle, _Report of the Acting Superintendent 1889_ (Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1890), p. 148.

[343]_Report of the Secretary of the Interior 1937_, p. 49.

[344]Short terms of service were also held by Dr. Frank E. Thone, 1923, and Alfred H. Povah, 1931.

[345]Editorial, "The Ranger Naturalist," _Nature Magazine_, XVII (April, 1931), 219.

[346]Exhibits were established at Rhyo-Travertine Gulch, Swan Lake Flat, Beaver Dams, Nymph Lake, Tuff Cliff, and Firehole Canyon.

[347]_Report of the Secretary of the Interior 1938_, p. 13.

[348]_Ibid._, 1918, pp. 844-5.

[349]George O. Smith, "The Nation's Playgrounds," _Review of Reviews_, XL (July, 1909), 44.

[350]Dwight L. Elmendorf, _The Mentor_, II (May 15, 1915), 13.

[351]Earl of Dunraven, _The Great Divide_ (London, 1876), p. XI.

The Scottish Earl of Dunraven visited the Park in 1874. A peak and a pass commemorate his interest and service in informing Europeans about Yellowstone.

[352]The date of this communication was December 20, 1810.

[353]Colter's first sheet is readily identifiable, and part of another sheet may be segregated with the use of imagination and understanding.

[354]Many writers have failed to identify Gap and Sage as the same creek. They also befuddle Wind and Shoshone rivers. There is no evidence that Colter ever heard the name of Bighorn River.

[355]The figure eight results from the fact that he went to the Yep-pe camp, left it, came back, and left it again at the appropriate angles.

[356]The curious errors of the map are explained in Chapter II.

[357]Lewis evidently complained to Biddle about the variations in sheets because Clark stated in a letter to Biddle that these sheets were all of the same scale. See Stallo Vinton, _John Colter_, p. 47.

[358]This claim will be developed subsequently.

[359]John D. Hicks, _The Federal Union_ (New York: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1937), p. 282.

[360]The position of Henrys River, with reference to the Snake River drainage, is almost wholly erroneous as shown on the Map of 1814. Wisers River is fictitious. The true and original Weiser River lies three hundred miles west.

[361]This hypothesis is based upon the findings of J. Neilson Barry of Portland, Oregon. Mr. Barry is a profound student of Western history and cartography. He has devoted years of intensive research in correlating journals and geography.

[362]There is a reasonable view that holds this lake to be the only real feature upon this section of the map and identifies it as Brooks Lake, but Colter never saw or knew of the main branch of the Bighorn River or its source in Brooks Lake.

[363]Clark named this mythical lake for William Eustis, who had been representative to Congress from Massachusetts. About this time he was Secretary of War in President Madison's cabinet.

Whatever Colter drew was certainly lacking Lake Eustis, Lake Biddle, and the Rio Grande, Arkansas, and Platte rivers. He was a simple frontiersman who had probably never heard of Eustis or Biddle and was not interested in mapping anything beyond his own route. Had Lewis linked Eustis and Biddle-Riddle lakes together, a possible approximation to Colter's draft might have appeared.

[364]In 1941, Paul J. Shamp, a US. forester, reported the discovery of numerous petrifications in the vicinity of Pass and Scatter creeks in the Thorofare country. This is the line of Colter's reconstructed route.

It has been the author's desire to make a search for this missing link of evidence by actually going over the route. In 1947, he made a partial exploration during a three day hike. It was enough to suggest the size of the problem.

[365]Colter may have reached Chicken Ridge by Fishhawk, Mountain, or Lynx creeks or via Falcon, Mink, or Crooked streams. It must be remembered that this map sheet has been much mussed up. It is impossible to know what has been erased; yet, enough of Colter's map remains to provide a logical basis for the above itinerary. It is relatively unimportant which creeks he negotiated to reach Chicken Ridge. The vitally important fact is that he drew a sketch of South Arm from that angle which added to the Thumb makes an accurate map of what a trapper would have seen of Yellowstone Lake.

[366]J. Neilson Barry has made the most intensive study of the Map of 1814. It is his opinion that Colter drew other map sheets besides the one of the Buffalo Bill country. He also has hope that these sheets may be discovered among the Lewis-Clark-Biddle papers.

