Chapter 12

THE POLES--FRANKLIN--ROSS--NORDENSKIOLD--NANSEN

Almost the whole of the explorations which we have hitherto described or referred to had for their motive some practical purpose, whether to reach the Spice Islands or to hunt big game. Even the excursions of Davis, Frobisher, Hudson, and Baffin in pursuit of the north-west passage, and of Barentz and Chancellor in search of the north-east passage, were really in pursuit of mercantile ends. It is only with James Cook that the era of purely scientific exploration begins, though it is fair to qualify this statement by observing that the Russian expedition under Behring, already referred to, was ordered by Peter the Great to determine a strictly geographical problem, though doubtless it had its bearings on Russian ambitions. Behring and Cook between them, as we have seen, settled the problem of the relations existing between the ends of the two continents Asia and America, but what remained still to the north of _terra firma_ within the Arctic Circle? That was the problem which the nineteenth century set itself to solve, and has very nearly succeeded in the solution. For the Arctic Circle we now possess maps that only show blanks over a few thousand square miles.

This knowledge has been gained by slow degrees, and by the exercise of the most heroic courage and endurance. It is a heroic tate, in which love of adventure and zeal for science have combated with and conquered the horrors of an Arctic winter, the six months' darkness in silence and desolation, the excessive cold, and the dangers of starvation. It is impossible here to go into any of the details which rendered the tale of Arctic voyages one of the most stirring in human history. All we are concerned with here is the amount of new knowledge brought back by successive expeditions within the Arctic Circle.

This region of the earth's surface is distinguished by a number of large islands in the eastern hemisphere, most of which were discovered at an early date. We have seen how the Norsemen landed and settled upon Greenland as early as the tenth century. Burrough sighted Nova Zembla in 1556; in one of the voyages in search of the north-east passage, though the very name (Russian for Newfoundland) implies that it had previously been sighted and named by Russian seamen. Barentz is credited with having sighted Spitzbergen. The numerous islands to the north of Siberia became known through the Russian investigations of Discheneff, Behring, and their followers; while the intricate network of islands to the north of the continent of North America had been slowly worked out during the search for the north-west passage. It was indeed in pursuit of this will-of-the-wisp that most of the discoveries in the Arctic Circle were made, and a general impetus given to Arctic exploration.

It is with a renewed attempt after this search that the modern history of Arctic exploration begins. In 1818 two expeditions were sent under the influence of Sir Joseph Banks to search the north-west passage, and to attempt to reach the Pole. The former was the objective of John Ross in the _Isabella_ and W. E. Parry in the _Alexander_, while in the Polar exploration John Franklin sailed in the _Trent_. Both expeditions were unsuccessful, though Ross and Parry confirmed Baffin's discoveries. Notwithstanding this, two expeditions were sent two years later to attempt the north-west passage, one by land under Franklin, and the other by sea under Parry. Parry managed to get half-way across the top of North America, discovered the archipelago named after him, and reached 114° West longitude, thereby gaining the prize of £5000 given by the British Parliament for the first seaman that sailed west of the 110th meridian. He was brought up, however, by Banks Land, while the strait which, if he had known it, would have enabled him to complete the north-west passage, was at that time closed by ice. In two successive voyages, in 1822 and 1824, Parry increased the detailed knowledge of the coasts he had already discovered, but failed to reach even as far westward as he had done on his first voyage. This somewhat discouraged Government attempts at exploration, and the next expedition, in 1829, was fitted out by Mr. Felix Booth, sheriff of London, who despatched the paddle steamer _Victory_, commanded by John Ross. He discovered the land known as Boothia Felix, and his nephew, James C. Ross, proved that it belonged to the mainland of America, which he coasted along by land to Cape Franklin, besides determining the exact position of the North Magnetic Pole at Cape Adelaide, on Boothia Felix. After passing five years within the Arctic Circle, Ross and his companions, who had been compelled to abandon the _Victory_, fell in with a whaler, which brought them home.

We must now revert to Franklin, who, as we have seen, had been despatched by the Admiralty to outline the north coast of America, only two points of which had been determined, the embouchures of the Coppermine and the Mackenzie, discovered respectively by Hearne and Mackenzie. It was not till 1821 that Franklin was able to start out from the mouth of the Coppermine eastward in two canoes, by which he coasted along till he came to the point named by him Point Turn-again. By that time only three days' stores of pemmican remained, and it was only with the greatest difficulty, and by subsisting on lichens and scraps of roasted leather, that they managed to return to their base of operations at Fort Enterprise. Four years later, in 1825, Franklin set out on another exploring expedition with the same object, starting this time from the mouth of the Mackenzie river, and despatching one of his companions, Richardson, to connect the coast between the Mackenzie and the Coppermine; while he himself proceeded westward to meet the Blossom, which, under Captain Beechey, had been despatched to Behring Strait to bring his party back. Richardson was entirely successful in examining the coast-line between the Mackenzie and the Coppermine; but Beechey, though he succeeded in rounding Icy Cape and tracing the coast as far as Point Barrow, did not come up to Franklin, who had only got within 160 miles at Return Reef. These 160 miles, as well as the 222 miles intervening between Cape Turn-again, Franklin's easternmost point by land, and Cape Franklin, J. C. Ross's most westerly point, were afterwards filled in by T. Simpson in 1837, after a coasting voyage in boats of 1408 miles, which stands as a record even to this day. Meanwhile the Great Fish River had been discovered and followed to its mouth by C. J. Back in 1833. During the voyage down the river, an oar broke while the boat was shooting a rapid, and one of the party commenced praying in a loud voice; whereupon the leader called out: "Is this a time for praying? Pull your starboard oar!"

Meanwhile, interest had been excited rather more towards the South Pole, and the land of which Cook had found traces in his search for the fabled Australian continent surrounding it. He had reached as far south as 71.10°, when he was brought up by the great ice barrier. In 1820-23 Weddell visited the South Shetlands, south of Cape Horn, and found an active volcano, even amidst the extreme cold of that district. He reached as far south as 74°, but failed to come across land in that district. In 1839 Bellany discovered the islands named after him, with a volcano twelve thousand feet high, and another still active on Buckle Island. In 1839 a French expedition under Dumont d'Urville again visited and explored the South Shetlands; while, in the following year, Captain Wilkes, of the United States navy, discovered the land named after him. But the most remarkable discovery made in Antarctica was that of Sir J. C. Ross, who had been sent by the Admiralty in 1840 to identify the South Magnetic Pole, as we have seen he had discovered that of the north. With the two ships _Erebus_ and _Terror_ he discovered Victoria Land and the two active volcanoes named after his ships, and pouring forth flaming lava, amidst the snow. In January 1842 he reached farthest south, 76°. Since his time little has been attempted in the south, though in the winter of 1894-95 C. E. Borchgrevink again visited Victoria Land.

