CHAPTER IV

MODERN COLOMBIA

After Bolivar's departure for Peru, a period of relative quiet ensued. Nevertheless, ambitious local politicians constantly intrigued against Santander, who in his turn was suspected of encouraging federalist agitation in the hope of overthrowing Bolivar. The United States and England recognised the independence of Colombia shortly after the expulsion of the Spaniards, but foreign troubles arose when the new republic faced the question of paying the immense debt contracted by Bolivar's agents in recruiting and equipping the mercenary troops and buying ships, artillery, and ammunition. This debt had been enormously swollen by the dishonesty of some Colombian commissioners and by the greed of money lenders who insisted on receiving bonds for double the amount they had really advanced. The temptation to borrow more when it was refunded was too great to be resisted, and Colombia soon saw herself burdened with foreign obligations amounting to nearly seven millions sterling. All the revenues were insufficient to pay interest on this sum--a truly stupendous one for so poor a country. The payments fell into arrears, and though the debt has been scaled down repeatedly, interest has rarely been paid. At the very beginning of her independent existence Colombia's credit was ruined, and the three countries into which she was shortly divided have remained burdened to this day with the debts then contracted, their finances disorganised, their attempted operations blighted by the reputation of bankruptcy, and their diplomatic relations hampered by the clamours of bondholders.

Santander's administration was further embarrassed by Bolivar's demands for money and troops with which to pursue his conquests in Peru and Bolivia, and still graver difficulties soon arose. Paez, left in command of the army in Venezuela, became involved in disputes with the authorities of the Venezuelan cities and with the ministers at Bogotá, all of whom he despised as mere civilians or as foreigners who had no right to interfere.

Finally, in 1826 the central government formally deprived him of his position and summoned him to Bogotá, but a revolution which promptly broke out in Caracas made him dictator. The news brought Bolivar back from Lima, where for two years he had reigned an absolute monarch, leading the life of a voluptuous eastern prince. For the next four years the Liberator struggled in vain to repress the rising tide of federalism and radicalism in Venezuela and New Granada. The republican theorists could not forget that he had re-established the convents, placed the schools under priestly control, abrogated government contracts for personal reasons, introduced aristocratic decorations, and schemed for a hereditary senate and a life tenure of the executive; nor that his influence had stopped the Cucutá convention in the path of political reform, prevented the abolition of slavery and capital punishment, and retained the connection of Church and State, and the exemption of the army and clergy from civil jurisdiction. Santander was more liberal and a better practical politician. He had shown much ability during the Liberator's absence, and risen to be the head of a considerable party.

Bolivar succeeded in temporarily crushing some of the opposition in Venezuela and in cajoling Paez, and on his return to Bogotá he made a feint of resigning the presidency. Congress, however, was still under his spell and re-elected him. He then made an attempt to secure legal sanction for his system by summoning another constitutent convention. But news had come of Peru's and Bolivia's defection, and the agitation of the transcendental liberals, the universal desire for local self-government, and the ambitions of a hundred intriguers for high office, proved too much for him. A majority of the convention which met at Ocana in 1828 were partisans of Santander and opposed Bolivar's proposals although the Liberator at the head of three thousand soldiers watched the proceedings. Though he did his best to intimidate the majority, he shrank from frankly playing the role of a Cromwell, and contented himself with ordering his supporters to withdraw, leaving the convention without a quorum. It dissolved and the country trembled on the verge of disintegration. His friends called an assembly which obediently proclaimed him dictator. The Liberator accepted, and deprived Santander of the vice-presidency. The press was muzzled, protesters banished, and military rule established. Some fiery young republicans, determined to emulate the example of Brutus, struck down the palace guards at midnight and rushed into the house to kill the dictator. But his mistress, Manoela Saenz, awakened by the noise, directed him to a window. He dropped a few feet to the pavement and ran and hid himself under a bridge, while the woman, in her night clothes, met the assassins on the stairs and told them they could enter only over her dead body. They pushed her aside with their bloody hands only to find the quarry escaped. The next day Bolivar returned to the palace and his spies soon hunted down the criminals. Santander, suspected of knowledge of the plot, went into banishment, and for the moment civil war was averted.

But the incident did not revive Bolivar's waning popularity. News came in 1829 that Paez had again assumed the dictatorship of Venezuela. This was fatal to Bolivar's hopes. With New Granada in a ferment behind him he could not expect to conquer Paez and the formidable llaneros. He made a half-hearted attempt to raise an army, but recoiled before the insuperable difficulties. Again he resigned the presidency, protesting that he was ready to sacrifice all personal ambition to secure the integrity of the Colombian union and the establishment of a strong and ordered government. Again he was re-elected, but meanwhile civil war was raging in Ecuador, where his own troops disavowed his authority. Rebellion also broke out in Pasto, and Peru intervened in Ecuador and sent a fleet to capture Guayaquil and an army to invade Cuenca. Bolivar exhausted his last resources in despatching troops to meet the Peruvian onslaught, but the principal result of the war was to put General Flores in a position to make himself independent dictator of Ecuador. Despairing of longer maintaining himself, but loath to give up his ever-cherished idea of union, the Liberator entered into negotiations with European diplomats to appoint a prince of a reigning family as king of Colombia. But the idea was impracticable. There was no place for a monarch, either native born or foreign, on the Granadan highlands, and Venezuela had already virtually separated. Although a rebellion in Antioquia headed by his old companion in arms, General Cordoba, failed in the fall of 1829, at the end of the year word came that Venezuela had formally declared her independence and had pronounced a sentence of perpetual banishment against the Liberator. This was the last straw, and Bolivar made no further resistance to his fate, but summoned a congress and retired to his country house penniless, sick, and heartbroken. All his vast estates had been sacrificed to the cause of independence; the hardships of his innumerable marches over the cold mountain roads had broken his health; and his mode of life during the intervals of peace had not tended to restore it. Although only forty-seven he was a dying man. Still he clung to his hopes of vindication and re-election, but seeing that even the bulk of his own friends opposed, he at last sent in a formal resignation. He lived only a few months after congress had elected Mosquera president.

Though Bolivar's overthrow was a triumph for the federalists and red republicans, congress shrank from going too far and installed a wealthy aristocrat as president. However, his feeble administration was soon driven from power by the revolt of General Urdaneta, who made use of Bolivar's name as a rallying cry, but who in fact was actuated alone by personal ambition. The federalists and anti-Bolivarists did not leave him long in possession, and in May, 1831, he was expelled in his turn. Obando and Lopez, both bitter enemies of the Liberator during his lifetime, and the latter suspected of complicity in the cowardly murder of the great Marshal Sucré, came to the head of affairs. New Granada's intestine troubles made her too weak to attempt the coercion of Venezuela and Ecuador, so their independence was recognised and the Colombian republic ceased to exist.

A federalist Constitution for New Granada was framed in 1832, and shortly afterwards Santander became the first legal president. Unquestionably the strongest man in the nation, a good administrator and a shrewd politician, he was helpless to check the tendency toward disintegration, though he reduced Bolivar's army of twenty thousand to less than one half, and did much to establish civil administration. His energy in enforcing order earned him the title of the "Man of Laws," and many Granadans regard him as the real founder of their nationality. Marquez, who succeeded to the presidency in 1837, was not radical enough to suit the advanced federalists and republicans, although the first serious rebellion which broke out against him was caused by his suppression of convents in reactionary and Catholic Pasto. At the same time Obando was intriguing against the government, and many of the provincial governors aided the plots. When summoned to trial, Obando fled to the wilds of Popayan and Pasto, and civil war raged through 1839 and 1840. In this latter year Panama successfully revolted, maintaining its independence until 1842. Tomas Mosquera, the minister of war, with the help of his son-in-law, General Herran, eventually triumphed over the rebels. In 1841 the latter became president, and set vigorously to work to strengthen the power of the central government.

By this time, all the people who took any interest in politics had divided into two parties. The liberals insisted on universal suffrage, the separation of Church and State, the granting the provinces the fullest autonomy, the division of the greater portion of the national revenue among the provincial governments, and even opposed the theoretical right of any government to impose its will on the individual citizen. The conservatives believed in respecting the clergy, in continuing the old system of education under priestly control, and resisted any further emasculation of the national government. Herran recalled the Jesuits, and under his direction a conservative convention framed a more centralising Constitution than that of 1832. Bolivar's ashes were delivered to the Venezuelan government with impressive solemnities, and his memory apotheosised as the father of the nation and the apostle of centralisation. Herran was succeeded by his father-in-law, Tomas Mosquera. During his administration, which lasted until 1849, steam navigation was introduced on the Magdalena, the Panama railway was begun, the finances were brought into some sort of order, the army was further reduced, and the post-office system was improved.

The liberals and federalists were constantly becoming more powerful and more discontented. Disturbances broke out from time to time and when Mosquera's term expired, the attempt to elect a successor in an orderly and constitutional manner utterly failed. Riots and bloodshed followed, and it was officially announced that no candidate had received a majority of the popular vote. The duty of making a choice fell upon congress, and Lopez, a general of the war of independence who had taken part in the overthrow of Bolivar, was installed. This meant a resumption of the march toward complete decentralisation, temporarily checked during Herran's and Mosquera's administrations. The Constitution was reformed so as to reduce the power of the national executive and guarantee greater privileges to the provinces. The latter were divided and subdivided to suit the exigencies of local politicians until their number reached thirty-five. Lopez had been a revolutionist himself and did not know when he might be one again, and his abolishment of the death penalty for political crimes met with the hearty approval of the large number of Granadan politicians who were in the same case. The central government transferred a large part of its revenues to the provinces, and gave up to them the control of judicial administration, of education, and of transportation. The tide of liberal legislation also swept over the privileges of the clergy. Laws were voted suppressing of tithes, giving the nomination of parish priests to the civil authorities, taking control of education out of their hands, separating Church and State, and establishing civil marriage. But it was easier to pass such laws than to enforce their observance by the Granadans. The clergy were enormously powerful among the common people and the conservative aristocrats. The banishment of the archbishop and several suffragans roused the conservatives. Politics became the principal preoccupation of the educated classes. Hardly a village in the country but had its political club, and more than a hundred party newspapers, besides innumerable pamphlets, thundered against their opponents. The conservative revolution broke out in 1851, beginning in Pasto and immediately spreading over the whole western half of the republic and even to the eastern plateau. Antioquia was the stronghold of the clericals, and there they gathered a force of a thousand men which was beaten at Rio Negro on the 10th of September, 1851, while the insurgent bands in a dozen other provinces were reduced in detail. Although the liberal government was thus triumphant in the field, the danger had been too great and was still too menacing to make it safe to maintain an uncompromising attitude on the religious question.

Lopez procured the election of Obando, another political general of the same type and opinions as himself, as his successor in the presidency. The new president's first act was to summon a convention which abolished the last traces of Herran's moderately centralising Constitution, and depriving the executive of the power of naming provincial governors. Obando gave satisfaction to no one, and in 1854 General Melo, commander of the cavalry in Bogotá, incited the garrison and workingmen of that city to join him in an insurrection. However, the chiefs of the conservative party would have none of him; the recent concessions to the clergy had removed the strongest motives for rousing fanaticism to arms; and the clericals declared in his favour in only a few provinces. The property-holding and educated classes were practically unanimous against him. Mosquera and Herran, the most powerful men in New Granada and the historical chiefs of the moderate conservatives, had modified their views to suit the exigencies of the situation and become in effect moderate liberals. It was Mosquera himself who led the provincial militia against Bogotá and overcome the dictator after much bloody street fighting.

The unhappy country, tired of continual internecine disorder and exhausted by the harrying civil wars, rested willingly for two years under the compromise administration of Mallarino in which representatives of both parties and most of the principal factions had a voice. As a matter of fact the federal government had almost ceased to exercise the greatly reduced functions which nominally remained to it. The executive had only the shadow of a control over the provinces, its revenues sank to well-nigh nothing, its army was reduced to eight hundred men. The very name of the country was changed from the "Republic of New Granada" to the "Granadine Confederation," and the organisation of powerful and independent federal departments was begun, foreshadowing the abolition of the old provincial system. In 1857 three candidates had presented themselves--Ospina, representing the clerical conservatives; Murillo, the advanced liberals; and Mosquera, the moderates. Suffrage had been made universal, and under the conditions necessarily prevailing among a population almost entirely illiterate and used for centuries to monarchical and military government, a satisfactory election was impossible. On the face of the returns Ospina received a plurality, but the radicals were able to force the adoption of a new federal Constitution in 1859 which abolished the old provinces. However, the new system had not the sympathy of the conservative and clerical president. He tried to usurp control of the elections, the liberals accused him of acting unconstitutionally, insurrections broke out in various parts of the country, and the confusion became worse confounded.