INDEX

A Absaroka Indians, 68, 74, 86 Absaroka Pass, 184, 298 Absaroka Range, 30, 42 ff., 96, 101, 104 Adams, Robert, Jr., 138 Albright, Supt. Horace M., 211, 270 ff. Alder Gulch, 102; gold found, 104, 161 Allard Bison Herd, 258 Allen, Dr. Eugene T., 264 Allen, G. N., 138 Alter, J. Cecil, 79 Alum Creek, 113, 181, 211 American Association for the Advancement of Science, 227 American Association of Museums, 272 American Fur Company, 94, 108 American Game Protective and Propagation Association, 225 American Journal of Science and Arts, 139 Amethyst Mountain, 104 Anderson, Capt. George S., 206, 210, 248, 260 Anderson, Ole, 216 Anthony, Sen. H. B., 140 Arbor Day, 229 Architectural Fountain Geyser, 139 Arickara Indians, 37, 61 Arnold, A. J., 172 ff. Arthur, Pres. Chester A., 192 ff. Ashley, Gen. William H., 81, 92 Astorians, 34 Atlantic Creek, 72, 296 Atwood, W. W., 270 Austin, ----, 103

B Bach, E. W., 201 Baggley, George F., 273 Baker, Sergt. William, 121 Bannock Indians, 59; description, 65, 86 ff.; trail, 88; defeat, 157 Barlow, Capt. J. W., survey, 137 ff. Baronett, C. J., 105; rescued Everts, 134; bridge, 184; road, 208 Bauer, Dr. C. Max, 270 Beaman, J. W., 138 Bear Paw Mountains, 187, 190 Bear River, 110 Beartooth Range, 30 "Beaver Dick" (Richard Leigh), 283 Bechler River, 27, 259 Beehive Geyser, 131, 197 Biddle, Lake, 292 Biddle, Nicholas, 50, 285, 290 Big Game Ridge, 47, 296 Big Hole, battle of, 170 ff., 180, 187 Bigfoot, Chief, 156 Bighorn Basin, 88, 112 Bighorn River, 32, 37, 42 ff., 55, 68, 290 Bison Peak, 261 Bitter Root Range, 67, 102, 170 Blackfeet Indians, 37; attack Colter, 52 ff.; description, 67, 74, 88, 98 Black Kettle's village, 157 Blacks Fork of Green River, 108 Blaine, Sen. James G., 136 Bonaparte, Napoleon, 28 Bonneville, Capt. B. L. E., 99; describes bison, 153; 232 Boone and Crockett Club, 235 Bottler, Frederick, 105; stock range, 162; ranch, 180 Boutelle, Capt. F. A., 268 Bowles, Samuel, 226 Bozeman, John, 158 Bozeman, Montana, 117, 138, 142, 176, 180, 205 Bozeman Pass, 55 Bozeman Trail, 161 Bradbury, John, 57 Brackenridge, Henry M., 37, 57 ff. Bridger, James (Jim), 80, 98, 101; ancestors, 106; description, 106 ff.; nicknames for, 110; Indian wives, 110; tall tales, 110 ff.; death of, 115, 283 Brooks Lake, 44 Brothers, Henry J., 217 Bryant, Dr. Harold, 270 "Buckskin Charley," (Charles Marble), 198, 283 Buffalo Ranch, 87 Bumpus, Dr. Hermon C., 270 Burgess, Felix, 247 Burlington Route, 202 Burns, A. E., 247

C Cabeza de Vaca, description of bison, 153 Cache Creek, 104 California, 141; climate of, 239; University of, 270 Camas Creek, 94 Campfire Club of America, 235 Canyon Creek, Nez Percé fight Seventh Cavalry, 185, 186 Carnegie Geophysical Laboratory, 264 Carpenter, Frank, 172 ff. Carpenter, Ida, 172 Carpenter, Robert E., 205, 244 Carrington, Campbell, 138, 139 Carrington, Henry B., 110 Carson, Kit, 285 Cassidy, "Butch," 163 Castle Geyser, 131 Catholic Church, 174; services, 217 Catlin, George, 144, 221 ff. Cauliflower Geyser, 251 Cheyenne Indians, description, 70, 157, 187 _Chicago Journal_, 139 Chicken Ridge, 47, 296 Child, H. W., 201 Chittenden, Hiram M., 210 Chittenden Road, 210 Chivington, Col. J. M., 157 Cinnabar, 199 ff., 259 Civil War, 103, 120, 153, 157 Claggett, William H., 137; sponsored Park Bill, 140 ff. Clark, Dr. Dan E., 162 Clark, Capt. Philo, 193 Clark, William, 42 ff.; Colter reports to, 50, 57, 285 ff. Clarks Fork, 42, 50, 88, 184, 259, 286, 290, 298 Clearwater River, 35; battle of, 169 Clematis Gulch, 182, 202 Cody, William F. "Buffalo Bill," 151; nickname, 153; description, 233 Coffeen, Hon. Henry H., 208 Cole, Sen. Cornelius, 140 Colter, John, ancestors, 35 ff.; joins Lisa, 37; discovery of Park, 38 ff.; attacked by Blackfeet, 52; guide for Henry, 56; reaches St. Louis, 57, 100; route, 283 ff. Colter Creek, 36 Colter's Hell, 40, 45, 50, 291 Colter's Peak, 58 Colville Reservation, 191 Community Chapel, 217 Condon, David de L., 270 Conger, Patrick A., 242 Conness, Sen. John, 225 Connor, Col. Patrick, 157 Conservation, 217 ff., 225; Pres. Roosevelt's Governor's Conference, 229 Continental Divide, 25, 37, 45; Colter crossed, 47, 99, 102, 118, 163, 259, 296 Cook, Charles W., 116, 118 Cooke, Montana, 208, 247, 259 Coronado, Francisco, 153 Cottage Hotel, 205 Counter, Hub, 196 Cowan, George F., 172 ff., 283 Cowan, Mrs. George F., describes Chief Joseph, 174 Crampton, Louis C., 211 Crazy Horse, Chief, 158, 162 Creamer, Phil, 106 Crook, Gen. George, 158 Crosby, Gov. John S., 193, 243 Crow Indians, 37, 54, 59, 86, 88, 104, 150, 184 ff., 240 Custer, Col. George A., 152, 157; defeated, 158 Cougar Creek, 88