On the return of the _Erebus_ and _Terror_ from the South Seas the government placed these two vessels at the disposal of Franklin (who had been knighted for his previous discoveries), and on the 26th of May 1845 he started with one hundred and twenty-nine souls on board the two vessels, which were provisioned up to July 1848. They were last seen by a whaler on the 26th July of the former year waiting to pass into Lancaster Sound. After penetrating as far north as 77°, through Wellington Channel, Franklin was obliged to winter upon Beechey Island, and in the following year (September 1846) his two ships were beset in Victoria Strait, about twelve miles from King William Land. Curiously enough, in the following year (1847) J. Rae had been despatched by land from Cape Repulse in Hudson's Bay, and had coasted along the east coast of Boothia, thus connecting Ross's and Franklin's coast journeys with Hudson's Bay. On 18th April 1847 Rae had reached a point on Boothia less than 150 miles from Franklin on the other side of it. Less than two months later, on the 11th June, Franklin died on the _Erebus_. His ships were only provisioned to July 1848, and remained still beset throughout the whole of 1847. Crozier, upon whom the command devolved, left the ship with one hundred and five survivors to try and reach Back's Fish River. They struggled along the west coast of King William Land, but failed to reach their destination; disease, and even starvation, gradually lessened their numbers. An old Eskimo woman, who had watched the melancholy procession, afterwards told M'Clintock they fell down and died as they walked.

By this time considerable anxiety had been roused by the absence of any news from Franklin's party. Richardson and Rae were despatched by land in 1848, while two ships were sent on the attempt to reach Franklin through Behring Strait, and two others, the _Investigator_ and the _Enterprise_, under J. C. Ross, through Baffin Bay. Rae reached the east coast of Victoria Land, and arrived within fifty miles of the spot where Franklin's two ships had been abandoned; but it was not till his second expedition by land, which started in 1853, that he obtained any news. After wintering at Lady Pelly Bay, on the 20th April 1854 Rae met a young Eskimo, who told him that four years previously forty white men had been seen dragging a boat to the south on the west shore of King William Land, and a few months later the bodies of thirty of these men had been found by the Eskimo, who produced silver with the Franklin crest to confirm the truth of their statement. Further searches by land were continued up to as late as 1879, when Lieutenant F. Schwatka, of the United States army, discovered several of the graves and skeletons of the Franklin expedition.

Neither of the two attempts by sea from the Atlantic or from the Pacific base, in 1848, having succeeded in gaining any news, the _Enterprise_ and the _Investigator_, which had previously attempted to reach Franklin from the east, were despatched in 1850, under Captain R. Collinson and Captain M'Clure; to attempt the search from the west through Behring Strait. M'Clure, in the _Investigator_, did not wait for Collinson, as he had been directed, but pushed on and discovered Banks Land, and became beset in the ice in Prince of Wales Strait. In the winter of 1850-51 he endeavoured unsuccessfully to work his way from this strait into Parry Sound, but in August and September 1851 managed to coast round Banks Land to its most north-westerly point, and then succeeded in passing through the strait named after M'Clure, and reached Barrow Strait, thus performing for the first time the north-west passage, though it was not till 1853 that the _Investigator_ was abandoned. Collinson, in the _Enterprise_, followed M'Clure closely, though never reaching him, and attempting to round Prince Albert Land by the south through Dolphin Strait, reached Cambridge Bay at the nearest point by ship of all the Franklin expeditions. He had to return westward, and only reached England in 1855, after an absence of five years and four months.

From the east no less than ten vessels had attempted the Franklin sea search in 1851, comprising two Admiralty expeditions, one private English one, an American combined government and private party, together with a ship put in commission by the wifely devotion of Lady Franklin. These all attempted the search of Lancaster Sound, where Franklin had last been seen, and they only succeeded in finding three graves of men who had died at an early stage, and had been buried on Beechey Island. Another set of four vessels were despatched under Sir Edward Belcher in 1852, who were fortunate enough to reach M'Clure in the _Investigator_ in the following year, and enabled him to complete the north-west passage, for which he gained the reward of £10,000 offered by Parliament in 1763. But Belcher was obliged to abandon most of his vessels, one of which, the _Resolute_, drifted over a thousand miles, and having been recovered by an American whaler, was refitted by the United States and presented to the queen and people of Great Britain.

Notwithstanding all these efforts, the Franklin remains have not yet been discovered, though Dr. Rae, as we have seen, had practically ascertained their terrible fate. Lady Franklin, however, was not satisfied with this vague information. She was determined to fit out still another expedition, though already over £35,000 had been spent by private means, mostly from her own personal fortune; and in 1857 the steam yacht _Fox_ was despatched under M'Clintock, who had already shown himself the most capable master of sledge work. He erected a monument to the Franklin expedition on Beechey Island in 1858, and then following Peel Sound, he made inquiries of the natives throughout the winter of 1858-59. This led him to search King William Land, where, on the 25th May, he came across a bleached human skeleton lying on its face, showing that the man had died as he walked. Meanwhile, Hobson, one of his companions, discovered a record of the Franklin expedition, stating briefly its history between 1845 and 1848; and with this definite information of the fate of the Franklin expedition M'Clintock returned to England in 1859, having succeeded in solving the problem of Franklin's fate, while exploring over 800 miles of coast-line in the neighbourhood of King William Land.

The result of the various Franklin expeditions had thus been to map out the intricate network of islands dotted over the north of North America. None of these, however, reached much farther north than 75°.

Only Smith Sound promised to lead north of the 80th parallel. This had been discovered as early as 1616 by Baffin, whose farthest north was only exceeded by forty miles, in 1852, by Inglefield in the _Isabel_, one of the ships despatched in search of Franklin. He was followed up by Kane in the _Advance_, fitted out in 1853 by the munificence of two American citizens, Grinnell and Peabody. Kane worked his way right through Smith Sound and Robeson Channel into the sea named after him. For two years he continued investigating Grinnell Land and the adjacent shores of Greenland. Subsequent investigations by Hayes in 1860, and Hall ten years later, kept alive the interest in Smith Sound and its neighbourhood; and in 1873 three ships were despatched under Captain (afterwards Sir George) Nares, who nearly completed the survey of Grinnell Land, and one of his lieutenants, Pelham Aldrich, succeeded in reaching 82.48° N. About the same time, an Austrian expedition under Payer and Weyprecht explored the highest known land, much to the east, named by them Franz Josef Land, after the Austrian Emperor.