In the state of Bolivar, the liberal insurrectionists triumphed, while in Santander the conservatives themselves started a revolution which Ospina only succeeded in suppressing by the bloody battle of Oratorio. Meanwhile Mosquera had become governor of Cauca, and when the conservatives of that state tried to expel him, he beat them and took advantage of his victory to declare himself independent of Ospina. The latter advanced, but Mosquera defeated him, and invaded the upper Magdalena, gaining the battle of Segovia. In every state there was an insurrection against Ospina, and three ex-presidents accompanied the insurgent armies. On the surface the civil war appeared to be a mere contest for personal power between Mosquera and Ospina, but the former had ensured a large support by raising the banner of federalism, and the latter's triumph would probably have meant a strengthening of the national government and certainly a reaction from the radicalism which had gained ground year by year since the fall of Bolivar. Supported by the clericals, conservatives, and reactionists, Ospina fought tenaciously and with a fair prospect of success. But the federalist armies advanced relentlessly from both north and south, and one after another the provinces of the eastern plateaux were wrested from him by bloody and well-contested battles. Bogotá was finally taken and the president imprisoned, but Mosquera's opponents kept up the conflict for some time in the states of Panama, Santander, and Antioquia, and it was near the end of 1861 before the federalists were everywhere triumphant.

With Mosquera at the head of affairs, under the title of "Supreme Director," a congress was summoned whose members were called, not deputies, representatives, or delegates, but "plenipotentiaries" of the sovereign states. This congress adopted a new constitution, New Granada's sixth since 1830. The triumphant liberals expelled the Jesuits, abolished ecclesiastical entails, extinguished the monastic orders, confiscated Church property, decreed the absolute separation of Church and State, imprisoned the archbishop, and secularised the schools. Suffrage was made nominally universal, and the death penalty abolished. The name of the country was changed to the "United States of Colombia," and it became little more than a league of nine federal states for the purpose of defence against foreign attack. The national government was expressly prohibited from interfering in the affairs of the states, even for the preservation of order, and a clause of the Constitution provided that "when one sovereign state of the union shall be at war with another, or the citizens of any state shall be at war among themselves, the national government is obligated to preserve the strictest neutrality." The federal judiciary had no power to decide any constitutional questions nor could its decisions bind the state authorities. The national government was deprived of half its revenue for the benefit of the states, and the receipts of the latter equalled the federal income. This Constitution remained in force for twenty-two years, during which civil wars and factional disputes continually racked Colombia.

Moreno, the clerical dictator of Ecuador, had aided Ospina during the civil war, and to punish him Mosquera undertook a campaign which resulted in a Colombian victory at Cuaspud on the 30th of December, 1863. However, he desisted from his announced intention of deposing Moreno and installing an anti-clerical government in Ecuador, and granted peace without the imposition of any onerous terms. Murillo was elected president in 1864 for the ensuing two years, to which short period the term had been reduced. The religious question would not down, and he found a conservative revolution going on in the state of Antioquia. It triumphed, and Murillo prudently recognised the successful insurgents as the legal government. He followed this same policy in regard to other revolutions in the states of Bolivar, Magdalena, and Panama, and cautiously refrained from all intervention, even when conservative insurrections occurred in the neighbourhood of Bogotá itself, or when the clericals of Antioquia invaded Cauca, and defeated the liberals. One of the last acts of his administration was to impose on the impoverished federal treasury the settlement of all the forced loans and confiscations made during the three years of terrible civil war. Mosquera, who succeeded Murillo in 1866, was not content to remain a mere figurehead, although it was under his leadership that the federal system had been definitely established. He bought ships and artillery without authorisation from congress, and claimed the power of intervening by force whenever the legal government of a state was unable to maintain order. This attack on the right of revolution outraged the radical republicans. According to their theory and practice the federal government was merely an alliance between the peoples of the states, but Mosquera's doctrine would tend to make it an alliance between the state governments, creating a ruling oligarchy whose power might be continued indefinitely. Denounced as the assassin of Colombian liberty, he broke off relations with the liberal majority in congress, and in 1867 assumed dictatorial powers. But the Bogotá garrison was suborned by his enemies, and its revolt was followed by his deposition and the substitution of Acosta.

The new president renewed Murillo's policy of non-intervention. Colombia had begun to reap a benefit from the increasing foreign demand for tropical products. Exports grew in value, and with them, imports and revenue. But expenditures grew faster; the poorer states demanded and received subsidies from the federal treasury; public buildings and local improvements were planned beyond the nation's ability to pay; and a swarm of employees and pensioners battened on the public revenues. Under the concession of 1850 the Panama railway had agreed to pay three per cent. of its net revenue to the government, and the receipts from this source amounted to fourteen thousand dollars a year. Colombia had stipulated for the right to purchase the road in 1870 for the ridiculously low price of five million dollars, but Acosta's administration had no money to invest and was greedy for ready cash. So the franchise was extended until 1966 for one million dollars down and an annual subsidy of a quarter of a million. In 1880, under the pressure of poverty, the installments until 1908 were alienated.

Under Gutierrez's administration (1868-69), when the governor of Cundinamarca gathered troops and assumed a dictatorship, the president deposed him. Even a liberal administration found it impracticable to carry out the theory of non-intervention. An attempt was now made to secure the nation's creditors by authorising the hypothecation of specific revenue--a measure which left the administration insufficient means to meet ordinary running expenses. Under Salgar (1870-72), the acknowledged deficits amounted to fifty per cent. of the total revenue. The increasing revenues had proved a curse instead of a blessing, for the demands of the states and officials were insatiable, and the sums spent in subsidies and internal improvements grew beyond all reason. Meantime the most extreme and unrestrained liberalism dominated the politics of the country. Congress passed a formal vote of condolence for the death of Lopez, Paraguay's unspeakable tyrant, who had just succumbed to Brazil and Argentina, after having devoted to destruction nine-tenths of his people. All honorary and useless military titles and employments were abolished, and the law on that subject contains the following curious provision: "In naming the eight generals spoken of by the Constitution, from whom must be chosen the commander-in-chief of the army, all Colombians over twenty-one shall be considered as generals of the republic."

Murillo was elected for a second term in 1872, and at once devoted himself, and with considerable success, to the re-organisation and regulation of the finances. The law of 1868, which had hypothecated the revenues to meet the charges of the public debt, was repealed and the foreign bonds were scaled down to less than one-third their face. By such measures the president succeeded in paying the government employees and taking care of pressing home necessities, and even showed a nominal surplus at the end of his term.

During the administration of Santiago Perez (1874-76) the first mutterings of the terrible storm of civil war soon to burst over the country were heard. The state of Panama defied his authority and imprisoned his officers, but he applied conscientiously the constitutional doctrine of non-intervention, and disavowed a general who on his own responsibility had deposed the governor. The governor of the state of Magdalena took possession of the custom houses at the mouth of the river, and the troops of the state of Bolivar attacked federal detachments passing along the Magdalena--a river which is inter-state, and whose navigation was free by the terms of the Constitution. The popular election of 1875 was so disturbed that congress assumed the power of selecting a president, and Parra was installed the following spring. An internecine conflict broke out in Cauca; the president started to intervene, and the states of Antioquia and Tolima declared war against him. Although guerilla bands in Cundinamarca, Boyacá, and Santander menaced the government's rear, twenty-five thousand recruits were raised and sent against the rebelling states. Antioquia was beaten at Chancos and Garrapata, and the rebels of central Colombia at La Donjuana, in battles where the largest numbers of soldiers ever gathered on Colombian soil were engaged.

Peace was followed by a general amnesty, because the victorious liberals dared not proceed to extremities against their adversaries. Trujillo was installed as president without opposition, and the harried country recovered somewhat from the exertions and disasters of the terrible year of 1876. The finances were, however, in horrible disorder; expenses amounted to enormous figures; the deficits became greater than the total revenues; interest on the public debt, which had been regularly kept up since 1873, was indefinitely suspended. Disturbances soon began to break out again, and the national guard deposed the governors of Cauca and Magdalena. The president showed an inclination toward centralisation; he formed alliances with state governors, encouraged them to prolong their terms, and systematically fostered divisions in the liberal party. Trujillo was succeeded by Nuñez, nominally a liberal, but who at heart had also sickened of the federalistic system and was looking for an opportunity to strengthen presidential prerogatives. The Constitution stood during his first term and those of his two successors, but when he was re-elected in 1884 the policy which he followed soon caused him to be denounced by the liberals as a traitor to the Constitution.

The failure of a liberal insurrection in 1885 was followed by a complete unitarian and clerical reaction. In 1886 a new Constitution was adopted which substituted a consolidated republic for the loose confederation. The country's name was changed from the "United States of Colombia" to "Republic of Colombia" in order to express the dominating principle of the new régime. The sovereignty of the individual states was expressly denied in the document, and the two most refractory ones--Panama and Cundinamarca--temporarily reduced to territorial dependencies. The governors were named from Bogotá instead of being elected and the right of federal intervention re-affirmed. Suffrage was limited by an educational and property qualification; the clergy were admitted to participation in politics; the Roman Catholic was declared to be the national religion, although individual freedom of worship was permitted; the presidential term was extended to six years; and an attempt was made to insure judicial independence by a life tenure.

Under this Constitution there was for a long time less disorder. In Colombia political hatreds are, however, incredibly virulent and persistent because party differences are fundamental and irreconcilable. The clericals regard their opponents as pestilent enemies of religion and order, and the liberals anathematise the ruling party as a reactionary, corrupt, and benighted oligarchy. The exiled liberals have made repeated efforts to regain power, and the administrations have not been able to avoid a constantly mounting national expenditure and the continuation of deficits and repudiation. In 1899, a formidable insurrection, aided from Venezuela, broke out, President Sanclemente was imprisoned, and in 1900 Vice-President Marroquin assumed the executive functions. This terrible civil war ended only in November, 1902, when the insurgents surrendered their fleet and stores. President Marroquin and the conservative government seem now firmly established, backed as they are by the tremendous influence of the Church among the masses. The people are returning to their usual avocations, though business has been demoralised by the stupendous depreciation of the paper currency.

The vast expenditures of the French canal company boomed Panama, but the resulting prosperity was confined to the Isthmus. The Bogotá government hoped for a great increase of income when the canal should be completed, and the abandonment of the enterprise was a disappointment. The principal subject of public preoccupation during 1903 was the negotiation with the United States concerning the permission desired by the latter to continue the work. Colombia proper has its outlet down the Magdalena to the Caribbean, and therefore has no greater special commercial interest in the building of a canal than Venezuela, Guiana, or Cuba, but the Colombians of the continent regarded the possession of the isolated Isthmian region as their most valuable national birthright, and believed that this invaluable strategic position should be used so as to obtain the utmost possible advantages for the Bogotá government as well as for the people of Panama. The revenue from the Panama railway had been one of the important sources of government income and the ruling political classes considered that they were entitled to have this income largely increased if a canal was built.

The special congress summoned to consider the treaty already signed by the executive failed to ratify the agreement and adjourned, after empowering the president to try and negotiate a new one which would give Colombia a larger bonus and revenue. But the rejection of the treaty was followed by a declaration of independence on the part of the people of Panama, who believed that the United States would pay no larger sum than that already agreed upon and who saw their own interests being sacrificed for the sake of a far-distant interior region with which they had few commercial ties and whence invasion and coercion need not be feared because of the lack of practicable routes of communication. The United States and other powers promptly recognised the new nation, which at once made a canal treaty similar to that rejected by the Bogotá congress.