D Davis, A. J., 162 Dawes, Chester M., 138 Dawes, Hon. Henry L., 138; backed Park Bill, 141 ff. Day, Dr. Arthur L., 264 Dead Indian Creek, 42, 50, 286, 298 Dedicatory Act, 144, 146, 202, 227, 230, 245 DeLacy, Walter W., 102 ff.; his map, 121 Delano, Columbus, 139, 142 DeMaris Mineral Springs, 286 Devil's Den, 122 Devil's Hoof, 122 Devil's Inkwell, 122 Devil's Kitchen, 122 Devil's Slide, 122 Diamond City, Montana, 116 ff. Dickson, John, 35 ff. Dietrich, Richard, 180 ff. Dingee, William, 172 ff. Dixon, George B., 138 Doane, Lieut. Gustavus C., 121; description of Old Faithful Geyser, 130; with Hayden, 138, 164; in pursuit of Nez Percé, 178 ff. Dot Island, 207 Dragons Mouth, 45, 50, 124, 298 Driggs, Dr. Howard R., 144 Duncan, J. W., 138 Duncan, L., 180 Dunnell, Hon. Mark H., 141 Dunraven, Earl of, 80, 85, 151 ff.; describes horse thieves, 164; hunting, 233 ff.; praises Park, 278 Dutcher, Mary, 234 Dutcher, Willard, 233

E Eagle Blanket, Nez Percé, 168 Eagle Peak, 25 East Entrance, 202, 210 Eaton, Howard, 195; trail, 195, 215 Ee-dah-how (Idaho), 27 Edmunds, Sen. George F., 140 Elk Thistle, 127; _see_ Everts Thistle, 128 Elk-Wapiti Creek, 47, 296 Elliott, Henry W., 137, 139 Emerald Pool, 131 Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 222, 223 Emigrant Gulch, 105 Ericson, Leif, 30 Eustis Lake, 292 Everts Thistle, 128 Everts, Truman C., 120 ff.; lost in Park, 126 ff.; visit to Washington, D.C., 137, 283

F Fairweather, William, 104 Falcon Creek, 296 Fall River, 259, 276 Fan Geyser, 131 Farcy, Sheriff, 193 Fee, Chester A., 177 Fergus, James, 162 Ferris, Warren A., 68; describes geysers, 94, 100 Fetterman Massacre, 161 Firehole Basin, 98, 102, 129 Firehole Canyon, 210 Firehole Hotel, 204 Firehole River, 105, 118; Nez Percé camp, 172, 200 ff., 227 Fisher, Capt. S. G., 177 Fishhawk Creek, 296, Fishing Bridge, 26, 86, 87, 210; museum, 273 Flat Mountain Arm, 47, 296 Flathead Indians, 59; description, 66 ff. Foller, August, 180 ff. Folsom, David E., 116; proposed park idea, 118, 142; assistant superintendent, 240 Folsom-Cook-Peterson party, 30; exploration, 116 ff. Ford, R. S., 162 Forest fires, 253 ff. _Forest and Stream_, 206, 242, 247 ff. Forsyth, Lieut. William W., 247 Fort Bridger, 108 Fort Ellis, 121 ff., 138, 172 Fort Hall, 96, 99; Bannock Reservation, 157 Fort Henry, founded, 32; visited by Astorians, 34 Fort Laramie National Park, 83, 233 Fort Lisa (Manuel's Fort, Fort Raymond), 37, 41 ff., 54 ff., 286 Fort Mandan, 31 Fort Yellowstone, 242, 266 Fossil, 296 Fountain Geyser, 205 Fountain House, 205 Freeman, L. M., 105