Simultaneously interest in the northern regions was aroused by the successful exploit of the north-east passage by Professor (afterwards Baron) Nordenskiold, who had made seven or eight voyages in Arctic regions between 1858 and 1870. He first established the possibility of passing from Norway to the mouth of the Yenesei in the summer, making two journeys in 1875-76. These have since been followed up for commercial purposes by Captain Wiggins, who has frequently passed from England to the mouth of the Yenesei in a merchant vessel. As Siberia develops there can be little doubt that this route will become of increasing commercial importance. Professor Nordenskiold, however, encouraged by his easy passage to the Yenesei, determined to try to get round into Behring Strait from that point, and in 1878 he started in the _Vega_, accompanied by the _Lena_, and a collier to supply them with coal. On the 19th August they passed Cape Chelyuskin, the most northerly point of the Old World. From here the _Lena_ appropriately turned its course to the mouth of its namesake, while the _Vega_ proceeded on her course, reaching on the 12th September Cape North, within 120 miles of Behring Strait; this cape Cook had reached from the east in 1778. Unfortunately the ice became packed so closely that they could not proceed farther, and they had to remain in this tantalising condition for no less than ten months. On the 18th July 1879 the ice broke up, and two days later the _Vega_ rounded East Cape with flying colours, saluting the easternmost coast of Asia in honour of the completion of the north-east passage. Baron Nordenskiold has since enjoyed a well-earned leisure from his arduous labours in the north by studying and publishing the history of early cartography, on which he has issued two valuable atlases, containing fac-similes of the maps and charts of the Middle Ages.

General interest thus re-aroused in Arctic exploration brought about a united effort of all the civilised nations to investigate the conditions of the Polar regions. An international Polar Conference was held at Hamburg in 1879, at which it was determined to surround the North Pole for the years 1882-83 by stations of scientific observation, intended to study the conditions of the Polar Ocean. No less than fifteen expeditions were sent forth; some to the Antarctic regions, but most of them round the North Pole. Their object was more to subserve the interest of physical geography than to promote the interest of geographical discovery; but one of the expeditions, that of the United States under Lieutenant A. W. Greely, again took up the study of Smith Sound and its outlets, and one of his men, Lieutenant Lockwood, succeeded in reaching 83.24° N., within 450 miles of the Pole, and up to that time the farthest north reached by any human being. The Greely expedition also succeeded in showing that Greenland was not so much ice-capped as ice-surrounded.

Hitherto the universal method by which discoveries had been made in the Polar regions was to establish a base at which sufficient food was cached, then to push in any required direction as far as possible, leaving successive caches to be returned to when provisions fell short on the forward journey. But in 1888, Dr. Fridjof Nansen determined on a bolder method of investigating the interior of Greenland. He was deposited upon the east coast, where there were no inhabitants, and started to cross Greenland, his life depending upon the success of his journey, since he left no reserves in the rear and it would be useless to return. He succeeded brilliantly in his attempt, and his exploit was followed up by two successive attempts of Lieutenant Peary in 1892-95, who succeeded in crossing Greenland at much higher latitude even than Nansen.

The success of his bold plan encouraged Dr. Nansen to attempt an even bolder one. He had become convinced, from the investigations conducted by the international Polar observations of 1882-83, that there was a continuous drift of the ice across the Arctic Ocean from the north-east shore of Siberia. He was confirmed in this opinion, by the fact that debris from the _Jeannette_, a ship abandoned in 1881 off the Siberian coast, drifted across to the east coast of Greenland by 1884. He had a vessel built for him, the now-renowned _Fram_, especially intended to resist the pressure of the ice. Hitherto it had been the chief aim of Arctic explorations to avoid besetment, and to try and creep round the land shores. Dr. Nansen was convinced that he could best attain his ends by boldly disregarding these canons and trusting to the drift of the ice to carry him near to the Pole. He reckoned that the drift would take some three years, and provisioned the _Fram_ for five. The results of his venturous voyage confirmed in almost every particular his remarkable plan, though it was much scouted in many quarters when first announced. The drift of the ice carried him across the Polar Sea within the three years he had fixed upon for the probable duration of his journey; but finding that the drift would not carry him far enough north, he left the _Fram_ with a companion, and advanced straight towards the Pole, reaching in April 1895 farthest north, 86.14°, within nearly 200 miles of the Pole. On his return journey he was lucky enough to come across Mr. F. Jackson, who in the _Windward_ had established himself in 1894 in Franz Josef Land. The rencontre of the two intrepid explorers forms an apt parallel of the celebrated encounter of Stanley and Livingstone, amidst entirely opposite conditions of climate.

Nansen's voyage is for the present the final achievement of Arctic exploration, but his Greenland method of deserting his base has been followed by Andrée, who in the autumn of 1897 started in a balloon for the Pole, provisioned for a long stay in the Arctic regions. Nothing has been heard of him for the last twelve months, but after the example of Dr. Nansen there is no reason to fear just at present for his safety, and the present year may possibly see his return after a successful carrying out of one of the great aims of geographical discovery. It is curious that the attention of the world should be at the present moment directed to the Arctic regions for the two most opposite motives that can be named, lust for gold and the thirst for knowledge and honour.

[_Authorities:_ Greely, _Handbook of Arctic Discoveries_, 1896.]

ANNALS OF DISCOVERY

B.C. _cir._ 600. Marseilles founded. 570. Anaximander of Miletus invents maps and the gnomon. 501. Hecatæus of Miletus writes the first geography. 450. Himilco the Carthaginian said to have visited Britain. 446. Herodotus describes Egypt and Scythia. _cir._ 450. Hanno the Carthaginian sails down the west coast of Africa as far as Sierra Leone. _cir._ 333. Pytheas visits Britain and the Low Countries. 332. Alexander conquers Persia and visits India. 330. Nearchus sails from the Indus to the Arabian Gulf. _cir._ 300. Megasthenes describes the Punjab. _cir._ 200. Eratosthenes founds scientific geography. 100. Marinus of Tyre, founder of mathematical geography. 60-54. Cæsar conquers Gaul; visits Britain, Switzerland, and Germany. 20. Strabo describes the Roman Empire. First mention of Thule and Ireland. _bef._ 12. Agrippa compiles a _Mappa Mundi_, the foundation of all succeeding ones.