At Bogotá the first impression was one of profound dismay. The executive offered to declare martial law, suspend the Constitution, and ratify the rejected treaty in spite of the Senate. General Reyes, the foremost living Colombian, immediately departed for Panama as a special envoy to endeavour to persuade the people there to return to their allegiance, but his overtures were rejected, and he went to Washington on the hopeless errand of inducing the United States Government temporarily to abandon its policy of forbidding fighting on the Isthmus, so that Colombia might reduce the people of Panama to obedience. Meanwhile many Colombians blamed the Marroquin administration for the irreparable loss of Panama and ten million badly needed dollars. Some popular demonstrations occurred, and the hot-headed demanded that war be declared against the United States and an army marched across the Atrato swamps to attack Panama from the land. But the financial and topographical difficulties were so evidently insurmountable that the war talk soon died down, the demonstrations against the Government ceased, and most elements seem to have acquiesced in the election of General Reyes to the presidential term which begins in 1904. It will be under his able guidance that Colombia will start on the tedious road leading to internal peace and regeneration, to financial rehabilitation, and to the reconcilement of those fierce factions whose wars have drenched their country's soil with blood for so many decades.

PANAMA

PANAMA

THE EVENTS LEADING TO INDEPENDENCE

The history of Panama is for the most part identified with that of Colombia, which is narrated elsewhere in the present volume. It will, however, be convenient to review certain movements and tendencies of the last half-century in order to obtain a just understanding of the position and prospects of the new republic.

All the principles of advanced democratic government were included in the programme of the party which ruled Columbia from 1863 to 1883, and the statute books of the time afford ample proof that the leaders earnestly tried to put those principles into practical effect. They dreamed a Utopia, but practically their efforts only aggravated the anarchical tendencies bequeathed by the Spaniards and Bolivar. Colombian liberals still insist that a persistent enforcement of the Constitution and principles of 1863 would ultimately transform the character of the people--that religious bigotry and priestly influence would gradually disappear; that the progressive enlightenment of the masses would make military despotism and revolutions impossible; and that in process of time the relations of the states to the federal government would reach a satisfactory and workable basis. But so far as the experiment went no progress was made toward unifying the nation and pacifying the adverse elements. Discontent, disorders, civil wars increased in violence as the years went by. Though one-fifth of the federal revenues were spent on the public school system, and one-tenth of the children were nominal attendants, the clergy were permitted to have no share in their control, and retaliated by excommunicating the parents. The devotedly pious Creole mothers and wives, threatened with the closing of the confessionals and the denial of absolution, threw their incalculable influence against the atheistic government. The destruction of the convents and the confiscation of the vast ecclesiastical estates violently changed the ownership of two-thirds of the land in the confederation, but this imposition of new landlords on the industrious, oppressed, half-enslaved tenantry did not much modify real agricultural conditions. No extensive subdivision of estates resulted, and the Creole aristocracy continued to pay more attention to political intrigue than to improving their property.

Not less disappointing in its practical working was the independence of the states. Not only did the local bosses constantly abuse autonomy for their own selfish purposes, but the presidents at Bogotá often ignored the constitutional rights of the states, and selected for coercion precisely those states which were farthest from the capital and most needed wide autonomous powers. Though Panama's position was isolated, its population cosmopolitan, its commercial interests and social structure peculiar, and though in colonial times its dependence on Bogotá had been only nominal, the liberal presidents usually ruled it like a conquered province. Members of the Andean oligarchy poured in to batten on its revenues; the autonomy guaranteed by the Constitution proved illusory, and discontent led to repeated efforts to achieve absolute independence.

Rival ambitions among its own leaders furnished, however, the immediate cause of the downfall of the liberal party. A close oligarchy grew up and that inevitable corollary, a powerful faction of dissident liberals, while the clericals remained formidable and irreconcilable even after their bloody overthrow in 1876. Rafael Nuñez, a brilliant writer, a resolute and ambitious party chief, and a leader in the confiscation of church property, had been defeated in his candidacy for the presidency in 1875. The younger and dissatisfied liberals rallied behind him in his war against the oligarchy, and in 1880 the old-fashioned liberals could not prevent his election to the presidency. He vigorously strengthened the prerogatives of the federal executive and built up his personal following, but although the issue of paper money and the discontinuance of interest on the foreign debt--a debt which only ten years before had been scaled down to $10,000,000, one-sixth its original amount, on a solemn promise that at least this much would be faithfully paid--placed large funds at his disposal, the old-line liberals were strong enough to prevent his re-election in 1882. Their victory was illusory and temporary. Nuñez controlled both houses of congress and was able to block President Zaldua at every turn. Eighty years old and in feeble health, the latter died after a year of fruitless struggle.

After a short _ad interim_ administration in which Nuñez's influence predominated, he was re-elected to the presidency and installed in 1884. By this time his centralising tendencies were manifest, and the measures he adopted unmistakably pointed to the substitution of a unified republic for the old loose confederation. Many of his liberal supporters fell away and he was driven into an alliance with the conservatives. Appointments of members of that party to important positions were followed by the great revolt of 1885. The insurrectionists delivered their main attack on the Caribbean coast, whither the importation of arms was easy. Much of the department of Magdalena fell into their hands, and they besieged Cartagena in force. But when one of their expeditions invaded the Isthmus, burning Colon, and interrupting traffic on the Panama Railway, the president appealed to the United States, as previous presidents had done in similar cases, to carry out the guaranty of free transit contained in the treaty of 1846. At the same time the government troops attacked and defeated the isolated insurrectionists at Colon, and shortly afterwards the latter's main army suffered a bloody repulse in an assault on Cartagena. This broke the back of the movement against Nuñez, and the liberals abandoned the hopeless struggle.

The insurrection had been undertaken for the purpose of defending the 1863 Constitution, and its defeat meant the destruction of departmental independence. As the logical and natural result of his victory, the president proclaimed the abolishment of the Constitution and summoned a convention to adopt a new one. Thenceforward until his death ten years later Rafael Nuñez and his political ideas were supreme in Colombia, and Panama was held in the most rigid subjection. The old "United States of Colombia" was replaced by the "Republic of Columbia," one and indivisible; the departments became mere administrative divisions whose governors were appointed from Bogotá; the presidential term was increased to six years; the radical liberal projects were abandoned; the clergy regained many of their privileges; and the historical conservatives continued the dominant party.

As long as Nuñez lived there were few outbreaks and no serious civil war, though the ousted liberals never ceased to plot the government's overthrow. The centralising system held the departments in a rigid control from whose inconveniences Panama suffered far more than the mountain districts. Practically she was allowed no voice in either her own or general affairs; the very delegates who nominally represented her in the constitutional convention of 1885 were residents of Bogotá appointed by Nuñez; military rule became a permanent thing on the Isthmus; all officials were strangers sent from the Andean plateau; and the million dollars of taxes wrung each year from the people of Panama were spent on maintaining the soldiers who kept them in subjection. In January, 1895, the harassed province broke out in a rebellion which was suppressed by an overwhelming force of Colombian troops in April.

Meanwhile in Colombia proper the opposition to the ruling clique grew stronger and stronger. Persecution united the liberals, and they began organising for revolt all over the republic. The conservatives themselves divided into two parties, one of which opposed the administration. Nuñez did not live to finish the second term to which he had been elected in 1892, but his successor managed to suppress the premature revolt of 1895, and in 1898 Sanclemente was elected, the opposition refraining from going to the polls. The new president soon found his position very difficult, and, unlike Nuñez, was unable to dominate his own party and hold the opposition in check. The French Canal Company, whose concession, granted in 1878, would expire in 1904, offered a million dollars for a renewal, desiring to recoup, by a sale to the United States, a part of the two hundred millions sunk by De Lesseps. Sanclemente's government wished to accept, but the opposition and even the conservative congress insisted on the forfeiture of the French rights. The administration rapidly lost prestige, the discontented elements saw their opportunity, and the long-brewing storm now broke on the hapless country. The liberals hurriedly completed their preparations, and in the fall of 1899 a civil war began--the most terrible and destructive that has ever devastated the republic. Before it ended in 1902, more than two hundred battles and armed encounters had been fought, and thirty thousand Colombians slain. The detailed history of the campaigns has not yet been written, but it is apparent that the insurrectionists at first gained many successes. The president declared martial law, suspending the functions of congress, and the extension desired by the French Canal Company was granted by executive decree. But the pecuniary relief thus obtained did not materially help the floundering administration. Sanclemente became a mere figurehead for his more resolute ministers, and in July, 1900, the vigorous vice-president, Marroquin, seized power by a _coup d'état_, throwing Sanclemente into a prison, where he remained until his death. Thereafter the war against the rebels was prosecuted with more energy, and the tide turned with the defeat of an army of Venezuelans, eight thousand strong, which had invaded the eastern provinces, to co-operate with the insurrectionists.

However, the liberals were still strong in the west and north. On the Isthmus four insurrections had broken out from October, 1899, to September, 1901, and though each had been promptly suppressed, in 1902 the liberals were able to make a last great effort to establish themselves at Panama. They had considerable forces near the mouth of the Magdalena, and gunboats on the Pacific. The secure possession of the Isthmus would have enabled them to reinforce this Magdalena army, cut off Marroquin from the sea, and undertake a campaign against the interior. At first all went well for them; their gunboats captured the government's vessels on the Pacific side; they concentrated a respectable army there and finally defeated and captured two thousand of Marroquin's troops at Agua Dulce, near Panama. But this was their last success. Marroquin poured reinforcements into Colon, and though the American admiral at first refused to allow them to be transported over the railroad to Panama, permission was granted when it became evident that there would be no fighting near the line. News came of the defeat of the liberal army near the Magdalena, and General Herrera, the victor at Agua Dulce, found himself isolated. In desperation he sent an expedition in October which surprised and captured Colon, but French and American marines were promptly landed to prevent fighting in that city. The expedition had no alternative but to surrender, and a few days later General Herrera with the main body capitulated on the Pacific side.

The three years of war left Colombia in frightful demoralisation. The victorious government was little better off than the defeated liberals. Commerce and industry had been prostrated; revenues had dwindled to nothing; the paper currency was worth less than one per cent. The exhaustion of its adversaries, not its own strength, enabled Marroquin's government to continue in power. In such a situation the administration welcomed the opportunity which now offered of renewing the building of the Isthmian canal. The United States government determined to undertake this great work itself, and finally decided in favour of Panama as against the Nicaragua route. Forty million dollars was agreed upon as a just price for the work already done by the French Company, and nothing remained but to obtain Colombia's consent to the transfer. The civil war helped to delay the negotiation of a satisfactory treaty, but as soon as it was over the Marroquin administration lost little time in coming to an agreement with the United States. Colombia was to receive a bonus of ten million dollars for consenting to the transfer and enlarging the terms of the original concession; her sovereign rights were reserved and guaranteed, although she agreed to police and sanitary control of the canal strip by the United States.

When this treaty was submitted to the Colombian Senate for ratification, opposition developed which the administration was not strong or resolute enough to overcome. Among the politicians at Bogotá, the opinion was almost universal that the executive should have demanded more. The Colombian people have ever regarded the political control of the Isthmus as their most valuable national heritage, and cherished extravagant hopes that some day they would be vastly enriched by the sale or rental of this strategic bit of ground for its natural use as the greatest artery of the world's commerce. Many now insisted, as they had done in 1898, on enforcing a forfeiture of the French rights, or at least on receiving a proportion of the $40,000,000 to be paid for them. It was also said that the Americans could well afford a larger bonus, and the opponents of the treaty made the further point that the agreement was unconstitutional and contained insufficient guaranties of Colombian sovereignty. Against this storm the feeble administration probably could do little and certainly did nothing. The Senate was allowed to adjourn without ratifying the treaty, and an attempt was made to negotiate a new one providing for a larger bonus and more stringent guarantees of Colombian sovereignty.

The United States, however, absolutely refused to consider any other terms than those already agreed upon, and the civilised world saw the completion of an enterprise promising incalculable benefits to mankind indefinitely postponed by the opposition of Andean provinces whom the accidents of war and international politics had given an arbitrary control over a region with which they had no natural connection. The situation was particularly hard for the people of the Isthmus, whose confident hopes were now disappointed of at last receiving, by the prosperity which would follow the building of the canal, some compensation for the oppression and losses they had suffered during eighty years of misrule by the Bogotá oligarchies. Hardly had the treaty been rejected when plotting for a declaration of independence began. The resident population was unanimous, and good grounds existed for believing that even the Colombian garrison would offer no resistance unless reinforcements should come from Bogotá. In case of an armed conflict with Colombia the people of Panama could count on the sympathy of all America and Europe. The stockholders of the French Company had a direct pecuniary interest in their success. If once they could establish independence and a _de facto_ government, Colombia could not deliver an effective attack without violating the neutrality and security of transit guaranteed to the Isthmus by the United States. Everything pointed to the success of a well-conducted movement.