G Gallatin Range, 30, 32, 88, 291 Gallatin River, 26, 52, 94, 291 Gallatin Valley, 100 Game Ranch, 87 Gap Creek, 286 Gardiner, Montana, 199, 200, 274 Gardner, Johnson, 98 Gardner Hole, 98 Gardner River, 67, 86 ff., 122, 138 Garfield, Thomas, 247 Garrison, L. A., 12, 274, 279 Gass, Patrick, 31 Gentian Pool, 131 George, James ("Yankee Jim"), 198, 283 Giant Geyser, 130 Giantess Geyser, 105, 130 Gibbon, Gen. John, 170 Gibbon Canyon, 210 Gibbon Falls, 210 Gibbon River, 131, 227 Gilbert, Col. Charles C., 178 Gillette, Warren C., 120 Glass, Hugh, 106 Goff, ----, 200 Golden Gate, 210 Gold seekers, 101 Good, James W., 211 Goodnight Bison Herd, 258 Gore, Sir George, 154 Graham and Klamer, 204 Grand Canyon National Park, 211, 268 Grand Geyser, 130 ff. Grand Loop Highway, 127, 195, 210, 214 Grand Prismatic Spring, 98, 131 Grand Teton National Park, 83, 274 Grant, Brogan, and Lycan, 195 Grant, John, 162 Grant, Madison, 233 Grant, Pres. Ulysses S., 142 Great Salt Lake, 110 Green River, 45, 81, 163 Green River Valley, 66, 81 Gregory, Col. J. F., 193 Grinnell, George Bird, 242 Grizzly Lake, 261 Gros Ventre Indians, 69 Grotto Geyser, 130, 131 Guernsey Lake National Park, 83 Gunnison, Capt. J. W., 114

H Hague, Dr. Arnold, 25 Hall, A. F., 270 Hamilton, Charles A., stores, 217 Hamilton, William, 104 Hancock, Forest, 35, 36 _Harper's Magazine_, 120 Harrington, Ed., 163; _see_ Trafton, Edward Harris, Moses ("Black"), 100 Harris, Capt. Moses, 246; report of robbery, 250, 266 Harrison, Pres. Benjamin, 228 Hart Mountain, 184 Hauser, Samuel T., 120 ff., 137, 163 Hayden, Carl, 211 Hayden, Dr. Ferdinand V., 102 ff.; praise of Bridger, 112; hears Langford, 136 ff.; expedition, 138 ff. Hayden Valley, 26, 45, 50; rendezvous, 81; bison ranch, 258, 288, 298 Hayes Act, 246 Haynes, Frank Jay, 193, 200; first studio, 216; arrested poacher, 247 Haynes, Jack Ellis, 200, 241, 270 Heart Lake, 239 Hedges, Cornelius, 120 ff.; quoted, 129; proposed park idea, 132 ff., 142, 144 Hegley, C. DeV., 138 Helena, Montana, 102, 121, 184 _Helena Daily Herald_, 132, 136, 142 _Helena Independent_, 259 Helena tourists, 180 ff. Hellbroth Springs, 122 Hell Roaring Mountain, 122 Hellroaring Creek, 261 Hells Half Acre, 122 Henderson, Bart, 105 Henderson, Walter L., 205 Henderson's Ranch, 178 Henry, Major Andrew, 32 ff., 56, 92, 106, 291 Henrys Fork of Snake River, 88, 96, 291 Henrys Lake, 32, 88, 238 Hobart, C. T., 204 Hofer, Thomas Elwood, 198, 247 Hoffman, W., 201 Holm Transportation Company, 202 Hoodoo Creek region, 105, 240 Horseshow Cattle Company, 162 Hospital, 217 Hotels, 202 ff. Hough, Emerson, 247 Hough, Franklin B., 228 Howard Eaton Trail, 195, 215 Howard, Gen. Oliver O., 166; pursues Nez Percé, 169 ff.; at Big Hole, 170; at Henrys Lake, 178; in Lamar Valley, 184 ff. Howell, Ed, 247 Huntley, Child, and Bach, 201 Huntley, Silas S., 201 Huth, Dr. Hans, 226

I Idaho, 102, 128, 160 ff.; irrigation interests, 259; entrance desired, 276 Improvement Company, 244 Index Peak, 104 Indian Creek, 86, 88 Innocents (Henry Plummer's gang), 163 Irving, Washington, 40, 45 Isa Lake, 27