A.D. 150. Ptolemy publishes his geography. 230. The Peutinger Table pictures the Roman roads. 400-14. Fa-hien travels through and describes Afghanistan and India. 499. Hoei-Sin said to have visited the kingdom of Fu-sang, 20,000 furlongs east of China (identified by some with California). 518-21. Hoei-Sing and Sung-Yun visit and describe the Pamirs and the Punjab. 540. Cosmas Indicopleustes visits India, and combats the sphericity of the globe. 629-46. Hiouen-Tshang travels through Turkestan, Afghanistan, India, and the Pamirs. 671-95. I-tsing travels through and describes Java, Sumatra, and India. 776. The _Mappa Mundi_ of Beatus. 851-916. Suláimán and Abu Zaid visit China. 861. Naddod discovers Iceland. 884. Ibn Khordadbeh describes the trade routes between Europe and Asia. _cir._ 890. Wulfstan and athere sail to the Baltic and the North Cape. _cir._ 900. Gunbiörn discovers Greenland. 912-30. The geographer Mas'udi describes the lands of Islam, from Spain to Further India, in his "Meadows of Gold." 921. Ahmed Ibn Fozlan describes the Russians. 969. Ibn Haukal composes his book on Ways. 985. Eric the Red colonises Greenland. _cir._1000. Lyef, son of Eric the Red, discovers Newfoundland (Helluland), Nova Scotia (Markland), and the mainland of North America (Vinland). 1111. Earliest use of the water-compass by Chinese. 1154. Edrisi, geographer to King Roger of Sicily, produces his geography. 1159-73. Rabbi Benjamin of Tudela visited the Persian Gulf; reported on India. _cir._1180. The compass first mentioned by Alexander Neckam. 1255. William Ruysbroek (Rubruquis), a Fleming, visits Karakorum. 1260-71. The brothers Nicolo and Maffeo Polo, father and uncle of Marco Polo, make their first trading venture through Central Asia. 1271-95. They make their second journey, accompanied by Marco Polo; and about 1275 arrived at the Court of Kublai Khan in Shangfu, whence Marco Polo was entrusted with several missions to Cochin China, Khanbalig (Pekin), and the Indian Seas. 1280. Hereford map of Richard of Haldingham. 1284. The Ebstorf _Mappa Mundi_. _bef._1290. The normal Portulano compiled in Barcelona. 1292. Friar John of Monte Corvino, travels in India, and afterwards becomes Archbishop of Pekin. 1325-78. Ibn Batuta, an Arab of Tangier, after performing the Mecca pilgrimage through N. Africa, visits Syria, Quiloa (E. Africa), Ormuz, S. Russia, Bulgaria, Khiva, Candahar, and attached himself to the Court of Delhi, 1334-42, whence he was despatched on an embassy to China. After his return he visited Timbuctoo. 1316-30. Odorico di Pordenone, a Minorite friar, travelled through India, by way of Persia, Bombay, and Surat, to Malabar, the Coromandel coast, and thence to China and Tibet. 1320. Flavio Gioja of Amalfi invents the compass box and card. 1312-31. Abulfeda composes his geography. 1327-72. Sir John Mandeville said to have written his travels in India. 1328. Friar Jordanus of Severac. Bishop of Quilon. 1328-49. John de Marignolli, a Franciscan friar, made a mission to China, visited Quilon in 1347, and made a pilgrimage to the shrine of St. Thomas in India in 1349. 1339. Angelico Dulcert of Majorca draws a Portulano. 1351. The Medicean Portulano compiled. 1375. Cresquez, the Jew, of Majorca, improves Dulcert's Portulano (Catalan map). _cir._1400. Jehan Bethencourt re-discovers the Canaries. 1419. Prince Henry the Navigator establishes a geographical seminary at Sagres (died 1460). 1419-40. Nicolo Conti, a noble Venetian, travelled throughout Southern India and along the Bombay coast. 1420. Zarco discovers Madeira. 1432. Gonsalo Cabral re-discovers the Azores. 1442. Nuño Tristão reaches Cape de Verde. 1442-44. Abd-ur-Razzak, during an embassy to India, visited Calicut, Mangalore, and Vijayanagar. 1457. Fra Mauro's map. 1462. Pedro de Cintra reaches Sierra Leone. 1468-74. Athanasius Nikitin, a Russian, travelled from the Volga, through Central Asia and Persia, to Gujerat, Cambay, and Chaul, whence he proceeded inland to Bidar and Golconda. 1471. Fernando Poo discovers his island. 1471. Pedro d'Escobar crosses the line. 1474. Toscanelli's map (foundation of Behaim globe and Columbus' guide). 1478. Second printed edition of Ptolemy, with twenty-seven maps--practically the first atlas. 1484. Diego Cam discovers the Congo. 1486. Bartholomew Diaz rounds the Cape of Good Hope. 1487. Pedro de Covilham visits Ormuz, Goa, and Malabar, and afterwards settled in Abyssinia. 1492. Martin Behaim makes his globe. 1492. 6th September. Columbus starts from the Canaries. 1492. 12th October. Columbus lands at San Salvador (Watling Island). 1493. 3rd May. Bull of partition between Spain and Portugal issued by Pope Alexander VI. 1493. September. Columbus on his second voyage discovers Jamaica. 1494-99. Hieronimo di Santo Stefano, a Genoese, visited Malabar and the Coromandel coast, Ceylon and Pegu. 1497. Vasco da Gama rounds the Cape, sees Natal (Christmas Day) and Mozambique, lands at Zanzibar, and crosses to Calicut. 1497. John Cabot re-discovers Newfoundland. 1498. Columbus on his third voyage discovers Trinidad and the Orinoco. 1499. Amerigo Vespucci discovers Venezuela. 1499. Pinzon discovers mouth of Amazon, and doubles Cape St. Roque. 1500. Pedro Cabral discovers Brazil on his way to Calicut. 1500. First map of the New World, by Juan de la Cosa. 1500. Corte Real lands at mouth of St. Lawrence, and re-discovers Labrador. 1501. Vespucci coasts down S. America and proves that it is a New World. 1501. Tristan d'Acunha discovers his island. 1501. Juan di Nova discovers the island of Ascension. 1502. Bermudez discovers his islands. 1502-4. Columbus on his fourth voyage explores Honduras. 1503-8. Travels of Ludovico di Varthema in Further India. 1505. Mascarenhas discovers the islands of Bourbon and Mauritius. 1507. Martin Waldseemüller proposes to call the New World America in his _Cosmographia_. 1509. Malacca visited by Lopes di Sequira. 1512. Molucca, or Spice Islands, visited by Francisco Serrão. 1513. Strasburg Ptolemy contains twenty new maps by Waldseemüller, forming the first modern atlas. 1513. Ponce de Leon discovers Florida. 1513. Vasco Nuñez de Balbao crosses the Isthmus of Panama, and sees the Pacific. 1517. Sebastian Cabot said to have discovered Hudson's Bay. 1517. Juan Diaz de Solis discovers the Rio de la Plata, and is murdered on the island of Martin Garcia. 