Though the preparations for the revolt could not be concealed, the Bogotá government took no effective measures to forestall it. Warned that trouble was impending, the United States sent ships to prevent fighting that might interfere with transit. The new republic was proclaimed at Panama on the 3rd of November, 1903. The Colombian authorities made no resistance; the garrison surrendered without firing a shot; and the entire population acquiesced in the appointment of a provisional government, pending the calling of a convention and the adoption of a Constitution. A small force of Colombians had been landed at Colon, but the revolution at Panama found it still on the Atlantic side. On November 4th the American naval commander refused to give these troops permission to use the railroad for warlike purposes. Because the vital portion of the new republic is virtually neutral under the treaty of 1846, the provisional government having established itself in peaceable possession was safe from external attack. The useless Colombian troops at Colon either joined the people of Panama or retired. The inhabitants of Colon and the outlying districts immediately sent in their adherence, and the peace of the whole Isthmian region remained unbroken. On the 13th of November the United States recognised the new republic, being followed by France on the 18th, and then by all other nations as soon as diplomatic formalities could be complied with. Dr. Manuel Amador Guerrero was elected first president of the Republic of Panama, being inaugurated on February 19, 1904. A treaty with the United States for the building of the canal was framed on substantially the same lines as the one which had been negotiated with Colombia. By the end of February it had been ratified and proclaimed, and the United States at once made preparations for the beginning of the work.

INDEX

A

Abascal, General, Viceroy of Peru, 73-78, 163, 168, 260

Abibe Mountains, 408

Acha, General, 276

Aconcagua River, the, 223; plain of, 168

Acosta, Juan, 56

Acosta, President of Colombia, 464, 465

Acre River, the, 280

"Adelantados," 26, 349, 414, 417

Agua Dulce, battle of, 484, 485

Alansi, valley of, 291

Alacantra, Francisco, 26, 46

Alfaro, President of Ecuador, 339, 341

Alfinger, Adelantado of Venezuela, 349

Almagro, partner of Pizarro, 23, 24, 27, 32, 36, 136, 239, 298; at war with Pizarro, 41-43, 239, 301; execution of, 43, 44, 136, 239

Almagro the younger, 49, 50

Alonso, President of Bolivia, 281

Alpaca, the, 3, 4

Alvarado, Spanish adventurer, 44, 88; Governor of Guatemala, 298

Amar, Viceroy of Bogotá, 430

Amat, Don Manuel, 154, 155

Amazon River, the, discovery of, 44, 114, 279, 293

Amazon, forested plains of, 4, 5, 40, 67, 303, 351, 424

Andagoya, Pascual de, 22

Andean plateau, the, 3, 235, 285, 288, 302, 312, 335, 342

Andean valleys, 10; gold in, 349, 354

Andes, the, 4, 135, 245, 317, 342, 347, 409 et passim

Andes, army of the, 168, 173, 174, 185, 186

Andrade, Creole revolutionist, 396

Andueza, Creole revolutionist, 396

Angol, besieged, 145

Angostura (city), 374

Anserma, founded, 409

Antigua, founded, 404, 405

Antioquia, great mineral province of Colombia, 387, 407-409, 412, 416, 417, 419, 422, 433, 437, 451

Antioquia, state of, 407, 457, 461, 462, 467

Antofogasta, 119, 120, 122, 277

Apples, 66

Apuré River, the, 355, 374-376, 406, 437; army of, 372, 380

Aragua Valley, the, 350

Araucania, colonised, 216

Araucanians, the, independent spirit of, 138-147, 150, 151, 155; treaty of, with Spanish, 150, 151; missions established among, 201; at war with Chile, 206, 216

Arauco, besieged, 145

Araure, battle of, 368

Arce, President of Bolivia, 278

Arenales, General, 81, 89, 258

Arequipa (city), founded, 44, 80, 99, 103, 108, 110, 112

Arequipa (province), 39, 41, 77, 104, 259

Argentina, 11, 13, 18, 71, 142, 245; civilised tribes of, 58, 350; revolution in, 76, 160, 161, 317; civil wars in, 78, 186, 261, 267, 271, 323

Argentine, army, the, 80, 81, 98, 185, 186, 257, 258; navy, the, 78, 79, 173, 183, 184; pampas, 99

Argentine Republic, the, 140; expansion of, 155, 230, 231; boundary treaty of, with Chile, 209, 210

Arica (city), 108, 123, 125

Arica (province), arrangement between Peru and Chile concerning, 127, 278

Asses, 66

Atacama desert, the, 239

Atahuallpa, Inca empire divided between Huascar and, 14, 308; fratricidal war between Huascar and, 16-19, 238, 295, 296; sends ambassador to Spaniards, 21; treacherously captured by Pizarro, 30, 31, 48; offers ransom, 31, 246; murder of, 32, 238, 297

Atrato, River, the, 403-406; Valley, 405, 472

Audiencias, royal, established, 67, 71, 250, 251, 254, 267, 308, 417, 420, 426

Auqui Toma, 294

Ayachucho, plain of, 95; battle of, 96, 97, 256, 264, 266, 322

Ayohuma, battle of, 256, 258

Azuay, nudo of, 17, 291-293, 295, 298

Aztecs, the, 412

B

Balboa, Nuñez de, discoverer of the Pacific, 22, 23, 404

Balcarce, General, 185

Ballivian, General, 273, 274

Balmaceda, Chilean Liberal leader, 214-216, 218-220, 222-225; death of, 226

Balta, Colonel, President of Peru, 113, 114, 116

Bambona, battle of, 444

Bananas, 66, 303, 352

Baquedano, General, 213, 219, 225

Barcelona (city), founded, 352; captured, 372

Barcelona (province), 362

Barinos (province), 362, 363, 366

Barley, 66, 303, 343

Barquisimeto, founded, 350, 351; destroyed by earthquake, 363; captured, 368

Barreiro, General, 377, 378, 441

Bastida, Rodrigo, 403, 404

Belgrano, General, 258

Bello, civil code prepared by, 200

Belzu, General, 274, 275

Benalcazar, Sebastian de, conquers Quito, 298, 299, 409, 410, 413, 414

Beni River, the, 246, 279, 280

Bermudez, Colonel, 130, 381

Biobio River, the, 138, 139, 141, 145-147, 150

Blanco, Guzman, Dictator of Venezuela, 391, 394-396, 398

_Blanco_, the, 119-121

Bogotá, (city) 308, 312, 316, 317, 378, 384, 420, 448; founded, 413; one of the centres of Spanish-American culture, 422; Archbishop of, banished, 425, 457, 461; revolutionary junta in, 431; seat of federal government, 435, 442, 470, 471; punishment of, 438, 439

Bogotá (province), 376, 416, 419, 434, 437; vice-royalty of, 71, 250, 313, 327, 356, 385, 416, 420, 426; jurisdiction of, 356, 420, 426, 429; audiencia of, 417; presidency of, 418; named New Granada, 419; declares itself an independent state, 433

Bolivar, Simon, the "Liberator" of South America, 79, 86, 368, 382, 384, 435; Dictator of Peru, 90, 98, 447; military exploits of, 92, 264, 317, 321, 366, 367; President of United States of Colombia, 99, 322, 378, 442, 443, 448, 450, 451; plan of, for South American Confederation, 99, 267, 320-322, 384, 442, 443, 450, 451; constitutions, 99, 101, 268, 270, 385, 386; undertakes conquest of Quito, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia, 101, 318, 383, 384, 447; wins battle of Ayachucho, 264; welcomed in Bolivia, 267; political theories of, 268, 322, 448, 451; forced to retire from Peru, 270; drives Spanish from Venezuela and New Granada, 317, 370, 372, 374, 375, 378, 433-435, 439, 440, 444; interview of, with San Martin, 321; life of, devoted to South American independence, 366, 388, 451; army of, 376, 380, 381, 440, 441, 452; proclamation of, 376; overthrow of, 323, 326, 448, 450, 451; death of, 326, 387, 388, 452; character and education of, 364-366; native city of, 387; apotheosis of, 455

Bolivar, State of, 460, 463, 466

Bolivia (Upper Peru), 235-281; description of 235, 236; Inca conquest of, 13, 18, 236, 238; military roads in, 36, 239, 244, 251; Spanish conquest of, 36, 239, 248, 250; Inca cities in, 44, 59; capital of, 44; precious metals found in, 44, 238-242, 245-247; railroads in, 54, 277, 279, 280; audiencia established in, 67, 250 (_see also_ Charcas); the battleground of war of independence, 76, 77, 86, 97, 255 _et seq._, 268; republic of, created, 99, 267, 268; Bolivar the Father of, 99, 266, 267; named, 99, 268; first president of, 99, 268-270; constitutions of, 99, 268, 270, 273, 278, 322; the Peru-Bolivian Confederation, 101-103, 105, 197, 270-273, 281; boundary treaty of, with Chile, 117, 281; at war with Chile, 118, 271, 272, 281; secret treaty of, with Peru, 118; nitrate territory of, 211, 278; early civilisation of, 236, 239, 249; rainfall in, 236; fertility of, 238; population of, 239, 244, 269; character of population of, 239, 260, 269, 272, 273, 357; Spanish cities in, 241, 242, 249; cattle-raising in, 242, 243, 248; Spanish colonial system in, 243, 245, 249; taxation in, 243, 269, 270, 276; missions established in, 245, 279; printing-press, in, 245; battles in, 257-260, 264-266, 272, 273, 281; sturdy spirit of patriots in, 258-262, etc.; commerce of, 267, 272, 281; period of civil war and anarchy in, 272 _et seq._; slavery abolished in, 273; greatest silver producing country of the world, 277, 278; rubber production of, 278-280; without seaports, 278, 280, 281; treaty of, with Brazil, 280; international position of, 281

Bonaparte, Joseph, 311, 312, 360

Bonaparte, Napoleon, 77, 159, 311, 365, 435

Borrero, Antonio, President of Ecuador, 339

Bourbon dynasty, the, 70, 154, 250

Boves, organises troop of llaneros, 368, 369; death of, 370

Boyacá River, the, 378; battle of, 86, 256, 317, 378, 441

Boyacá, state of, 467

Brazil, treaty of, with Bolivia, 280; loyalty of, 337

Brown, Admiral William, 78

Buccaneers, 69, 70, 150

Buenaventura, 49

Buenos Aires, viceroyalty of, 67, 71, 155, 251, 257; smuggling in, 71, 152, 251; revolutionary junta in, 76, 160, 161, 438; pampas of, 78, 149; importance of, 156, 158

Bunes, General, 198, 199

C

Cabildos, in Bogotá, 431; in Bolivia, 249; in Chile, 160, 161; in Ecuador, 313; in Venezuela, 360, 361, 385

Cacao, native to South America, 66, 238, 303

Cacao industry in Colombia, 428; in Ecuador, 303, 328, 332, 341; in Venezuela, 352, 390, 395

Caceres, President of Peru, 126-131

Cacha, the last Cara shiri, 292, 294

Caciques, 64, 243, 244, 248

Cadiz, 70, 361, 380, 443; monopoly, the, 152, 352

Cajamarca, 17, 20, 21, 29, 31

Calabozo, 368, 375

Caldas, Colombian scientist, 438

Calderon, Garcia, 126

Cali (city), 408, 409, 432

Cali (province), part of presidency of Quito, 420

Calivio, battle of, 433

Callao, engulfed by tidal wave, 71; Peruvian fleet at, 104; Spanish fleet at, 112, 184, 186

Callao Castle, 80, 84, 97, 321

Caluchima, 296

Camano, José, President of Ecuador, 339

Camargo, patriot leader, 258, 260

Campero, Narcisco, President of Bolivia, 278

Cañan (province), 288, 291, 296, 298

Cañaris, the, Indian tribe, 14, 16, 17, 296, 297

Candamo, Señor, President of Peru, 131

Cancha-Rayada, battle at, 176-178

Cañete (city), founded, 143, 144; besieged, 145, 146

Cañete, Marquis of, the "good viceroy," 57, 58. _See_ Mendoza

Canizaries, Doña Manuela, 313

Canseco, General, President of Peru, 113

Canterac, Spanish commander, 85, 89, 93, 96, 97

Canto, Colonel, 223, 224

Cape Codera, 351

Cape Gracias á Dios, 403, 404, 405

Cape Horn, 69, 152, 209, 235

Cape San Roman, 347

Captaincies-General, 67, 71, 148, 355, 356, 419, 426

Carabobo, battle of, 86, 317, 381, 443

Caracas (city), revolutionary junta in, 76, 361; founded, 350; sacked, 351, 354; made a captaincy-general, 356, 392, 426; destroyed by earthquake, 363; Bolivar's birthplace, 382, 386, 387; under jurisdiction of Bogotá, 426; revolution in, 447

