Part 3

Class I. (_a_) Beren (bear), { bar, } boren. { bor, } Bidden (bid), bad, beden. Bi-speken (speak), bi-spac, bi-speken. Bigeten (beget), bigat, { bigeten. { bigoten. Breken (break), brac, broken. Cumen (come), cam, { cumen. { comen. Eten (eat), at, eten. Forgeten (forget), forgat, forgeten. Giuen (give), gaf, { geven. { given. Nimen (take, go), nam, { nomen. { numen. Seren (shear), —— soren. Stelen (steal), stal, stolen. Sweren (swear), swor, sworen. Beten (beat), bet, beten.

Class II. Bidden (ask, entreat), bed, boden. Biheten } (promise), { bihet, bihoten. Heten } { het, hoten. Drepen (slay), —— dropen. Fallen (fall), fel, fallen. Forhelen (hide), —— forholen. Hingen (hang), heng, hangen. Holden (hold), held, holden. Lepen (leap), lep, lopen. Leten (leave), let, leten. Slepen (sleep), slep, slepen. Wepen (weep), wep, wepen. Wassen (wash), weis, wassen. Waxen (wax), wex, waxen. Wreken (avenge), wrek, { wroken. { wreken.

Class III. Dragen (draw), { drog, dragen. { drug, drogen. Faren (go), for, faren. Forsaken (forsake), forsoc, forsaken. Graven (bury), —— graven. Slon (slay), { slog, } slagen. { slug, } Standen (stand), stod, standen. Taken (take), toc, taken. Waken (wake), woc, waken.

DIVISION II.

Class I. At-winden (depart), at-wond. —— Abreden (awake), abraid. —— Bergen (protect), barg, { borgen. { borwen. Binden (bind), bond, bunden. Bresten (burst), brast, { brusten. { brosten. Biginnen (begin), bigan, bigunnen. Delven (buy), dalf, dolven. Drinken (drink), dranc, drunken. Figten (fight), fagt, fogten. Finden (find), { fand, } funden. { fond, } Gelden (requite), { gald, golden. { geald, gulden. Helpen (help), halp, holpen. Melten (melt), malt, molten. Scriðen (invite), scroð. —— Singen (sing), sang, sungen. Sinken (sink), sanc, sunken. Springen (spring), sprong, sprungen. Sterfen (die), starf, storven. Stingen (sting), stong, stungen. Wergen (defend), warg. —— Werpen (throw), warp, worpen. Ðresten (thrust), ðrast. ——

Class II. At-witen (go, depart), atwot. —— Biten (bite), bot, biten. Driven (drive), drof, driven. Gliden (glide), glod, gliden. Risen (rise), ros, risen. Sinen (shine), son, sinen. Smiten (smite), smot, smiten. Writen (write), wrot, writen.

Class III. Beden (offer), { bed, } boden. { bead, } Crepen (creep), crep, cropen. Chesen (choose), ches, chosen. Dregen (suffer), dreg, drogen. Flegen (fly), { fleg, } flogen. { flew, } Fleten (float), flet, floten. Forlese (lose), { forles, } forloren. { forleas, } Scheten (shoot), schet. —— Segen (see), { seg, sogen. { sag, sowen. Seðen (boil), seð, soden. Stigen (ascend), steg, stigen. Ten (go), teg, togen. Ðen (thrive), ðeg, ðogen.

ANOMALOUS VERBS.

Cunen (can), 3 _pers. sing._ can, _pl._ cunen, _pret._ cuðe, _p.p._ cuð.

Daren (dare), _pres. pl._ duren, _pret._ durste.

Mogen (may), 3 _pers. sing._ mai, _pl._ mogen, mowen, _pret._ migte (2 _pers. pret._ migt).

Mot (may), _pret._ muste.

Ogen (owe, ought), 3 _pers. sing._ og, _pl._ ogen, _pret._ ogte.

Sal (shall), 2 _pers. sing._ salt, _pl._ sulen, _pret._ sulde, _pret. pl._ sulden.

Witen (know), 3 _pers. sing._ wot, _pret._ wiste.

Wilen (will), _pret._ wulde; nile = will not; nolde = would not.

The verb _ben_, 'to be,' is conjugated after the following manner:—

INDICATIVE MOOD.