1518. Grijalva discovers Mexico. 1519. Fernando Cortez conquers Mexico. 1519. Fernando Magellan starts on the circumnavigation of the globe. 1519. Guray explores north coast of Gulf of Mexico. 1520. Schoner's second globe. 1520. Magellan sees Monte Video, discovers Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego, and traverses the Pacific. 1520-26. Alvarez explores the Soudan. 1521. Magellan discovers the Ladrones (Marianas), and is killed on the Philippines. 1522. Magellan's ship _Victoria_, under Sebastian del Cano, reaches Spain, having circumnavigated the globe in three years. 1524. Verazzano, on behalf of the French King, coasts from Cape Fear to New Hampshire. 1527. Saavedra sails from west coast of Mexico to the Moluccas. 1529. Line of demarcation between Spanish and Portuguese fixed at 17° east of Moluccas. 1531. Francisco Pizarro conquers Peru. 1532. Cortez visits California. 1534. Jacques Cartier explores the gull and river of St. Lawrence. 1535. Diego d'Almagro conquers Chili. 1536. Gonsalo Pizarro passes the Andes. 1537-58. Ferdinand Mendez Pinto travels to Abyssinia, India, the Malay Archipelago, China, and Japan. 1538. Gerhardt Mercator begins his career as geographer. (Globe, 1541; projection, 1569; died 1594; atlas, 1595). 1539. Francesco de Ulloa explores the Gulf of California. 1541. Orellana sails down the Amazon. 1542. Ruy Lopez de Villalobos discovers New Philippines, Garden Islands, and Pelew Islands, and takes possession of the Philippines for Spain. 1542. Cabrillo advances as far as Cape Mendocino. 1542. Japan first visited by Antonio de Mota. 1542. Gaetano sees the Sandwich Islands. 1543. Ortez de Retis discovers New Guinea. 1544. Sebastian Munster's _Cosmographia_. 1549. Bareto and Homera explore the lower Zambesi. 1553. Sir Hugh Willoughby attempts the North-East Passage past North Cape, and sights Novaya Zemlya. 1554. Richard Chancellor, Willoughby's pilot, reaches Archangel, and travels overland to Moscow. 1556-72. Antonio Laperis' atlas published at Rome. 1558. Anthony Jenkinson travels from Moscow to Bokhara. 1567. Alvaro Mendaña discovers Solomon Islands. 1572. Juan Fernandez discovers his island, and St. Felix and St. Ambrose Islands. 1573. Abraham Ortelius' _Teatrum Orbis Terrarum_. 1576. Martin Frobisher discovers his bay. 1577-79. Francis Drake circumnavigates the globe, and explores the west coast of North America. 1579. Yermak Timovief seizes Sibir on the Irtish. 1580. Dutch settle in Guiana. 1586. John Davis sails through his strait, and reaches lat. 72° N. 1590. Battel visits the lower Congo. 1592. The Molyneux globe. 1592. Juan de Fuca imagines he has discovered an immense sea in the north-west of North America. 1596. William Barentz discovers Spitzbergen, and reaches lat. 80° N. 1596. Payz traverses the Horn of Africa, and visits the source of the Blue Nile. 1598. Mendaña discovers Marquesas Islands. 1598. Hakluyt publishes his _Principal Navigations_. 1599. Houtman reaches Achin, in Sumatra. 1603. Stephen Bennett re-discovers Cherry Island, 74.13° N. 1605. Louis Vaes de Torres discovers his strait. 1606. Quiros discovers Tahiti and north-east coast of Australia. 1608. Champlain discovers Lake Ontario. 1609. Henry Hudson discovers his river. 1610. Hudson passes through his strait into his bay. 1611. Jan Mayen discovers his island. 1615. Lemaire rounds Cape Horn (Hoorn), and sees New Britain. 1616. Dirk Hartog coasts West Australia to 27° S. 1616. Baffin discovers his bay. 1618. George Thompson, a Barbary merchant, sails up the Gambia. 1619. Edel and Houtman coast Western Australia to 32-1/2° S. (Edel's Land). 1622. Dutch ship _Leeuwin_ reaches south-west cape of Australia. 1623. Lobo explores Abyssinia. 1627. Peter Nuyts discovers his archipelago. 1630. First meridian of longitude fixed at Ferro, in the Canary Islands. 1631. Fox explores Hudson's Bay. 1638. W. J. Blaeu's _Atlas_. 1639. Kupiloff crosses Siberia to the east coast. 1642. Abel Jansen Tasman discovers Van Diemen's Land (Tasmania) and Staaten Land (New Zealand). 1642. Wasilei Pojarkof traces the course of the Amur. 1643. Hendrik Brouwer identifies New Zealand. 1643. Tasman discovers Fiji. 1645. Michael Staduchin reaches the Kolima. 1645. Nicolas Sanson's atlas. 1645. Italian Capuchin Mission explores the lower Congo. 1648. The Cossack Dishinef sails between Asia and America. 1650. Staduchin reaches the Anadir, and meets Dishinef. 1682. La Salle descends the Mississippi. 1696. Russians reach Kamtschatka. 1699. Dampier discovers his strait. 1700. Delisle's maps. 1701. Sinpopoff describes the land of the Tschutkis. 1718. Jesuit map of China and East Asia published by the Emperor Kang-hi. 1721. Hans Egédé re-settles Greenland. 1731. Hadley invented the sextant. 1731. Krupishef sails round Kamtschatka. 1731. Paulutski travels round the north-east corner of Siberia. 1735-37. Maupertuis measures an arc of the meridian. 1739-44. Lord George Anson circumnavigates the globe. 1740. Varenne de la Véranderye discovers the Rocky Mountains. 1741. Behring discovers his strait. 1742. Chelyuskin discovers his cape. 1743-44. La Condamine explores the Amazon. 1745-61. Bourguignon d'Anville produces his maps. 1761-67. Carsten Niebuhr surveys Arabia. 1764. John Byron surveys the Falkland Islands. 1765. Harrison perfects the chronometer. 1767. First appearance of the _Nautical Almanac_. 1768. Carteret discovers Pitcairn Island, and sails through St. George's Channel, between New Britain and New Ireland. 1768-71. Cook's first voyage; discovers New Zealand and east coast of Australia; passes through Torres Strait. 1769-71. Hearne traces river Coppermine. 1769-71. James Bruce re-discovers the source of the Blue Nile in Abyssinia. 1770. Liakhoff discovers the New Siberian Islands. 1771-72. Pallas surveys West and South Siberia. 1776-79. Cook's third voyage; surveys North-West Passage; discovers Owhyhee (Hawaii), where he was killed. 1785-88. La Pérouse surveys north-east coast of Asia and Japan, discovers Saghalien, and completes delimitation of the ocean. 1785-94. Billings surveys East Siberia. 1787-88. Lesseps surveys Kamtschatka and crosses the Old World from east to west. 1788. The African Association founded. 1789-93. Mackenzie discovers his river, and first crosses North America. 1792. Vancouver explores his island. 