Caracoles, silver mines of, 208

Cara Indians, the, confederacy of, 11, 12, 16, 288, 289; invade Ecuador, 11, 286, 287; conquered by Incas, 11-14, 288-296

Caranquis, the Indian tribe, 13, 293, 294

Caras, description of, 286-290, 293, 412; staple articles of food of, 290, 303; conquered by Spanish, 299

Carbojal, Spanish commander, 53, 56

Caribbean Sea, 70, 71, 348, 405, 406, 414, 470

Carib Indians, the, 268, 290, 413

Carrasco, Captain-General of Chile, 159-161

Carrera, José, creole leader, 162, 164, 166, 167, 173, 182

Carrera, Juan, 162, 173, 181, 182

Carrera, Luiz, 162, 173, 181, 182

Carrillo, 126

Cartagena (city), revolutionary junta in, 366, 431; Bolivar takes service with, 366, 433; besieged, 380, 381, 429, 435-437, 480; oldest fortress in America, 406-409, 428, 436, 442; surrender of, 443

Cartagena (province), 417, 419, 420, 431, 432

Cartago (city), 408, 409;

Carujo, Venezuelan revolutionist, 389

Casanare (province), 424

Casanare River, the, 376, 377, 437; plains of, 406, 440

Cassava, 66

Castilla, Don Ramon, President of Peru, 106-110, 112, 274; character and ability of, 108; death of, 113

Castilla, Don Ruiz de, President of Quito, 312, 314

Castilla, Marshal, 118;

Castro (city), 151

Castro, President of Venezuela, 396, 398, 399

Castro, Vala de, Governor of Peru, 46, 49, 50, 52, 300

Cattle, introduced into South America, 66, 151, 352

Cattle-raising in Bolivia, 243, 261; in Colombia, 421; in Venezuela, 354, 355, 390, 395

Cauca (province), northern division of Quito presidency, 324, 326; State of, 460, 466, 468

Cauca River, the, 49, 312, 408, 409, 411, 412, 422, 432, 433

Caudillos, the, Bolivian, 256, 269, 270

Caupolican, Arauncanian chief, 144

Ceballos, José, 361, 368, 369

Central America, Colombia's claim to, 429

Cerro de Pasco Mountains, 4, 9, 11, 17, 18, 32, 36, 81, 262, 264, 289

Chacabuco, battle of, 78, 168, 170, 172, 256, 261, 317

Chanca Indians, the, 9

Chancos, battle of, 467

Charcas (Sueré), Indian capital of Bolivia, 44, 59, 240; audiencia of, 71, 250, 251, 267; revolutionary junta in, 76; Spanish capital of Upper Peru, 242, 249, 301; jurisdiction of, 250, 251

Charles IV. of Spain, 311

Charles V., Emperor, authorises conquest of Peru, 25, 26, 41, 60; appoints governor for Venezuela, 349

Chaves, Francisco, 47

Chibcho Indians, the, 412-414; civilisation of, 412

Chile, Inca conquest of, 11, 12, 18, 135; Spanish conquest of, 36, 43, 44, 60, 136, 139-149; captain-general of, 67, 148, 154, 155, 158, 160, 161; war of independence in, 76, 78, 112, 156 _et seq._, 190, 261, 317; junta established in, 161; at war with Peru and Bolivia, 104, 105, 118, 119, 208, 211, 281; boundary treaty of, with Bolivia, 117, 118, 206; boundaries of, 117, 147, 150, 155; defeats allies, 121-125; captures Lima, 125, 126, 213; mineral products of, 117, 136, 138, 144, 148, 199, 208; nitrate industry of, 117, 118, 126, 206, 211; gains control of nitrate region, 212, 220-222; navy of, 118-121, 183-185, 204; characteristics of inhabitants of, 135, 136, 149, 150, 190; area of, 135; rainfall in, 135; population of, 135, 136, 152, 230; agricultural conditions in, 136, 148, 199; battles in, 141, 143-145, 164, 167, 176-178, 180-182, 187, 223-225, 272; Spanish cities of, 145, 151, 154, 155; at war with Araucanians, 147, 206; the colonial period in, 148-155; immigration into, 149, 156, 199, 203; growth of commerce in, 148, 152, 154, 158, 162, 199, 200, 203, 230; smuggling in, 152; taxation in, 152, 158; prosperity of, 154-156, 158, 203, 208, 216; universities in, 154, 198; the capital of, 154, 158; seismic disturbances in, 154; Cuyo separates from, 155; landed aristocracy of, 158, 159, 162, 189, 201; liberal reforms in, 162, 168, 200, 206-208, 214-217; slavery abolished in, 162; Spanish authority re-established in, 163, 166, 168, 316; independence of, proclaimed, 176; civil wars in, 189 _et seq._, 200-203, 215-226; constitutions of, 193, 196, 206; strong government established in, 196, 197, 271, 272; qualifications for suffrage in, 196, 206; becomes dominant power on Pacific coast, 198; political conditions in, 198-203, 207, 214, 215, 227-229; financial conditions of, 98, 200, 211-213; religious conditions in, 199, 201; adopts civil and criminal codes, 200, 207; at war with Spain, 203, 204, 337; debt of, 208; boundary treaty of, with Argentina, 209, 210; boundary disputes with Argentina, 209, 210, 230, 231; chief exports of, 211; paper money issued in, 212; under jurisdiction of Buenos Aires, 251

Chilean (city), 145, 151, 164

Chiloë Islands, the, explored, 143, 149, 188, 192, 197

Chimilas Mountains, 410

Chincha Islands, the, seized by Spain, 112, 203

Chinchon, Countess of, cure of, 70

Chinese coolies in Peru, 111

Chiquitos Indians, the, 245, 250

Chocolate, Europe indebted to Peru for, 66; Ecuador supplies large amount of, 332

Chorrillos (city), 125

Coal mines, 208

Cochabamba (city), 243, 249, 258

Cochrane, Lord Thomas, Admiral, 79-83, 186-188, 190

_Cochrane_, the, 119-121

Cocoa palm introduced into South America, 66

Coffee-raising, 341, 390, 395

Colombia (New Granada), plateau of, 13, 312, 406, 410, 414, 419; Spanish exploration of, 22, 347, 348, 403-406, 410-414; native tribes of, 23, 406, 409, 410, 412-414, 416; first permanent settlement in, 406, 416; Spanish conquest of, 407-418; revolutionary spirit in, 366, 430 _et seq._; war of independence in, 86, 316, 317, 430-444; formation of United States of, 98, 99, 318, 322, 378, 382, 461; provinces in confederation of, 98, 99, 267, 318, 320-322, 337, 378, 443; Bolivar, President of confederation of, 99, 322, 378, 442, 443, 448, 450, 451; southern part under jurisdiction of Quito, 312; Constitution of Cucutá, 322, 386; confederation of, breaks up, 324, 388, 451, 452; at war with Peru, 324; civil wars in, 333, 337, 417, 450-458, 460, 470, 476, 481-485; boundaries of, 403; gold in, 404, 406-409, 412, 414, 416, 424; cities founded in, 404-406, 408, 409, 413-416, 424; climate of, 405, 406, 410, 422, 424, 425; rainfall in, 405; tropical forests of, 406; fertility of, 406, 410, 412, 414, 420, 421; Indian slavery in, 406, 416; negro slaves in, 422, 425; early civilisation of, 404, 409-412; population of, 409, 410, 413, 422, 424; territorial divisions of, 416; royal commissioners sent to, 417, 427; erected into a presidency, 418, 419; jurisdiction of presidency, 419, 420; colonial period of, 419-429; names of, 419, 458, 459, 461; education in, 420, 422, 454, 456, 461; roads built in, 420, 428; river transportation in, 420; creoles of, 421, 422, 427, 428, 430, 431, 476; agricultural products of, 421, 424, 428; Antioquia, great mineral province of, 422; commercial conditions in, 422, 425, 427, 428, 485; taxation in, 422, 424, 427, 428, 481; authors of, celebrated, 422; mineral products of, 424; Spanish colonial system in, 424, 427, 428, 431; decrease in population of, 425; smuggling in, 425; religious conditions in, 425, 437, 455-458, 461, 462, 469, 470; governors of, 425, 428, 437; diseases rife in, 426; "Rebellion of the Communes" in, 427; viceroys of, 428, 430, 431; exports of, 428, 464; claim of, to Central America, 429; Congress of, 432, 433, 437, 439; battles in, 433, 437, 439, 441, 443, 461, 462, 467, 482; independence of, recognised, 442, 446; financial conditions in, 446, 447, 455, 463-466, 468, 472, 485; public debt of, 446, 447, 468, 469, 478, 479; credit of, 447; liberty of the Press in, 450, 457; numerous constitutions of, 452, 455, 457, 460-462, 468, 469, 475, 478, 480; political conditions in, 454-462, 465, 469, 476, 480, 481; right of suffrage in, 454, 459-461, 469; steam navigation introduced into, 455; death penalty abolished, 456, 461; campaign of, against Ecuador, 462; power of judiciary in, 462, 469; receipts from Panama railway, 464; franchise of railway extended, 465; becomes a consolidated republic, 468, 469, 479; name changed to Republic of, 468, 480; length of presidential term in, 469, 481; paper currency in, 470, 478, 485; negotiates treaties with United States, 470; rejects treaties, 471, 485, 486; Panama declares her independence of, 471; threatens war against United States, 472; future of, 472; appeals to United States, 480; demands of, in regard to Panama Canal, 485, 486

Colombian army, the, 98, 267, 323, 326, 337

Colon (city), 405; burned, 480; captured, 485; adheres to Panama, 488

Colonia (city), 152

Columbus, Bartholomew, 404

Columbus, Christopher, 347, 348

Concepcion, founded, 139, 140, 142, 151; burned, 145; destroyed by tidal wave, 154; patriots capture, 164; southern capital of Chile, 191

Concordat signed by Ecuador, 337

"Conquistadores," the, 50, 56, 424

Copiapo, valley of, 137; mines of, 199

Copper, 8, 117, 211, 238, 239

Copper-pan amalgamation process, 241

Coquimbo, founded, 138; northern capital of Chile, 151, 190

Cordero, Luis, President of Ecuador, 340, 341

Cordilleras, the, 4, 11, 33, 259, 286, 290, 376, 408

Cordoba, General, 387, 451

Cordoba, Gonzalo de, 21

Coro (city), 348-350, 360, 361, 406, 413, 420

Corregidors, 60, 64, 69, 243, 248, 249; abolished, 72, 254

"Corregimentos," 64

Cortes, Hernando, conqueror of Mexico, 22, 26, 44, 407

Cortes, the Spanish, 166,436

Cotopaxi, eruption of, 298

Cotton, 3, 8, 111, 113, 238, 412

Council of the Indies, 304

_Covadonga_, the, 119

Coya (city), 145

Creoles, 65, 66, 243, 279, 308, 310, 421; growth of revolutionary ideas among, 72, 74, 77, 84, 159, 160, 257, 311, 312, 338, 359-362, 388, 430; characteristics of, 272, 273, 357, 396, 422; education among, 307, 309, 310, 336, 353, 384; new race of, 354

Crespo, President of Venezuela, 396

Croix, General Theodore de, 72

Cuaspud, battle of, 337, 462

Cuba, captain-general of, 429

Cubagua, island of, 348

Cucutá (city), 382; Colombian Congress meets at, 443, 448

Cucutá, constitution of, 322, 443

Cuenca (city), 100

Cuenca (province), 291, 298, 312, 314, 323, 324, 327; plateau of, 288, 307, 308

Cumaná, oldest city in South America, 348, 351, 383

Cumaná (province), 356, 362; transferred to jurisdiction of Venezuela, 426

Cundinamarca, State of, 465 467, 469

Cuyo (province), 78, 149; separation of, from Chile, 155

Cuzco, plateau of, 3, 4, 9

Cuzco (city), Inca capital, 5, 12, 18, 19, 32, 33, 59, 63, 103, 108, 291, 295; military road from, 9, 18, 28; possessed by Spanish, 32-36, 39, 238, 258