PRESENT. Singular. Plural. 1. am, } 2. art, beas, best, } ben, arn[70] (aren). 3. is, beð, }

PAST. Singular. Plural. 1. was, } 2. wore, } weren, worn (woren, wore). 3. was, }

V. ADVERBS.

The adverbs _hence_, _thence_, _whence_, do not occur, being superseded by the Norse forms _heðen_, _ðeðen_, _queðen_.

_Adverbial Terminations._—Adverbs are formed from adjectives by the addition of _e_; as _long_ (adj.), _longe_ (adv.).

_-um_ (dative) occurs in _whilum_ and _seldum_.

_-es_ (gen.) in _lives_, alive, _newes_, anew.

_-en_ in _abouten_, _aboven_, _binnen_, _biforen_ (_foren_), _bisiden_, _uten_, _wiðouten_.

VI. PREPOSITIONS.

_Fro_ (Northumbrian _fra_) takes the place of the Southern _fram_ (from), and _til_ (unknown to Southern writers) occurs frequently for _to_.

THE METRE OF THE POEM.

The essence of the system of versification which the poet has adopted is, briefly, that every line shall have _four accented_ syllables in it; the _unaccented_ syllables being left in some measure, as it were, to take care of themselves.

The words which Coleridge prefixed to his poem of "Christabel" are by no means inapplicable here. He says, "I have only to add, that the metre of the 'Christabel' is not, properly speaking, irregular, though it may seem to be so from its being founded on a new (?) principle: namely, that of counting in each line the accents, not the syllables. Though the latter may vary from seven to twelve, yet in each line the accents will be found to be only four."

The normal form of the line of the present poem is that simple one of eight syllables, consisting of four (so-called) iambics, which is so common in English poetry. But it should be remembered that this line is at all times convertible with one of _seven_ syllables, generally described as consisting of three trochees and a long syllable. This is easily exemplified by taking the first two lines of the Conclusion to the Second Part of Coleridge's "Christabel."

\/ —— \/ —— \/ —— \/ —— A lit | tle child | a lim | ber elf || —— \/ —— \/ —— \/ —— Singing | dancing | to it | self ||

This is adopting the common form of scansion given in English prosodies, which is far from being a very correct method; since to make _trochaic_ and _iambic_ metres convertible is to introduce all sorts of confusion.

The fact is, that the _seven-syllable_ line, though _trochaic_ to the _ear_, is really an _iambic_ line, of which the _first_ syllable is _deficient_, i.e., supplied by a _pause_; and the truer scansion is,

A lit | tle child | a lim | ber elf || — Sing | ing danc | ing to | itself ||

At any rate, to adopt this latter method (of beginning to mark off the feet from the _end_, instead of from the _beginning_ of the line) will be found to be far more convenient in practice; since the accented syllables, instead of drifting about, will thus always be placed at the end of a foot. We should thus, for instance, introduce the same marking off of syllables in the line,

Ánd | ðe séx | te dá | is ligt || l. 167,

as we have in the line,

ðo cám | ðe fíf | te dá | is ligt || l. 158.

Examples of couplets containing a line of each kind are not uncommon; thus, ll. 29, 30:—

Fá | der gód | of ál | le ðhínge || Almíg | tin lóu | erd hég | est kínge ||

Also lines 289, 290.

And gét | ne kú | ðe hé | nogt blínne || Fór | to dón | an óð | er ſínne ||

See also ll. 309, 310; 439, 440, etc.

The introduction of these seven-syllable lines, far from being a defect, is a natural and agreeable variation, adopted by all our best poets.

The next chief variation to be noted is that two very rapid syllables are often (as in other English metres) substituted for an unaccented one, as in l. 88:—

Ór | ðe nígt | and áf | ter ðe dáy || ~~~~~~

Again, in l. 93:—

On an óð | er daí | ðis míd | del érd || ~~~~~

and in l. 474:—

To sché | ten áf | ter ðe wíl | de dér || ~~~~~~

See also ll. 321, 503, 505, 656, etc.; and compare the line from "Christabel:"

"That shá | dowy in | the moon | light shone ||" ~~~~

The syllables thus most frequently _slurred over_—the term _elided_ is but weak and improper, explaining nothing—are the final syllables _-en_, _-er_, _-et_, etc., as in ll. 96 and 116:—

Ál | abú | ten ðis wálk | ne sént || ~~~~~~~

Was wá | ter and érðe | o ſún | der ſád || ~~~~~~~

Some lines—and these sound rather harshly—require a little _forcing_ to make them conform to the strict type; as, _e.g._, l. 66, which, to make it agree with the rest, must be written,

Ín | to ðis ðhíſ | terneſſe hér | bi-néðen || ~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~

A poet's business is, in fact, to take care that the syllables which _are_ to be rapidly pronounced are such as easily _can_ be so; and that the syllables which are to be heavily accented are naturally those that _ought_ to be. If he gives attention to this it does not much matter whether each foot has _two_ or _three_ syllables in it.