J Jackson, "Teton," 163 Jackson, William H., photographs, 139 Jackson Hole, 51, 96, 102, 202, 235 Jackson Lake, 44, 99, 210 Jacobs, John, 158 James, Thomas, 55 ff. James, William, 250 Jamestown, 152 Jefferson, Pres. Thomas, 28, 221 Jefferson National Expansion Memorial, 83 Jefferson River, 26, 41, 52 Jenny, Indian wife of "Beaver Dick," 238 Jones, W. A., 86 Jordan and Howell, 195 Joseph, Chief, 148 ff.; promise to father, 165; description, 166; flight, 170 ff.; surrender, 189; death, 191, 283 Joseph, Old Chief, 165 ff.

K Kenck, Charles, 180; killed, 181; buried, 182 Kent, Hon. William, 266 Kingman, Capt. D. C., 210 Kingsley, Mary, quoted, 233 Kipling, Rudyard, quoted, 241; poem, 281 ff. Kittams, Walter H., 235 Klamer, Henry E., 216 Kohrs, Conrad, 162

L Lacey, John F., 233 Lacey Act, 246 Lake Biddle, 44 Lake Eustis, 45 Lake Hotel, 250 Lamar Creek, 86, 88 Lamar River, 27, 50, 86, 88, 117, 139; Nez Percé flight, 184 ff., 238, 298 Lamar Unit or Buffalo Ranch, 258 Lamar Valley, 104 Lane, Franklin K., Secretary of the Interior, 264; report of, 267 Langford, Nathaniel P., 118 ff.; quoted, 129; comment on Hedges' remarks, 132; lectures, 134; advocacy of Park idea, 136 ff., 144, 164; made superintendent of Park, 238 LaNoue, Francis D., 273 Lapwai, 36; Indian Reservation, 166, 188 Larocque, Antoine, 31 Lava Creek, 86, 88, 296 Leigh, Richard ("Beaver Dick"), 238, 283 Leitner, William B., 138 Lewis and Clark, missed Yellowstone Park, 31 ff.; 41, 71, 165, 232; journals, 285 Lewis Lake, 98, 102 Lewis, Meriwether, 35, 57 Lewis, Samuel, 285 ff.; concealed map, 296 Libby, Rube, 104 Lincoln, Pres. Abraham, 225 Lincoln, Robert T., 191 Lindsley, C. A., 266, 273 Lion Geyser, 131 Lisa, Manuel, meets Colter, 36 ff., 56 _Literary Messenger_, 96 Little Bighorn, battle of, 152 ff. Little Bighorn River, 158 Little Plume, Chief, 150 Little Rosebud River, 184 Livingston, Montana, William Clark party, 31, 217 _Livingston Post_, 259 Livingston, Robert, 28 Logan, William B., 138 _London Times_, 142 Looking Class, Chief, 189 Lord, Cecil A., 212 Louisiana Purchase, 27 L'Ouverture, Toussaint, 28 Lower Falls of Yellowstone, 26 Lower Geyser Basin, 86 ff., 102; Folsom party, 118; Marshall House, 200 ff., 246 Lower Yellowstone River, 104 Ludlow, William, 242 Lynx Creek, 296 Lystrup, Herbert T., 264

M Madison Junction, 118; Washburn camp, 131, 144, 172; museum, 273 Madison River, 26, 32, 52; Bannock route, 88 ff., 101, 102; Nez Percé flight, 170, 181 Madison River Valley, 162 ff., 291 Mann, Charles, 172, 174 Many Wounds, 89 Mammoth Hot Springs, 88, 122; Hayden's visit, 138, 181 ff., 198, 205, 208; stores built, 216, 235, 241; museum, 273 Map of 1814, 41 ff., 285 ff. Maple Creek, 88 Marble, Charles, 198 Marias River Valley, 67 Marler, George, 264 Marsh, George P., 223 Marshall, J. W., 200 Marshall and Goff, 203 Mary Mountain, 85, 173, 204, 208 Mather, Stephen Tyng, 264 ff.; founded National Park Service, 269; monument to, 277 Matthews, Larry, 199 ff. Maximilian, Prince of Wied, 154 McBride, James, 273 McCartney, James C., 182 ff.; hotel, 202 McConnell, Pvt. George W., 121 McGuirck, Matthew, 203 McIntyre, Robert N., 12, 272 McKenzie, Kenneth, 68 Meek, Joe, 78, 93 Meldrum, Hon. John W., 248 Menard, Pierre, 56 Midway Geyser Basin, 87 Miles, Col. Nelson A., 158; pursuit of Nez Percé, 186 ff. Miller, F. W., 270 Miller Creek, 85 ff. Minaret Falls, 122 Ming, John, 162 Minnetaree Indian Village, 56 Missouri Fur Company, 32, 37; Bridger joins, 108 Missouri River, 31, 71, 137, 155; Nez Percé cross, 186, 223 Mitsiadazi, Minnetaree for Yellowstone, 31 Monarch Geyser, 198 Monida and Yellowstone Stage Line, 202 Monroe, James, 29 Montana, meaning of, 70; gold miners, 102; camps, 103, 157 ff., 186, 243; penitentiary, 250, 258, 260 Montana Post, 116 Monument Geyser Basin, 240 Moran, Thomas, 137, 139 Morgan, George W., 142 Mormons, 157, 217 Morning Glory Pool, 131 Morton, J. Sterling, 229 Mount Holmes, 86, 88; fire lookout, 253 Mount Washburn, 123, 176, 210; fire lookout, 253 Mud Volcano, 25, 50; Washburn's visit to, 124, 176, 180, 184, 298 Muir, John, quoted, 145, 222; praises soldiers, 262 Murdock, Nelson, 274 Murphy, Con, 164 Myers, Henry, 172