D

Darien, gold-mines of, 22; Gulf of, 403, 404

Daza, General, 278

De Lesseps, Ferdinand, 482

Drake, Sir Francis, 428

Ducasse captures Cartagena, 428

Duchisela, long reign of, 288

E

Earthquake, of 1751, 154; of 1812, 363

Echenique, General, President of Peru, 109, 110

Ecuador, Cara conquest of, 11-13, 286-288; Inca conquest of, 12, 13, 17, 24, 288, 291-296; character of inhabitants of, 24, 27, 286, 287, 289, 307, 342, 343, 357, 409; gold and silver in, 27, 53, 307; military roads in, 12, 28, 307, 336; Spanish conquest of, 58, 67, 297 _et seq._; Inca cities in, 59; war of independence in, 76, 86, 309 _et seq._, 437; incorporation of, with Colombia, 98, 267, 318, 320-322, 443; the founder of, 101, 327; description of, 285-287, 290, 291; climate of, 285, 290; fertility of, 286, 290, 341-343; taxation in, 301, 307, 328, 336; area of, 302, 303; population of, 302, 303, 342, 343; European grains and fruits introduced into, 303, 308; cacao industry of, 303, 328, 332, 341; Catholic Church in, 305, 306, 309, 337; education in, 307, 309; the capital of, 307; decrease in population of, 307, 308, 328; negro slavery in, 307; presidency of Quito erected, 308, 321, 323, 324, 326, 327; under jurisdiction of New Granada, 308; audiencia established in, 308; junta appointed in, 313, 314; open cabildo summoned, 313; battles in, 293, 298, 316, 318, 324; independence of, declared, 324, 452; named, 324; treaty of, with Colombia, 327; civil war in, 328, 329, 337-341, 451; civil and constitutional government in, 329; reforms in government of, 330, 331, 336; financial conditions of, 31, 336; second South American republic recognised by Spain, 331; prosperity of, 332; numerous constitutions of, 333-335, 339; railways of, 342; manual industries of, 342; future of, 342, 343; under jurisdiction of Bogotá, 426; Colombian campaign against, 462

Eldorado, 241, 349

Elephantiasis, 426

Elias, Campo, patriot leader, 368, 369

Emeralds, 27, 412, 417, 424

Encalada, Blanco, 80

Encomiendas, system of agricultural, 38, 46, 53, 65, 240, 242; abolished, 50, 51, 243, 417

England, granted privilege of exporting negroes to South America, 70; war between Spain and, 158; fleet of, destroys Venezuelan navy, 398; recognises independence of Colombia, 446

Errazuriz, President of Chile, 207, 228

_Esmeralda_, the, capture of, 82, 119; sale of, to Japan, 340

España, creole leader, 359, 360

Estremadura (province), 21, 26

F

Falcon, General, 391-394

Federmann, explorer, 414

Ferdinand VII. of Spain, deposition and imprisonment of, 159, 311, 312, 360, 365, 370, 380; restoration of, 435

Fernandez, conspiracy of, 276

Flores, Antonio, President of Ecuador, 340

Flores, General, the founder of Ecuador, 101, 323, 324, 326-329, 333, 451

France, war between Spain and, 152, 256, 311, 312; recognises republic of Panama, 488

Franciscans, the, 68

Freire, General, 104, 191-194, 197

French scientists in Quito, 309

Fruits introduced into South America, 66, 151, 303, 308

G

Gallo heads insurrection, 202

Gamarra, General, Dictator of Peru, 101-105, 270

Garrapata, battle of, 467

Gasca, Pedro de la, 54, 56, 57, 301

Gatajo, battle of, 341

Gauchos, 171, 261, 438

Gavilan, battle of, 172

Goajira, peninsula of, 348, 403, 404

Goats, 66

Gold, Spain's desire for, 26, 35, 53, 65, 66, 69, 241, 352; in Bolivia, 240, 246, 247; in Chile, 136, 138, 144; in Colombia, 404, 406-409, 412, 414, 416, 424; in Ecuador, 27, 53, 299, 307; in Peru, 25, 27, 32, 36; in Venezuela, 352

Goyeneche, General, 257, 361

Grains introduced into South America, 66, 151

Grapes, 66; cultivation of, forbidden, 159

Grau, Miguel, Admiral, 119-121

Great Britain, action of foreign office in regard to Bolivia, 275; threatened rupture between United States and, 398; abandons Isthmian colony, 429. _See also_ England.

Gröningen, victory of, 62

Guaicaipuro, Indian chief, 350

Gual, creole leader, 359, 360

Gual, Pedro, 391

Guamanga, founded, 44, 49, 50, 60, 106, 126; battle at, 49, 50

Guano deposits, 109, 113, 114, 116, 127, 128, 206, 210

Guarany, Indians, the, 249; language, 306

Guatamala, 39, 298

Guayaquil (city), founded, 299; best port on Pacific coast of South America, 86, 101, 105, 299, 323, 324, 326, 335; population and wealth of, 328, 332, 341

Guayaquil (province), 312, 314, 317, 327, 444; cultivation of cacao and sugar-cane in, 308

Guayaquil, Gulf of, 12, 20, 25, 27, 285, 341

Guiana (province), under jurisdiction of Bogotá, 356; transferred to jurisdiction of Venezuela, 361, 426

Guiana, British, 398

Guipuzcoa Company, the, 354-356, 358

Gutierrez brothers, the, 114, 116

Gutierrez, President of Colombia, 465

H

Hague international tribunal, the, 399

Hayti, Bolivar flees to, 372; gold placers of, 404, 406

Heath, explorer, 278

Heredia founds Cartagena, 406, 408

Herran, General, President of New Granada, 454, 455, 458

Herrera, General, 103, 485

Hides, exportation of, 354, 428

Honda (city), 420

Honduras, 403

Horses, 20, 27, 39, 66, 243, 261

Huacho, San Martin lands at, 81

Huaina Capac, Inca emperor, campaign of, 12; conquest of Quito by, 12-14, 18, 292-294, 308; death of, 14, 295

Hualcopo, Cara shiri, 290-292, 295

Huanacabamba (province), 288

Huanca, Auqui, 17

Huanchaca, mines of, 278

Huaqui, battle of, 170, 256, 257

Huascar, Inca empire divided between Atahuallpa and, 14; fratricidal war between Atahuallpa and, 16-19, 238, 295, 296; execution of, 31

_Huascar_, the, 119-121, 212

Humachiri, battle of, 259

"Husares de la Muerte," cavalry corps, 182

I

Ibague (city), 416

Ibarra, 287, 293

Iglesias, President of Chile, 126, 127

Immigrants, into Peru, 111, 149; into Chile, 156, 203; into Ecuador, 307

Imperial (city), founded, 140; besieged, 142, 145, 146

Inca Indians, the, home of, 3, 4; civilisation of, 3, 24, 25, 236, 290, 412; migration of, 4

Incas, language of, 4, 10, 13; religion of, 5, 13; social and industrial organisation of, 5, 6, 10, 59, 249, 289, 295; capital of, 5, 12, 18, 19, 32-35, etc.; emperors of, 5, 6, 8-10, 12, 14, 16, 28-32, 34-38, 40, 61, 62; death of last emperor of, 63; conquests of, 6, 8-19, 236, 288 _et seq._; irrigation system of, 6, 10, 25, 59; empire of, 8, 9, 11, 13, 22, 292-294; military roads built by, 9, 10, 12, 28, 29, 38, 59, 239, 244, 251, 307; armies of, 11, 18, 19, etc., 237; Spanish conquest of, 20-40, 297; population of, 25, 65, 244, 303; reduced to slavery, 38, etc., 242-244, 348; cities built by, 20, 38, 44, 59, 60, 240

_Independencia_, the, 119, 212

Indians of South America, the, early civilisation of, 3, 4, 236, 286, 289, 410, 412; various tribes of, 3, 5, 8-14, 23, 59, 135, 238, 245, 286-289, 292, 293, 350, 405, 410, 413; language of, 4, 9, 10, 11, 136, 238, 306; characteristics of, 24, 25, 77, 136, 249, 252, 253, 289, 303, 307, 421, 422; conquered by Spanish, 24, 25, 27-40; oppression and slavery of, 38, 58, 59, 63-65, 68, 69, 242-244, 253, 254, 348, 406, 416, 422, 425-428; rebellions of, 38-40, 72, 77, 251, 253, 254, 258, 259; Spanish legislation in behalf of, 57, 243, 254, 417; impressment of, 64, 69, 242, 253, 416, 425; missions established among, 151, 244, 250, 306, 352

Indigo, 303

Inquisition established, in Peru, 69; in Colombia, 437

Ipecacuanha, Europe indebted to Peru for, 66

Iquique, Peruvian port, 119, 122

Iquitos (city), 114

Irish mercenaries in Bolivar's army, 376, 380

Irrigation in South America, 6, 10, 25, 59, 135

J

Jauja (city), 54, 60, 84, 89, 92-94

Jauja, valley of the, 9, 18, 33, 35, 36, 39, 44, 49

Jemappes, battle of, 359

Jesuits, in Bolivia, 245, 279; in Colombia, 455, 461; in Ecuador, 309, 334, 337; in Peru, 68, 71, 309

Jiron, Governor of New Granada, 425

Jubones, plateau of, 288, 291

Juncal, battle of, 372

Junin, battle of, 93, 321

Jurisprudence, Spanish system of, in South America, 66, 200, 304

K

Koerner, Colonel, 223, 225

L

La Donjuana, battle of, 467

La Fuente, Dictator of Peru, 102, 106

La Guaira, 350, 356, 359, 369

La Mar, General, President of Peru, 100, 101, 324

La Palma, battle of, 110

La Paz, founded, 60, 241, 249; spirit of independence in, 76, 77, 257, 260, 361

La Puerta, decisive battles of, 369, 375

Lara, General, deported, 99

Las Casas, famous book of, 50, 59

La Serna, General, Viceroy of Peru, 84, 91; army of, 93-95, 261, 264

Las Heras, patriot commander, 171, 172, 177, 181

Lastra, General, 194

Las Trincheiras, 368

Latacunga, valley of, 287, 292, 293

La Torre, General, 374, 380, 381

Lautaro, Araucanian chief, 141, 142

Leiva founded, 420

Leon, creole leader, 355

Leprosy, 426

Lima (city), founded by Pizarro, 36, 46, 60; Incas attempt to take, 39, 42; Pizarro in, 46, 52; political, social, and commercial centre of South America, 67, 71; viceroyalty of Peru established at, 50, 60, 67, 70, 71, 142, 148, 304, 426; jurisdiction of, 67, 250, 251, 304, 308; earthquakes in, 71; revolutionary spirit in, 73, 75, 76, 81-84, 317; evacuated by the Spaniards, 84, 89; Bolivar at, 99, 321, 323; insurrections in, 114, 116, 131; Chilian army captures, 125, 126, 213; public library of, destroyed, 126

Linares, Doctor, 275, 276

Linnæus names chinchona, 70

Lircay, victory at, 194

Llamas, 3, 4, 150, 238

Llaneros, the, origin of, 354, 424; cavalry troops of, organised, 368; valour of, 369, 371-374, 376-378, 381, 382, 385, 389, 431, 434, 438, 439, 450

Llanos, 354, 368, 372, 375, 377, 406, 413, 437, 440

Loja (city), built by Spaniards, 60

Loja (province), 101, 288, 291, 298, 307, 338

Loncomilla, battle of, 200

Lopez, General, President of Colombia, 452, 455, 457

Lopez, tyrant of Paraguay, 248, 465

Los Andes, 396

Louis XIV. and war of Spanish Succession, 152

Loyola, founder of Jesuit order, 245

Lugo, adelantado, 414, 417

Luque, partner of Pizarro, 23

M

MacGregor captures Barcelona, 372

Madeira Falls, the, 280

Madeira River, the, 244, 246, 278-281

Madrid, Pizarro goes to, 25; legislation at, in behalf of Indians, 50, 417; commissions from, 58; revenue sent to, 69; government, 70, 147, 309, 418; French king on throne of, 152

Madrid, Dictator of Colombia, 437

Magdalena River, the, 366, 380, 406, 408-410, 412-414 _et passim_; named, 403; Valley, 312, 381