A man is master of his art when he can write—

Come in | to the gar | den, Maud || For the black | bat, night, | has flown || And the wood | bine spi | ces are waf | ted abroad || And the musk | of the rose | is blown ||

With respect to the final _-en_, it should be further noted—

(1) That it is sometimes fully pronounced, as in ll. 87 and 91—

fró | ðat tíme | we tél | len áy || ðo gán | hem dá | gen wél | iwíſſe ||

(2) That it is sometimes rapidly slurred over, as in l. 96, already cited; and

(3) That (especially after an _r_) it is often so pronounced as to be incorporated with the syllable preceding it, so that the whole word, supposing it a dissyllable in appearance, becomes monosyllabic in pronunciation; as in l. 514—

Matú | ſalé | was bóren | iſ ſúne ||

and, again, in l. 655—

Wóren | ſtalwúr | ði bóren | bi tále ||

Thus, we may find the same word written and pronounced as a dissyllable—

Wó | ren ðáne | don ſóne | a-nón || l. 3591;

and, in another place, written and pronounced as a monosyllable—

In geu | eléngðh | e wórn | it mád || l. 147.

Thus, the _n_ must have been _very slightly_ touched, as is shewn also by the riming of _e_ and _en_. Examples, ll. 11, 12; 363, 364, etc.

As to the final _-e_, it may be observed that it is most frequently pronounced just when it is most essential, viz., when it marks a grammatical inflexion, or an adverbial form, as, _e.g._:—

Til ihé | sus béð | on Ró | dè dón || l. 386;

and,

Wél | he ſeí | den and ſwí | ðè wél || l. 1645.

In the second place, it is very liable to be slurred over before a vowel following, as in l. 148—

In Ré | ke-fíl | le on ſún | der ſhád || ~~~~~

and, thirdly, it is frequently added to words without cause, and is therefore mute, as in l. 60—

ðat éu | ere ſpróng | in wérld | wíd ||

It seems to be sometimes mute after _-ed_, when _-ede_ forms part of a verb. See ll. 1396, 1433, etc.

Attention to the metre may detect errors in the text. Thus, in l. 75, the word _dais_ is missing:—

forð glód | ðat fír | me [dá | is] lígt ||

See l. 113, which proves the point.

In l. 1846 the definite form of the adjective is required, and _strong_ should be _stronge_—

ðe stróng | e gód | of ýs | raél ||

It has been noted that the first foot of a line sometimes consists of _one_ syllable only, and that one _accented_. By a bolder license, this is sometimes the case not only with the _first_ foot, but with _other_ feet, e.g. with the _third_ foot. Line 2572:—

Q_u_an é | bru chíld | ſúld | be bóren ||

Again, with the _last_ foot, as in l. 3580, unless we read _duste_:—

And ſtíred | it ál | to dúſt | ſir ||

Very many other curious variations occur, which the reader will probably observe for himself with some interest. Thus, in l. 60, just above cited, the question arises whether or not the _r_ in _werld_ was pronounced with so strong a _burr_ as to render the word _dissyllabic_, as is often the case in Scotch poetry with words containing _rl_, _rn_, etc.

CONTRACTIONS USED IN THE GLOSSARY.

A.S. Anglo-Saxon. Da. Danish. Du. Dutch. Allit. Poems, Early English Alliterative Poems (Ed. Morris). O.E. Old English. Prov. E. Provincial English. Fr. French. Fris. Frisian. Ger. German. Goth. Gothic. M.H.Ger. Middle High German. O.H.Ger. Old High German. Laȝ. Laȝamon's Brut (Ed. Sir F. Madden). Met. Hom. Metrical Homilies (Ed. Small). O.N. Old Norse. Orm. Ormulum. P. of C. Hampole's Pricke of Conscience (Ed. Morris). Prompt. Parv. Promptorium Parvulorum (Ed. Way). S.Sax. Semi-Saxon. Sw. Swedish.