N National Association of Audubon Societies, 235 National Lumber Manufacturers' Association, 230 National Forest Service, 229 National Park Service, 211, 217; director of, 265 ff.; praised by visitors, 272; research and education, 270, 274, 277 Naturalist Division, 270 ff. _New York Tribune_, 120 New York Zoological Society, 225, 226 Nez Percé Creek, 85, 173 ff., 200 Nez Percé Indians, 66, 89; befriended Lewis and Clark, 165 ff.; in flight, 170 ff.; surrender, 189 Nichols, William M., 215 Noble, John W., 228 Norris Geyser Basin, 86, 87, 198, 200 ff.; visited by Langford, 239, 246; trapping in, 247 Norris Museum, 273 Norris, Philetus W., 85, 91; found trapper initials, 92; annual report, 202; road building, 208, 236, 240 ff. North American Cattle Company, 162 North Entrance Gate, 200, 201 Northeast Entrance, 212 Northern Pacific Railroad, 199 ff., 259

O Oastler, Frank R., 270 Obsidian Cliff, 86; Bridger story, 113, 208 Ogallala, Nebraska, 159 ff. Ogdens Hole, 81 Old Faithful Geyser, 29; named, 129 ff., 197; abuse of, 251 Old Faithful Inn, 199, 205, 264 Old Faithful Station, 210 Oldham, Albert, 172, 174, 178 _Omaha Herald_, 105 Omohondro, John ("Texas Jack"), 151, 195 Orange Mound, 241 Osborn, Henry Fairfield, 224, 233 Otter Creek, 181 ff., 269 Overhanging Cliff, 210 _Overland Monthly_, 137

P Pacific Creek, Colter's route on, 47, 296 Page, Andrew S., alias John Andrews, 247 Park Curio and Coffee Shop, 216 Parnell, Lieut. William R., 168, 169 Pass Creek, 47, 296 Paxson, Dr. Frederic L., 164 Peale, Dr. A. C., 25, 138 Pelican Cone fire lookout, 253 Pelican Creek, 50, 184; poaching on, 247, 298 Pemmican, 64 Perry, Capt. David, 168 ff. Peterson, William, 116 ff. Pfister, Frederick, 180 Piegan Indians, 99, 150 Pierre's Hole, 81 Pike, Zebulon M., 150 Pinchot, Gifford, 229 Piper, Edward, 159 Pleasant Valley, 203 Plummer, Henry, 163 Poker Joe, 173 ff. Pomeroy, Sen. Samuel C., 140 ff. Postal Service, 218 Potts and Colter attacked, 52 Potts, Daniel T., letter about geysers, 93 Potts, Robert, 93 Povah, Alfred H., 270 Powder River, 110, 157; cattle company, 162 Prairie Cattle Company, 162 Pritchett, George A., rescued Everts, 134 Protective Act, 145, 248, 254 Protestant church services, 217 Pryor, Anna K., 216 Pryors Fork, 42, 286 Pryors Gap, 42, 286 Purple Mountain fire lookout, 253