Magdalena, State of, 463, 466, 468, 480

Magellan, Straits of, 69, 140, 209

Maipo, battle of, 79, 179-182

Maize, 3, 4, 8, 39, 238, 248, 290, 303, 352; Europe indebted to Peru for, 66

Mallarino, President of New Granada, 458

Manabi, 292, 293

Manaos, 280

Manco Capac, first Inca sovereign, 5, 6

Manco Capac, brother of Huascar, 34, 38-41

Manso, Governor, 154

Maracaibo Bay, 406, 409, 441

Maracaibo (city), sack of, 354; refused to bend delegates to Caracas, 361

Maracaibo, Gulf of, 347, 348, 351, 403, 406

Maracaibo, Lake, 351, 383

Maracaibo (province), under jurisdiction of Bogotá, 356, 426; transferred to jurisdiction of Venezuela, 356, 426; revolt in, 380; separated from Caracas, 392

Marco, General, 170

Margarita, Island of, 348, 367, 426

Margarita (province), 362

Mariño, Dictator of Venezuela, 367, 369, 370, 378, 389

Marquez, President of New Granada, 454

Marroquin, President of Colombia, 469, 470, 484

Martin, Alonso, 405

Maturin captured, 367

Maule River, the, 11, 135, 136, 138, 142, 145, 164, 166

Medina Celi joins patriots, 264, 265

Melgarejo, Dictator of Bolivia, 276, 277

Mello, Geronimo, explores Magdalena River, 414

Melo, General, 458

Mendoza, Andre Hurtado de, Marquis of Cañete, "the good viceroy," 57, 58, 60, 142; death of, 61

Mendoza, Garcia de, campaign of, 142, 143; founds Cañete, 143

Mendoza (province), 140, 149

Menendez, President of Peru, 107

Mercury, 69

Merida (city), founded, 350; destroyed by earthquake, 363

Merida (province), 362, 363, 366

Meta River, the, 377

Meuqueta, zipa of, 412

Mexico, 22, 39, 290

Miranda, Francisco, patriot leader, 359, 360, 362, 363

Mississippi River, the, 27

"Mitta," 64, 65

Mocha, 293, 316

Mochica language, the, 11

Mojos Indians, the, 245, 250, 279

Molina, Governor of Ecuador, 315

Mollendo railroad, the, 54, 277

Monagas, President of Venezuela, 388, 390

Monteagudo, Dr., 182

Montes, General, 316

Monteverde, General, 363, 364, 367, 368, 370

Montilla, General, 381

Montt, Jorge, President of Chile, 220, 227

Montt, Manuel, President of Chile, 199-201; proclaims martial law, 201

Montt, Pedro, 228

Montufar, Carlos, 314

Montufar, Juan, 313

Moquegua, 124

Morales, General, 277, 370, 372, 383

Moreno, Garcia, President of Ecuador, long administration of, 335-339, 462; character of, 336

Morgan, sacked Maracaibo, 354

Morillo, Marshal, in Venezuela, 370-372, 436-439; report of, 375; resigns, 380

Mosquera, Tomas, President of Columbia, 452, 454, 455, 458, 460-464

Mosquito Coast, the, 419

Munecas, priest, 259

Murillo, President of Colombia, 459, 462, 466

N

Napo River, the, 300

Napoleon. _See_ Bonaparte

Nariño, Dictator of Colombia, 431, 432, 434

Narvarte, Doctor, 390

Naxichi, battle at, 16

Negroes, 70, 273, 351, 352, 357, 394, 416, 422, 425

Neiva (city), 416

Neiva, President of New Granada, 420

New Granada, captain-general of, subject to viceroy of Peru, 67; viceroyalty of, created, 71, 308, 312, 426; jurisdiction of, 420; revolutionary junta installed in, 76; war of independence in, 86, 98, 101, 261, 312, 317, 318, 320, 322, 326, 370, 435, 442; provinces in Colombian confederation, 376, 443; opposition to Bolivar's government in, 385, 387; recognises independence of Venezuela and Ecuador, 388, 452; name of, extended to presidency of Bogotá, 419; influence of first president of, 452, 454; army of, 452, 458; constitution of 1832, 452, 455, 457; name of, changed, 458, 459, 461. _See also_ Colombia.

"New Laws," the, 51, 54, 57, 59

Nicaragua, 27, 403; Canal, 485

Nicuesa, Diego de, 404, 405

Nieto, Dictator of Peru, 102

Nitrates, 113, 114, 117, 277; extent of region, 117, 206; taxed, 118, 211

Noboa, Diego, 334

Nombre de Dios founded, 405

"Nudos," 4, 8, 287, 291, 292

Nuñez, Rafael, President of Colombia, 468; political ideas of, 478-480; death of, 481

O

Oats, 66

Obando, General, President of New Granada, 452, 454, 457, 458

Ocana (city), captured, 366, 433; national assembly held at, 385, 448; founded, 420; battle near, 437

Ocumare, 359, 372

O'Higgins, Ambrose, career of, 156, 158

O'Higgins, Bernardo, gallantry of, 164; saves Santiago, 166; defeated, 167; dictator, 171, 173, 181, 182, 190; resignation of, 191

Ojeda, Alonso de, explorations of, 22, 403; names Venezuela, 347, 348

Olañeta, renegade Argentine, 91; death of, 97, 263-265

Olives, 66, 159, 352

Opon River, the, 410

Oranges, 66

Oratorio, battle of, 460

Orbegoso, Dictator of Peru, 102-105

Ordoñez, General, 171

O'Reilly, General, 81

Orellana, discoverer of the Amazon, 44, 300; refounds Guayaquil, 299

Orinoco, River, the, 78, 348, 355, 356, 374, 377, 442; plains, 354, 367, 424, 441; valley, 442

Orton River, the, 279

Oruro, silver mines of, 242, 249, 266, 277

Osorio, General, re-establishes Spanish authority in Chile, 167, 168; defeated by San Martin, 174, 176-181

Osorno, founded, 143; besieged, 145, 146

Ospina, President of New Granada, 459-461

Otavalo, capture of, 293, 294

P

Pacamdré Indians, the, 293

Pachacutec, _See_ Yupanqui.

Pacheco, President of Bolivia, 278

Pacific Ocean, the, discovery of, 22, 404, 405

Padilla, patriot leader, 258, 260

Paez, José Antonio, patriot leader, 79, 371, 372, 375, 377, 380, 381, 385, 387; Dictator and President of Venezuela, 389-391, 447, 450

Paillamachu, Araucanian chief, 144-146

Paita (city), 28

Paita (province), 285, 288, 289

Pampas, 78, 99, 149

Pampas River, the, 94

Pamplona, revolutionary junta in, 431

Pamplona (province), 349, 366, 411, 416, 419, 437

Panama (city), founded, 22, 23-25, 298, 341, 412; Pizarro sends to, for aid, 39; pan-American Congress at, 323

Panama Canal, the, 470-472, 482, 485-489

Panama, Gulf of, 27

Panama hats, manufacture of, 342

Panama, Isthmus of (province), 22, 23, 27, 69, 352, 404, 405, 417, 419, 420, 429, 432, 470

Panama (province), audiencia of, 420, 426; joins Colombian confederation, 443; rebels against Colombia, 454

Panama railway, the, 455, 480, 484, 488; receipts from, 464, 470

Panama, State of, 461, 463,466, 469, 470; Colombian misrule in, 471, 478, 480, 481, 487; declares independence, 471, 488; republic of, recognised, 471, 488; neutrality and free transit guaranteed to, by treaty of 1846, 480, 487, 488; insurrections in, 484; provisional government in, 488; canal treaty with United States, 488, 489

Pando, José Manuel, President of Bolivia, 280

Paraguay, 67, 71, 248, 357

Paraguay River, the, 280

Paraná River, the, 249

Pardo, Don Manuel, first civilian President of Peru, 114, 116; aristocratic party founded by, 131

Parra, President of Colombia, 466

Pasco, 92

Pasto (city) founded, 409, 413

Pasto (province), 49, 312, 314, 316, 324; part of presidency of Quito, 326, 327, 420; high tableland of, 409, 414, 424, 454; loyal to Spain, 432-434, 442, 444; rebellion in, 451

Paul, Rojas, 396

Paya Pass, the, 377

Peaches, 66

Pearl fisheries, 348

"Pelucones," 192

Peons, impressment of, 394-396

Perez, President of Chile, 202, 206

Perez, Santiago, President of Colombia, 466

Peru, early inhabitants of, 3, 4, 357; antiquity of civilisation in, 3; fertility of, 4, 8, 41, 44, 80; climate of, 4, 285; Inca empire established in, 5-20, 296; system of irrigation in, 5, 6, 10; copper mines of, 8, 117; military roads in, 9, 10, 12, 28, 33, 36, 38, 59; battles in, 11, 13, 16, 17, 19, 39, 43, 50, 56, 78, 88, 92, 93, 96, 97, 101, 105, 107, 110, 124, 125, 213, 272, 324; Inca cities of, 20, 59, 60; Spanish conquest of, 20-40, 58, 67, 297; mineral wealth of, 24, 25, 27, 32, 36, 53, 65, 66, 69, 109, 113, 114, 116, 127, 128; extent of, 28, 41, 44, 58, 67, 71; Spanish cities in, 36, 44, 59, 60; Indian rebellions in, 38, 72, 77; governors of, 44, 49, 50, 52; viceroyalty of, _see_ Lima; viceroys of, 50-52, 58, 60-63, 70, 72, 74, 78-80, 82, 84, 261, 301, 304, 308; slavery prohibited in, 50, 57, 111; industrial development of, 53, 108, 111, 113, 114, 127-129, 132; revenue to Spain from, 53, 60, 64-66, 69, 77; civil wars in, 57, 99-103, 106-108, 110, 113, 127; Spanish colonial system established in, 61-66; taxation in, 64, 66, 69, 109; population of, 65; university in, 67; Spanish language in, 68; religious conditions in, 68, 69, 132; discovery of virtues of quinine, 70; earthquakes in, 71; Jesuits expelled from, 71; creoles of, 72, 74, 76, 77, 84, 110, 123, 130; revolutionary spirit in, 72-76, 81, 82; navy of, 78, 101, 104, 109, 118, 197, 325; war of independence in, 80-97, 185, 186, 261, 316; Spaniards evacuate capital of, 84; proclaimed a republic, 85; financial conditions in, 89, 110, 114, 115, 130, 132; congress of, 98, 99; Bolivar, Dictator of, 98, 322, 447; Bolivarian constitution imposed on, 99, 322; revolts from Bolivar's government, 99-101, 270, 323, 324, 448; state of anarchy in, 101-103; further constitutions of, 102, 111; at war with Chile, 104, 119-125, 190, 197, 198; capital of, captured by Chileans, 125, 126, 212, 213; at war with Bolivia, 104, 273; treaty of peace with Bolivia, 105; commerce in, 108; railways in, 109, 113, 122, 128; debt of, 109, 114, 128; insurrections in, 110, 113, 114, 116, 123, 130-132; immigration into, encouraged, 111; treaty of alliance with Chile, against Spain, 112; naval battles of, 112, 119-121, 212; at war with Spain, 112, 203, 204, 337; revenue from nitrates, 113, 114; first civilian president of, 114; guano deposits of, 116, 127, 128; currency of, 116; treaty of alliance with Bolivia, 118, 119; nitrate region owned by, 117, 119, 121, 122, 212; loses nitrate province, 123, 125; losses of, in Chilean war, 125, 127; mediation of United States between Chile and, 125; treaty of peace with Chile, 127; reorganisation of, 128; British creditors of, 128; rubber industry in, 129; political conditions in, 130-132; hopeful signs of the times for, 131; cause of revolutions in, 132; Upper, formed into republic of Bolivia, 240, 266-268; re-establishes independent existence, 272; at war with Colombia, 324, 451; surrenders southern provinces, 324