[1] My obligations to Mr Skeat (in whose accuracy and judgment I have the fullest confidence) are numerous; and I am indebted to him, among other obligations, for the description of the manuscript, and for some interesting remarks upon the metre of the poem. My thanks are also due to the Rev. J. R. Lumby, who most kindly and readily re-collated the text with the manuscript.

[2] It is thus described—wrongly, of course, as to age—in the printed catalogue of the Corpus manuscripts:—"ccccxliv. A parchment book in 8vo., written in the xv. century, containing the history of Genesis and Exodus in Old English verse."

[3] From lines 19-26 we might infer that our author intended to include in his song much more of the Bible narrative than we have in the present work.

[4] Father, God of all things, Almighty Lord, highest of kings, Give thou me a propitious season (enable thou me successfully), to show this world's beginning, Thee, Lord God, to honour, whetherso I read or sing.

[5] The following are the chief omissions:—1. Genesis, chapters ii. 10-14; ix. 20-27, x. 2-7, 10-32; xxiii. 3-20; xxx. 1-5, 14-16, 37-43; xxxi. 1-17; xxxvi.; xxxviii.; xlviii.; xlix. 1-27. 2. Exodus, chapters xii. 40-51; xiii. 1-16; xx. 20-26; xxi.; xxii.; xxiii.; xxv.; xxvi.; xxvii.; xxviii.; xxix.; xxx.; xxxi.; xxxiii. 12-23; xxxiv. 1-32; xxxv.; xxxvi.; xxxvii.; xxxviii.; xxxix.; xl.

[6] Numbers, chapters xi.; xii.; xiii.; xiv.; xvi.; xvii.; xix.; xx.; xxi.; xxii.; xxiii.; xxiv.; xxv.; xxvi.; xxvii.; xxxi. Deut. xxxiv.

[7] Natural marks?

[8] MS. in-sile.

[9] The Bestiary presents not only the same _grammatical_ and _verbal_ forms which distinguish the Genesis and Exodus from other Early English compositions, but also its _orthographical_ peculiarities, _e.g._ _ſ_ for _sch_; _ð_ for _th_; _g_ for _y_ and _ȝ_ (_gh_), etc. The editor assigns this poem to the _early_ part of the thirteenth century.

[10] Warton assigned it to the reign of Henry II. or Richard I.; Sir F. Madden to the time of Henry III. (1216-1272).

[11] Those employed (about _fifty_ altogether) are more or less technical—_aucter_, _auter_, _astronomige_, _arsmetrike_, _bigamie_, _bissop_, _crisme_, _charité_, _canticle_, _circumcis_, _corune_, _crune_, _desert_, _graunte_, _gruchede_, _holocaust_, _hostel_, _iurnee_, _iusted_ (allied), _lecherie_, _lepre_, _mount_, _mester_, _meister_, _neve_ (nephew), _offiz_, _pais_, _plente_, _pore_, _present_, _prest_, _pris_, _prisun_, _promissioun_, _prophet_, _roche_, _sacrede_, _scité_ (city), _spirit_, _spices_, _suriurn_ (sojourn), _swinacie_ (quinsy), _serue_, _seruice_, _ydeles_, _ydolatrie_.

[12] Since writing the above I have printed for the Early English Text Society "Old English Homilies, 2nd Series," which are earlier than the Ormulum, and contain many East Midland peculiarities. "The Wooing of Our Lord" in Old English Homilies, 1st Series, contains some peculiarities of the West Midland dialect.

[13] See Preface to O.E. Hom., 2nd Series.

[14] It must be recollected that the Ormulum is much earlier than the Story of Genesis and Exodus.

[15] See Ormulum, Introduction, p. lxxviii., note 105; lxxxi., note 112.

[16] While agreeing with the editor of the Ormulum, that the simplicity of grammatical forms may fairly be considered as indicating a less artificial, and therefore advanced, stage of the language, I cannot adopt his theory, that "the strict rules of grammar" were therefore abandoned, and thereby was anticipated, to a certain extent, a later phraseology and structure; or that Orm, or any other O.E. writer, ever sacrificed "the more regular for a simpler, though more corrupt, structure and style." It must always be borne in mind that our earlier writers always speak of their language as English; but it was the English of the district in which they lived. In some districts, as in the Northumbrian, for instance, the language underwent certain changes at a very early period, which more Southern dialects did not adopt for more than a century afterwards: thus, in works of the 14th century, we find the Midland more archaic than the Northumbrian, and the Southern more archaic than either. Authors seeking to become popular would write in the dialect best understood by their readers, without considering whether it was simple or complex. Thus the Ayenbite of Inwyt (A.D. 1340), written for the men of Kent, contains far more of the older inflectional forms than the Ormulum of the twelfth century.