Q Quadrant Mountain, 88

R Radersburg, Montana, tourists from, 172, 176, 180 Railroads, 154 ff. Rainbow Pool, 131 Rain-in-the-Face, Chief, 158 Rawn, Capt. Charles C., 170 Raymond, Israel Ward, 225 Raymond, R. W., 126 Raynolds, Capt. W. F., 101 Red Cloud, Chief, 158, 161, 162 Redington, J. W., 177 Reebe, Charles, 250 Rendezvous, origin of, 81; description, 82 ff. Riverside Station, 27, 200, 203, 246 Roberts, Joseph, 180 ff. Roche Juane, French for Yellowstone, 31 Rocket Geyser, 131 Rocky Mountains, 51, 62, 67; trappers of, 71; "college," 74, 92, 141 Rocky Mountain Fur Company, 81, 93, 108 _Rocky Mountain Gazette_, 142 Rogers, Supt. Edmund B., 274 ff. Roosevelt, Pres. Theodore, dedicates arch, 200; conservation policies, 229 ff. Ross, Alexander, 66; describes trappers, 76; quoted, 148, 151 Russell, Dr. Carl P., 270 Russell, Osborne, journeys in the park, 96 ff.

S Sage, Mrs. Russell, 234 Sage Creek, 286 St. Louis, 56, 106, 285, 290 Salmon River Mountains, 67 Salt Fork, 296 Sand Creek Massacre, 157 San Ildefonso, treaty of, 28 Santa Fe Railroad, 154 Sapphire Pool, 131 Sapsucker, Chief, 69 Sawtelle, Gilman, 238 Sawyer, Edmund J., 270 Schonborn, Anton, 138 Schurz, Carl, 228 Scoda, Oscar, 196 Scott, Capt. George L., 247 Scotts Bluff National Park, 83 _Scribner's Magazine_, 120, 137 ff. Searight, George, 162 Shamp, Paul J., 47, 296 Sharps rifle, 154 Sheridan, Col. Michael V., 193 Sheridan, Gen. Phil H., 120, 144, 150, 157; with Pres. Arthur, 193; friend of Park, 245, 260 Sherman, Gen. William T., 157; tours Park, 170; praised Chief Joseph, 190 Shively, ----, 172, 184 Shoshone Indians, 59; description, 66, 88 Shoshone Lake, 90, 98, 102; visited by Folsom party, 118 Shoshone Point, 250 Shoshone River, 27; called Stinking Water, 40, 286; called Mick-ka-appa, 42, 104; South Fork of, 296 Sitting Bull, 158, 162, 187 Skinner, Curtis K., 273 Skinner, M. P., 270 Slough Creek, 261 Smith, Hoke, 242 Smith, Jacob, 120, 122, 132 Smith, Jedediah, 77, 93, 285 Smith, Willard E., 51 Smoot, Sen. Reed, 266 Snake Creek, 187 Snake River, South Fork of, 47, 90 ff.; Barlow visits, 139, 254, 259, 288, 296 Snake River Valley, North Fork explored by Henry, 32 ff., 66, 162, 291 Snow Pass, 88 Snowy Range, 30 Soda Butte, 246 Soda Butte Creek, 88, 104, 259 Solution Creek, 47, 296 South Arm of Lake, 47, 292, 296 South Entrance, 87, 202 South Pass, 34, 290 Splendid Geyser, 131 Spurgin, Capt. W. F., 208 Stagecoach, 195; drivers, 196 ff. Standing Rock Reservation, 158 Stager, Gen. Anson, 193 Stevens Creek Area, 274 Stevenson, James, 137 Stevenson Island, 87 Stewart, Jack, 180 Stickney, Benjamin, Jr., 120, 127, 163 Stock Growers Association, 162 Stone, Benjamin, 180 ff. Stone, H. H., 239 Story, Nelson, 161 Stuart, Granville, 103, 162 Stuart, James, 69, 103, 120, 151 Stuart, Robert, 34 Sturgis, Col. S. D., 184 ff. Sulphur Mountain, 180 Sundry Civil Bill, 245 Sunlight Creek, 286 Swan Land and Cattle Company, 162 Switzer, Charles, 250

T Targhee Forest, 66 Tarter, Bob, 163 Teller, Henry M., 222, 223 Terry, Gen. Alfred H., 158 Teton Mountains, 34, 123, 238, 274, 281 Texas long drive, 158, 193 "Texas Jack" (John Omohondro), 151, 195 Theller, Lieut. Edward R., 168 Thomas, Cyrus, 138 Thone, Dr. Frank E., 270 Thoreau, Henry D., 222, 223 Thorofare Creek, 47, 296 Three Forks, 26, 32, 44, 52, 56, 112 Thumb of Lake, 45, 99; Washburn camp, 129, 288 ff. Toll, Supt. Roger W., 274 Topaz Spring, 131 Topping, Capt. E. S., 203 Tower Creek, 88; Folsom party on, 117, 122 Tower Falls, 88, 104; named, 122 ff., 176, 208 Trafton, Edward B. (alias Ed Harrington), 251, 283 Trappers, nicknames of, 73, 81; "A. B. C.'s," 74; prayer of, 76; routine, 78; cache, 78; clothes, 79; rendezvous, 81, 82 ff. Tree, Judge Lambert, 204 Trischman, Elizabeth, 216 Trumbull, Sen. Lyman, 140 ff. Trumbull, Walter, 120 ff., 132, 137 Trunbull, Dr. C. S., 138 _Truthful Lies_, 214 Tu-hul-hul-sote, Chief, 166, 168; death of, 189 Tukuarika, Sheepeater Indians, 59; description, 67; disappearance, 86 Turban Geyser, 131 Twain, Mark, 30 Two Ocean Pass, 27, 47, 51, 87, 101, 296 TyGee, Chief, 66