1793. Browne reaches Darfur, and reports the existence of the White Nile. 1796. Mungo Park reaches the Niger. 1796. Lacerda explores Mozambique. 1797. Bass discovers his strait. 1799-1804. Alexander von Humboldt explores South America. 1800-4. Lewis and Clarke explore the basin of the Missouri. 1801-4. Flinders coasts south coast of Australia. 1805-7. Pike explores the country between the sources of the Mississippi and the Red River. 1810-29. Malte-Brun publishes his _Géographic Universelle_. 1814. Evans discovers Lachlan and Macquarie rivers. 1816. Captain Smith discovers South Shetland Isles. 1817-20. Spix and Martius explore Brazil. 1817. First edition of Stieler's atlas. 1817-22. Captain King maps the coast-line of Australia. 1819-22. Franklin, Back, and Richardson attempt the North-West Passage by land. 1819. Parry discovers Lancaster Strait and reaches 114° W. 1820-23. Wrangel discovers his land. 1821. Bellinghausen discovers Peter Island, the most southerly land then known. 1822. Denham and Clapperton discover Lake Tchad, and visit Sokoto. 1822-23. Scoresby explores the coast of East Greenland. 1823. Weddell reaches 74.15° S. 1826. Major Laing is murdered at Timbuctoo. 1827. Parry reaches 82.45° N. 1827. Réné Caillié visits Timbuctoo. 1828-31. Captain Sturt traces the Darling and the Murray. 1829-33. Ross attempts the North-West Passage; discovers Boothia Felix. 1830. Royal Geographical Society founded, and next year united with the African Association. 1831-35. Schomburgk explores Guiana. 1831. Captain Biscoe discovers Enderby Land. 1833. Back discovers Great Fish River. 1835-49. Junghuhn explores Java. 1837. T. Simpson coasts along the north mainland of North America 1277 miles. 1838-40. Wood explores the sources of the Oxus. 1838-40. Dumont d'Urvilie discovers Louis-Philippe Land and Adélie Land. 1839. Balleny discovers his island. 1839. Count Strzelecki discovers Gipps' Land. 1840. Captain Sturt travels in Central Australia. 1840-42. James Ross reaches 78.10° S.; discovers Victoria Land, and the volcanoes Erebus and Terror. 1841. Eyre traverses south of Western Australia. 1842-62. E. F. Jomard's _Monuments de la Géographie_ published. 1843-47. Count Castelnau traces the source of the Paraguay. 1844. Leichhardt explores Southern Australia. 1845. Huc explores Tibet. 1845. Petermann's _Mittheilungen_ first published. 1845-47. Franklin's last voyage. 1846. First edition of K. v. Spruner's _Historische Handatlas_. 1847. J. Rae connects Hudson's Bay with east coast of Boothia. 1848. Leichhardt attempts to traverse Australia, and disappears. 1849-56. Livingstone traces the Zambesi and crosses South Africa. 1850-54. M'Clure succeeds in the North-West Passage. 1850-55. Barth explores the Soudan. 1853. Dr. Kane explores Smith's Sound. 1854. Rae hears news of the Franklin expedition from the Eskimo. 1854-65. Faidherbe explores Senegambia. 1856-57. The brothers Schlagintweit cross the Himalayas, Tibet, and Kuen Lun. 1856-59. Du Chaillu travels in Central Africa. 1857-59. M'Clintock discovers remains of the Franklin expedition, and explores King William Land. 1858. Burton and Speke discover Lake Tanganyika, and Speke sees Lake Victoria Nyanza. 1858-64. Livingstone traces Lake Nyassa. 1859. Valikhanoft reaches Kashgar. 1860. Burke travels from Victoria to Carpentaria. 1860. Grant and Speke, returning from Lake Victoria Nyanza, meet Baker coming up the Nile. 1861-62. M'Douall Stuart traverses Australia from south to north. 1863. W. G. Palgrave explores Central and Eastern Arabia. 1864. Baker discovers Lake Albert Nyanza. 1868. Nordenskiold reaches his highest point in Greenland, 81.42°. 1868-71. Ney Elias traverses Mid-China. 1868-74. John Forrest penetrates from Western to Central Australia. 1869-71. Schweinfurth explores the Southern Soudan. 1869-74. Nachtigall explores east of Tchad. 1870. Fedchenko discovers Transalai, north of Pamir. 1870. Douglas Forsyth reaches Yarkand. 1871-88. The four explorations of Western China by Prjevalsky. 1872-73. Payer and Weiprecht discover Franz Josef Land. 1872-76. H.M.S. _Challenger_ examines the bed of the ocean. 1872-76. Ernest Giles traverses North-West Australia. 1873. Colonel Warburton traverses Australia from east to west. 1873. Livingstone discovers Lake Moero. 1874-75. Lieut. Cameron crosses equatorial Africa. 1875-94. Élisée Reclus publishes his _Géographie Universelle._ 1876. Albert Markham reaches 83.20° N. on the Nares expedition. 1876-77. Stanley traces the course of the Congo. 1878-82. The Pundit Krishna traces the course of the Yangtse, Pekong, and Brahmaputra. 1878-79. Nordenskiold solves the North-East Passage along the north coast of Siberia. 1878-84. Joseph Thomson explores East-Central Africa. 1878-85. Serpa Pinto twice crosses Africa. 1879-82. The _Jeannette_ passes through Behring Strait to the mouth of the Lena. 1880. Leigh Smith surveys south coast of Franz Josef Land. 1880-82. Bonvalot traverses the Pamirs. 1881-87. Wissmann twice crosses Africa, and discovers the left affluents of the Congo. 1883. Lockwood, on the Greely Mission, reaches 83.23° N., north cape of Greenland. 1886. Francis Garnier explores the course of the Mekong. 1887. Younghusband travels from Pekin to Kashmir. 1887-89. Stanley conducts the Emin Pasha Relief Expedition across Africa, and discovers the Pigmies, and the Mountains of the Moon. 1888. F. Nansen crosses Greenland from east to west. 1888-89. Captain Binger traces the bend of the Niger. 1889. The brothers Grjmailo explore Chinese Turkestan. 1889-90. Bonvalot and Prince Henri d'Orléans traverse Tibet. 1890. Selous and Jameson explore Mashonaland. 1890. Sir W. Macgregor crosses New Guinea. 1891-92. Monteil crosses from Senegal to Tripoli. 1892. Peary proves Greenland an island. 1893. Mr. and Mrs. Littledale travel across Central Asia. 1893-97. Dr. Sven Hedin explores Chinese Turkestan, Tibet, and Mongolia. 1893-97. Dr. Nansen is carried across the Arctic Ocean in the _Fram_, and advances farthest north (86.14° N.). 1894-95. C. E. Borchgrevink visits Antarctica. 1894-96. Jackson-Harmsworth expedition in Arctic lands. 1896. Captain Bottego explores Somaliland. 1896. Donaldson Smith traces Lake Rudolph. 1896. Prince Henri D'Orleans travels from Tonkin to Moru. 1897. Captain Foa traverses South Africa from S. to N. 1897. D. Carnegie crosses W. Australia from S. to N.