[17] Southern writers before 1340 formed the g.s. of fem. nouns in _-e_ and not in _-es_.

[18] In the Southern dialect the article had separate forms for the nominative fem. (_theo_, _tho_), and neuter (_thet_, _that_); the fem. gen. sing. (_thar_, _ther_), and the masc. acc. (_than_, _then_).

[19] See Ormulum, Introduction, p. lxxviii., note 105.

[20] _Sinden_, are, occurs in the Ormulum and the Bestiary, but is not employed in the present poem.

[21] These forms occur in O.E. Hom., 2nd Series.

[22] In O.E. Hom., 2nd Series, we find _hes_ = them. See Moral Ode, l. 186, O.E. Hom., 2nd Series: "wel diere he _hes_ bohte."

[23] Robt. of Gloucester, Shoreham, Dan. Michel's Ayenbite of Inwyt.

[24] Deep he _them_ buried under an oak.

[25] For Solomon find _them_ shall.

[26] He took _them_.

[27] All his _footsteps_ after him he filleth, draweth dust with his tail where he steppeth, or dust or dew (moisture), that they are not able to find _them_.

[28] I have in one case taken the liberty of separating the pronoun from the verb (for the convenience of the reader), giving the MS. reading in the margin; but I am sorry now that I did not let them stand as in the original copy.

[29] _Mes_ = _me_ + _es_ = one, them, occurs in O. E. Hom., 2nd Series.

[30] All _he them_ had (he had them all) with might begotten (obtained).

[31] Undealt (undivided) _he them_ laid, whereso _he them_ brought.

The dove hath habits good, All _we them_ ought to have in mind

(_i.e._ we ought to have them all in mind).

Bilhah two children bore by him, Rachel _called them_ Dan, Naphtali; And Zilpah two sons to him bore, Leah _called them_ Gad and Asher.

[34] The tabernacle he _put them_ in.

[35] He _set them_ in the firmament.

[36] _ðei_ occurs _once_ only in the present poem, _þeȝȝr_, _þeȝȝm_, not at all; it occurs twice in O.E. Hom., 2nd Series.

[37] Philolog. Soc. Proceedings, vol. i. pp. 73, 261. _Almigtin_, almighty, p. 2, l. 30, is the only _adjective_ I find with this termination.

[38] The dative of the A.S. _bóc_ was _béc_.

[39] _gebroðeren_ (A.S. _broðru_) occurs in the Semi-Sax. Gospels.

[40] A.S. _cealfru_.

[41] _cildru_.

[42] _dura_.

[43] _ægru_.

[44] _handa_.

[45] _cý_.

[46] _lambru_.

[47] _greiðe_ (prepare), _kipte_ (seized), _lit_ (stain), _liðe_ (listen), _mal_ (speech), _witterlike_ (truly), are found in Southern English, and may be the remains of the Anglian element in the A.Saxon.

[48] Those marked * thus constantly occur in Northumbrian and Midland works (with Northern peculiarities) of the 14th century.

[49] _fere_ occurs for _feren_, so _senwe_ = sinews (A.S. _sinu_, sing., _sina_, pl.).

[50] As a rule fem. nouns, and nouns of the _n_ declension, take the inflexion _-es_; as, '_sinnes_ same' (sin's shame), '_sowles_ frame' (soul's profit), '_helles_ male' (hell's mail), '_werldes_ drof' (world's assembly). The Bestiary contains the following genitives in _-e_:—'_nese_ smel' (O.E. Miscell., p. 1), '_welle_ grund' (_Ib._, p. 3), '_kirke_ dure' (_Ib._, p. 6), '_soule_ drink' (_Ib._, p. 7), '_soule_ spuse' (_Ib._, p. 23), '_helle_ pine' (_Ib._, p. 24).

[51] The forms in _-er_, _-est_, are properly adverbial and not adjectival.

[52] _tigðe_ = _tithe_, tenth, occurs in l. 895, and _tigðes_ in l. 1628.

[53] Orm uses the more Northern _ȝho_ (Northumbrian _sco_).