U Um-till-lilp-cown, 174 Union Cattle Company, 162 Union Pacific Railroad, 202 Union Pass, 101, 290 Upper Geyser Basin, 94; missed by Bridger, 112; visited by Washburn, 129 ff.; store built, 216; Langford's second visit, 238, 246 Upper Yellowstone Falls, 26, 92 Upper Yellowstone River, 45, 47, 288, 296 Utah, meaning of, 70, 163 Utah Northern Railroad, 202

V Vandalism, 251 ff. Vaughn, Robert, describes Bridger, 107 Verendrye, Sieur de, 32 Vest, Sen. George G., 192 Victor, Frances Fuller, quoted, 81 Vigilantes, of Montana, 121, 163 Virginia City, Montana, 102, 116, 142, 181, 184, 200

W Wagon Box Massacre, 161 Wakefield, George W., 201 Wal-ait-its, 168 Wallowa Valley, 165, Walsh, Sen. Thomas J., 259 Ward, Charles W., 234 Warner, Charles D., 262 Washakie, Chief, 59 Washburn, Henry D., 103; briefed by Folsom, 118; in charge of expedition, 120 ff.; account of trip, 132; death, 137 Washburn-Langford-Doane Expedition, 30, 90, 116, 120 ff.; encounters rustlers, 163, 226 _Wasp, The_, 96 Waters, Col. E. C., 206 Watson, W. Verde, 264 Wayant, H. W., 104 Wear, David W., 204, 245 Wedded Trees, 261 Weikert, A. J., 180 ff. We-Saw, 86 West Entrance, 88, 200, 202, 208 West Thumb of Lake, 47, 50, 86, 210, 298 West Yellowstone, Montana, 202, 213 Western Air Lines, 213 _Western Monthly_, 120 White Bird, Chief, 166, 168 White Bird Canyon, 168 White Hawk, 89 Whitman, Dr. Marcus, 111 Whittaker, George, 221 Wilcox, Albert, 234 Wilcox, Hon. T. Paul, 248 Wilkie, Leslie, 180 ff. Williams, Pvt. John, 121 Willow Park, 193, 247 Wilson, Pres. Woodrow, 265 Winchester rifle, 154 Wind River Indian Trail, 87, 93 Wind River Mountains, 34, 69 Wind River Valley, 101, 162 Wohlbrandt, Philip H., 212 Woodring, Samuel T., 273 Woolsey, William, 196 Wylie, William W., 205 ff. "Wylie Way," 206 Wyoming, meaning of, 70, 157 ff., 243 Wyoming Stock Growers Association, 164

Y Yale University, 270 Yancey, "Uncle" John, 203 "Yankee Jim" (James George), 198, 283 Yeager, Dorr G., 270 Yellowstone Boat Company, 206 Yellowstone Canyon, 104, 114; visited by Folsom party, 118; described by Washburn, 123 ff., 246, 247, 261, 269 Yellowstone Canyon Hotel, 205 Yellowstone Lake, visited by Colter, 45 ff., 58, 85, 87; strange sounds above, 90, 104, 123; Washburn party exploration of, 126; Hayden party at, 139, 259, 288 ff. Yellowstone Lake Hotel, 205 Yellowstone National Park, act creating, 227; bill, 139 ff. (_see also_ Dedicatory Act); golden anniversary, 118; first superintendent, 238; Langford's second visit, 238 ff. Yellowstone Park Association, 201, 205 Yellowstone Park Company, 217 Yellowstone Park Improvement Company, 200 Yellowstone Park Stage Line, 201 Yellowstone Park Transportation Company, 201, 205, 214 ff. Yellowstone Plateau, 161, 162 Yellowstone Timber Reserve, 228 Yellowstone Valley, 176 Yep-pe Indians, 42 ff., 286 ff. Yosemite National Park, 141, 145, 225 ff. Yosemite School of Natural History, 270 Young, Brigham, 150 Yount, Harry, 241 Yount's Peak, 26

Transcriber's Notes

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