EUROPE.

GREAT BRITAIN.--B.C. 450. Himilco. _Circa_ 333. Pytheas. 60-54. Cæsar.

FRANCE.--B.C. _circa_ 600. Marseilles founded. 57. Cæsar.

RUSSIA.--A.D. 1554. Richard Chancellor.

BALTIC.--A.D. 890. Wulfstan and Othere.

ICELAND.--A.D. 861. Naddod.

ASIA.

INDIA.--B.C. 332. Alexander. 330. Nearchus. _Circa_ 300. Megasthenes. A.D. 400-14. Fa-hien. 518-21. Hoei-Sing and Sung-Yun. 540. Cosmas Indicopleustes. 629-46. Hiouen-Tshang. 671-95. I-tsing. 1159-73. Benjamin of Tudela. 1304-78. Ibn Batuta. 1327-72. Mandeville. 1328. Jordanus of Severac. 1328-49. John de Marignolli. 1419-40. Nicolo Conti. 1442-44. Abd-ur-Razzak. 1468-74. Athanasius Nikitin. 1487. Pedro de Covilham. 1494-99. Hieronimo di Santo Stefano. 1503-8. Ludovico di Varthema.

FARTHER INDIA.--A.D. 1503. Ludovico di Varthema. 1509. Lopes di Sequira. 1886. Francis Garnier.

CHINA.--A.D. 851-916. Suláimán and Abu Zaid. 1292. John of Monte Corvino. 1316-30. Odorico di Pordenone. 1328-49. John de Marignolli. 1537-58. Ferdinand Mendez Pinto. 1868-71. Ney Elias. 1871-88. Prjevalsky. 1878-82. Pundit Krishna. 1889. Grjmailo brothers. 1896. Prince Henri d'Orléans.

JAPAN.--A.D. 1542. Antonio de Mota. 1785-88. La Pérouse.

ARABIA.--A.D. 1761-67. Carsten Niebuhr. 1863. Palgrave.

PERSIA.--B.C. 332. Alexander. A.D. 1468-74. Athanasius Nikitin.

MONGOLIA.--A.D. 1255. Ruysbroek (Rubruquis). 1260-71. Nicolo and Maffeo Polo. 1271. Marco Polo. 1893-97. Dr. Sven Hedin.

TIBET.--A.D. 1845. Huc. 1856-7. Schlagintweit. 1878. Pundit Krishna. 1887. Younghusband. 1889-90. Bonvalot and Prince Henri d'Orléans. 1893-97. Dr. Sven Hedin.

CENTRAL ASIA.--A.D. 1558. Anthony Jenkinson. 1642. Wasilei Pojarkof. 1838-40. Wood. 1859. Valikhanoff. 1870. Douglas Forsyth. 1870. Fedchenko. 1880. Bonvalot. 1893. Littledale.

SIBERIA.--A.D. 1579. Timovief. 1639. Kupiloff. 1644-50. Staduchin. 1648. Dshineif. 1701. Sinpopoff. 1731. Paulutski. 1742. Chelyuskin. 1771-72. Pallas. 1785-94. Billings.

KAMTSCHATKA.--A.D. 1696. Russians. 1731. Kru pishef. 1787-88. Lesseps.

AFRICA.

A.D. _circa_ 450. Hanno. 1420. Zarco. 1462. Pedro de Cintra. 1484. Diego Cam. 1486. Bartholomew Diaz. 1497. Vasco da Gama. 1520. Alvarez. 1549. Bareto and Homera. 1590. Battel. 1596. Payz. 1618. Thompson. 1623. Lobo. 1645. Italian Capuchins. 1769-71. Bruce. 1793. Browne. 1796. Mungo Park. 1796. Lacerda. 1822. Denham and Clapperton. 1826. Laing. 1827. Réné Caillié. 1849-73. Livingstone. 1850-55. Barth. 1854-65. Faidherbe. 1856-59. Du Chaillu. 1858. Burton and Speke. 1860. Grant and Speke. 1864. Baker. 1869-71. Schweinfurth. 1869-74. Nachtigall. 1874-75. Cameron. 1876-89. Stanley. 1878-84. Thomson. 1878-85. Serpa Pinto. 1881-87. Wissmann. 1888-89. Binger. 1890. Selous and Jameson. 1891-92. Monteil. 1896. Bottego. 1896. Donaldson Smith. 1897. Foa.

NORTH AMERICA.

A.D. 499. Hoei-Sin. _Circa_ 1000. Lyef. 1497, 1517. John and Sebastian Cabot. 1500. Corte Real. 1513. Ponce de Leon. 1524. Verazzano. 1532. Cortez. 1534. Cartier. 1539. Ulloa. 1542. Cabrillo. 1516. Frobisher. 1586. Davis. 1592. Juan de Fuca. 1608. Champlain. 1609, 10. Hudson. 1631. Fox. 1682. La Salle. 1740. Varenne de la Véranderye 1741. Behring. 1789-93. Mackenzie. 1792. Vancouver. 1800-4. Lewis and Clarke. 1805-7. Pike. 1837. Simpson.

SOUTH AMERICA.

A.D. 1498. Columbus. 1499-1501. Amerigo Vespucci. 1499. Pinzon. 1500. Pedro Cabral. 1517. Juan Diaz de Solis. 1519-20. Magellan. 1531. Francisco Pizarro. 1535. D'Almagro. 1536. Gonsalo Pizarro. 1541. Orellana. 1572. Juan Fernandez. 1580. Dutch in Guiana. 1615. Lemaire. 1743-44. La Condamine. 1764. John Byron. 1799-1804. Humboldt. 1817-20. Spix and Martius. 1831-35. Schomburgk. 1843-47. Castelnau.

CENTRAL AMERICA.

A.D. 1502. Columbus. 1513. Vasco Nuñez de Balbao. 1518. Grijalva. 1519. Fernando Cortez. 1519. Guray.

AUSTRALIA.

A.D. 1605. Torres. 1606. Quiros. 1616. Hartog. 1619. Edel and Houtman. 1622. The _Leeuwin_. 1627. Nuyts. 1699. Dampier. 1770. Cook. 1797. Bass. 1801-4. Flinders. 1814. Evans. 1817-22. King. 1828-40. Sturt. 1839. Strzelecki. 1841. Eyre. 1844-48. Leichhardt. 1860. Burke. 1861-62. MacDouall Stuart. 1868-74. Forrest. 1872-76. Giles. 1873. Warburton. 1897. Carnegie.

NEW ZEALAND.

A.D. 1642. Tasman. 1643. Brouwer. 1768-79. Cook.

POLYNESIA.

A.D. 1512. Francisco Serrão. 1520, 21. Magellan. 1527. Saavedra. 1542. Gaetano 1542. Ruy Lopez de Villalobos. 1543. Ortez de Retis. 1567-98. Alvaro Mendaña. 1599. Houtman. 1643. Tasman. 1768. Carteret. 1776-79. Cook. 1835-49. Junghuhn. 1890. Macgregor.

NORTH POLE.

A.D. _circa_ 900. Gunbiörn. 985. Eric the Red. 1553. Willoughby. 1596. Barentz. 1603. Bennett. 1611. Jan Mayen. 1616. Baffin. 1721. Egédé. 1769-71. Hearne. 1819-22. Franklin, Back, and Richardson. 1819-27. Parry. 1820-23. Wrangel. 1822-23. Scoresby. 1829-33. Ross. 1833. Back. 1845-47. Franklin. 1847-54. Rae. 1850-54. M'Clure. 1853. Kane. 1857-59. M'Clintock. 1868-79. Nordenskiöld. 1872-73. Payer and Weiprecht. 1876. Markham. 1879-82. The _Jeannette_. 1880. Leigh Smith. 1883. Lockwood. 1888-97. Nansen. 1892. Peary. 1894-96. Jackson-Harmsworth expedition.

SOUTH POLE.

A.D. 1816. Capt. Smith. 1821. Bellinghausen. 1823. Weddell. 1831. Biscoe. 1838-40. Dumont d'Urville. 1839. Balleny. 1840-42. James Ross. 1894-95. Borchgrevink.

CIRCUMNAVIGATORS.

A.D. 1522. Sebastian del Cano. 1577-79. Drake. 1739-44. Lord George Anson.

ATLANTIC OCEAN.

A.D. 1400. Jehan Bethencourt. 1432. Cabral. 1442. Nuño Tristão. 1471. Pedro d'Escobar. 1471. Fernando Po. 1492-93. Columbus. 1501. Juan di Nova. 1501. Tristan d'Acunha. 1502. Bermudez.

INDIAN OCEAN.

A.D. 1505. Mascarenhas.

PROGRESS OF GEOGRAPHICAL SCIENCE.

B.C. 570. Anaximander of Miletus. 501. Hecatæus of Miletus. 446. Herodotus. _Circa_ 200. Eratosthenes. 100. Marinus of Tyre. 20. Strabo. Before 12. Agrippa. A.D. 150. Ptolemy. 230. Peutinger Table. 776. Beatus. 884. Ibn Khordadbeh. 912-30. Mas'udi. 921. Ahmed Ibn Fozlan. 969. Ibn Haukal. 1111. Water-compass. 1154. Edrisi. _Circa_ 1180. Alexander Neckam. 1280. Hereford map. 1284. Ebstorf map. 1290. The normal Portulano. 1320. Flavio Gioja. 1339. Dulcert. 1351. Medicean Portulano. 1375. Cresquez. 1419. Prince Henry the Navigator. 1457. Fra Mauro. 1474. Toscanelli. 1478. 2nd ed. Ptolemy. 1492. Behaim. 1500. Juan de la Cosa. 1507-13. Waldseemüller. 1520. Schoner. 1538. Mercator. 1544. Munster. 1556-72. Laperis. 1573. Ortelius. 1592. Molyneux globe. 1598. Hakluyt. 1630. Ferro meridian fixed. 1638. Blaeu. 1645. Sanson. 1700. Delisle. 1718. Jesuit map of China. 1731. Hadley. 1735-37. Maupertuis. 1745-61. Bourguiguon d'Anville. 1765. Harrison. 1767. Nautical Almanac. 1788. African Association. 1810-29. Malte-Brun. 1817. Stieler. 1830. Royal Geographical Society founded. 1842. Jomard 1845. Petermann. 1846. Spruner. 1875-94. Élisée Reclus. 1872-76. The _Challenger_.