Peru-Bolivian Confederation, the, 101-103, 105, 197, 197, 270-273, 281

Peruvian bonds, 114, 116

Peruvian Corporation, the, 128, 129

Pezet, President of Peru, 111, 112

Pezuela, General, 82, 260

Philip II. of Spain, 53, 54, 61

Piar, negro chief, 372, 374

Pichincha, battle of, 86, 444

Pierola, General, 116, 123, 126, 130; President of Peru, 131

Pigeons, 66

Pigs, 66

Pinto, Anibal, President of Chile, 209, 213

Pinto, General, President of Chile, 193

"Pipiolas," 192

Pisagua captured, 122

Pisco, 80, 81

Piura (city) founded, 60, 297

Piura (province), 288

Piura, valley of, 291

Pizarro, Francisco, the conqueror of Peru, early life of, 21, 22; with Ojeda and Balboa, 22, 404, 405; partners of, 23; failure of first exploring expedition, 23; second expedition of, 23-25; authorised by Charles V. to conquer Peru, 25, 26; third expedition of, 26, 27; reinforced by de Soto, 27; lands in northern Peru, 27, 28, 297; meets Inca emperor, 29; treachery of, 28-34, 238; establishes Spanish government, 35, 44; founds cities, 36, 44; territory awarded to, 36, 41; crushes Indian rebellion, 38-40; Almagro quarrels with, 41-43; treachery of, towards Almagro, 42, 43, 48, 136, 239; extends Spanish conquest throughout Inca empire, 44, 136, 240, 407, 408; conspiracy against, 46; murder of, 47-50, 300; character of, 48

Pizarro, Gonzalo, valour of, 26, 56; at siege of Cuzco, 38; capture of, 42; Governor of Quito, 44, 299-301; Governor of Peru, 50-53, 240, 301; defeat and death of, 56, 240, 301

Pizarro, Hernando, joins expedition to conquer Peru, 26, 38; capture and release of, 42, 43; capture and death of Almagro by, 43, 136; develops mining industry of Bolivia, 44; establishes feudal lordships, 239, 240

Pizarro, Juan, 26, 38

Plantain introduced into Ecuador, 303, 308

Plate provinces, the, 71

Plate River, the, 67, 245, 251; Valley, 155, 236

Platinum, 424

Plaza, Leonidas, President of Ecuador, 341

Poll-taxes, 64, 243, 427

Popayán (city) founded, 409

Popayán (province), 49, 53, 301, 312, 314, 408, 409, 417, 424, 432, 433, 444, 454; part of presidency of Quito, 324-327, 420; lost to Ecuador, 327

Portales, Chilean statesman, 194, 196, 197; death of, 197, 198

Porto Bello captured, 429

Portuguese, the, 67, 261, 316

Potatoes, native to South America, 3, 4, 8, 238, 248, 287, 290, 303, 332, 343, 352; introduced into Europe, 66

Potosí, silver mines of, 44, 53, 65, 99, 240, 241, 258; yield of silver from, 278

Poultry introduced into South America, 66, 151

Prado, General, President of Peru, 112, 116, 123

Presidencies, 71, 418, 420, 426

Preston, Amyas, 351

Prieto, General, President of Chile, 194, 196-198

Printing-press, the, 245

Promancians, the, 138

Puerreyedon, Argentine dictator, 183

Puerto Cabello, 347, 359, 360, 366, 372; British attacks on, 356; captured by patriots, 382, 383, 385

Pumacagua, Indian leader, 77

Puna, bleak plateau of, 36, 236, 239, 268

Puna, island of, 27, 292

Puno, 97

Purus River, the, 280

Puzuela, General, Viceroy of Peru, 78

Q

Quartz mining in Bolivia, 246

Quesada, Jimenez de, conquest of, 410, 412-414; founds Bogotá, 413; exiled, 417; names New Granada, 419

Quiapo, Spanish victory at, 144

Quichua language, official medium of Inca empire, 9, 10, 238, 295, 306; reduced to a written language, 306

Quicksilver, discovery of, in Peru, 241

Quillin, treaty of, 150

Quillota, 224

Quindio mountain range, 409, 411

Quinine, Europe indebted to Peru for, 66; discovery of virtue of, 70; origin of name, 70

Quinoa grain, the, native to South America, 3, 4, 238, 290, 303

Quintana, Dictator of Chile, 173, 174

Quinua, village of, 95

Quito (city), the Cara capital, 12, 307, 341; Incas possess, 13, 14, 59, 238; Spanish occupation of, 44, 49, 53, 406, 413, 416; revolutionary spirit in, 76, 313, 314, 334, 335, 339, 383, 430, 432; city of convents, 306; population of, 307, 308; French scientific monuments in, 309

Quito (province), Cara kingdom of, 11, 286-288; the shiri of, 12, 14, 290; Inca conquest of, 12, 18, 293, 294; Spanish conquest of, 28, 36, 38, 299; erected into a presidency, 71, 308, 309, 323, 324, 326, 327, 418, 426; under jurisdiction of New Granada (Bogotá), 308, 420; audiencia of, 308; declared independent, 324; provinces attached to presidency of, 420

Quizquiz, Indian general, 17; defeats Huascar, 19, 20, 35, 238, 296; defeated by Pizarro, 33, 34, 297

R

Rada, Juan de la, 46, 49

Railroads in Bolivia, 279, 280; in Chile, 203; in Peru, 54, 113, 277

Ramirez, Spanish general, 77, 78

Rancagua, battle of, 167-170

Reyes, General, President of Colombia, 471, 472

Reyes, Lake of, 92

Rice, 66, 303

Riesco, German, President of Chile, 228

Rimac, valley of the, 36

Riobamba, 12, 288, 292, 293, 298

Rio Negro, battle at, 457

Riva Aguëro, President of Peru, 76, 88, 89

Rivas, patriot commander, 370

Riveralta, 279, 280

Robledo, Jorge, 408

Robles, Colonel, 221

Robles, President of Ecuador, 334, 335

Roca, Ramon, President of Ecuador, 333

Rocafuerte, Vicente, President of Ecuador, 328-330; wise administration of, 330-332

Romana, President of Peru, 131

Rosas, Doctor, Governor of Chile, 154; title of, 154; founds university, 154; establishes radical junta, 162, 163

Rubber, forests, exploitation of, 129; Bolivia furnishes large per cent. of, 280

S

Saenz, Manoela, 450

Sagamoso, valley of, 377

St. Vincent, battle of, 311

Salabarrieta, Policarpo ("La Pola"), fate of, 439

Salaverry, Dictator of Peru, 102, 103

Salgar, President of Colombia, 465

Salt, 353, 424

Salta, gauchos of, 259

Samano, General, 316, 433, 437, 439-441

Sanclemente, President of Colombia, 469, 482

San Felipe, university of, founded, 154

San Felix, battle of, 374

San Fernando, fortress of, 374, 375

San Francisco hill, battle at, 122

San Francisco, mining camp at, 350

San Juan, valley of, 149

San Luiz, valley of, 149

San Martin, General, equips "Army of the Andes," wins battle of Chacabuco, and liberates Chile, 78, 168-171, 184, 261, 317; creates a fleet, 79, 172-174, 183, 184; raises armies for conquest of Peru, 80-82, 84, 171-174, 176, 178, 185, 186, 262; proclaims independence of Peru, 85; President of Peru, 85; resigns presidency, 88, 263, 321; famous interview of, with Bolivar, 86, 321; declines governorship of Chile, 171; defeat of, 176-173; wins battle of Maipo, 179-181; one of the greatest of South American patriots, 318

San Miguel founded by Spanish, 36, 297

San Roman, General, President of, Peru, 111

Santa Cruz (city), 249, 258, 279

Santa Cruz, General, commands Peruvian army, 88; defeat of, 89, 90, 262, 263; Dictator of Bolivia, 101, 102; President of Peru-Bolivian Confederation, 103, 104, 197, 270, 271; overthrow of, 105, 198, 272

Santa Maria, President of Chile, 213

Santa Marta (city), 326, 406, 414, 436

Santa Marta Mountains, 403

Santander, 442-444, 446-448; first legal President of Colombia (New Granada), 450, 452; title of, 454

Santander (city), "Rebellion of the Communes" in, 427

Santander, State of, 460, 461, 467

Santiago (city), 11, 126, 135, 142, 145, 186, 223-225; revolutionary junta installed in, 76, 160, 161; founded, 137; discovery of gold near, 138; population of, 151; universities established in, 154, 198; social centre of Chile, 158

Sarsaparilla, 303

Sayri Tupac, Inca emperor, 61, 62

Sebastian founded, 404

Segoria, battle of, 460

Seville junta, the, 314, 360, 362

Sheep introduced into South America, 66, 242, 243, 248

Shiris, the, of Quito, 12, 14, 16, 287-296

Silver, in Bolivia, 44, 239-242, 245, 246; in Chile, 199, 208; in Colombia, 424; in Ecuador, 307; in Peru, 24, 25, 53, 65, 66, 69, 117

Sinu River, the, 408

Slavery, Indian, 38, 69, 71, 242-244, 348, 406; negro, 273, 394, 416, 422, 425

Smallpox, ravages of, 142, 426

Smuggling, 70, 71, 152, 251, 353, 354, 394, 425

Socorro (city), revolutionary junta in, 431, 432

Socorro, plateau province of, 312, 376, 413, 416, 437

Solar, Vice-President of Peru, 130

Sorata (city), the rival of Potosí, 246; destroyed, 247

de Soto, Hernando, 27

Soublette, General, 390

South America, animals native to, 3, 4, 238; tribes of, 4, 5, 9, 13, 66, 238, 248, etc.; productions of, 3, 5, 8, 66, 70, 238, 303; Spanish law in, 61, 66, 200, 253, 304; animals introduced into, 66, 242, 243; benefits to, from Spanish occupation, 66, 151, 303; commerce except with Spain forbidden to, 66, 69-71, 152, 251, 355, 356; Lima the political, commercial, and social centre of, 67; negroes imported into, 70, 416; spread of revolutionary ideas in, 73, 74, etc.; character of revolution in, 84; plan for constitutional monarchy in, 84; success of wars of independence in, 97, 188, 265, 318, 322, 383; Argentine preponderance among republics of, 155; description of Andean plateau of, 235, 285; theatre of the war of independence in, 255; revolution in, saved from extinction, 258; plan for one great confederacy in, 269, 322; countries of, 322; harbours of, 341; oldest city of, 348; first independent republic in, 362; oldest fortress in, 407, 428, 436; manner of founding Spanish cities in, 424

South Sea, the, 405

Spain, conquest of South America by, _see_ Peru, Chile, etc.; royal commissioners sent from, 46, 49, 54, 417, 427; colonial system of, 62 _et seq._, 70, 243, 307, 351-356, 424, 427, 428; colonial government of, 57, 59, 249, 301, 303, 353; commercial monopoly of, 66, 69-71, 152, 250, 251, 352-356, 424; war of succession in, 70, 152, 159, 250, 256, 311, 312, 354, 360, 370; at war with France, 77, 159, 256, 311, 312; revolution in, 82, 359, 370, 430, 443; at war with Peru and Chile, 111, 112, 203, 204, 337; reforms in system of colonial government of, 154, 253, 254, 301, 349, 417; at war with England, 158

Spanish, adventurers 21, 22, 26, 27, 53, 58, 67, 242, 300, 301, 348, 404, 407, 413, 414; armies in South America, 29, 39, 50, 52, 80, 81, 141, 142, 144, 146, 147, 150, 155, 168, 170, 174, 181, 239, 253, 258-261, 263, 264, 298, 301, 315-318, 350, 366, 367, 371, 375, 376, 380, 413, 436, 437, 440, 443; constitution, the, 370; constitutional law, 304

Spanish crown, revenue of, from Peru, 32, 53, 60, 64-66, 69, 77; from South America, 417, 425

Spanish fleet, 79, 80, 142, 174; seizes Chincha Islands, 112, 203; at Callao, 112, 186; at Valparaiso, 204; defeated, 360, 383; at Cartagena, 436

Sucré (Charcas), 44

Sucré, General, Bolivar's great lieutenant, destroys Spanish army, 86; takes Colombian army to Peru, 89, 264, 321; wins battle of Ayachucho, 93-97, 266, 321, 322; numbers and quality of army of, 95, 318; first President of Bolivia, 99, 268, 322; administration of, 269; overthrow of, 270, 323; wins battle of Pichincho, 318, 444; murder of, 326, 452

Sugar-cane, introduced into South America, 66, 303; cultivation of, 111, 113, 308, 352, 355, 390, 428

Sugar Loaf, the battle of, 105

Suipacha, battle of, 256, 257

Sun-god, worship of the, 5, 13, 298

T

Tacna (city), revolutionary expedition to, 82; result of campaign, 123, 213

Tacna (province), 122, 123; yielded to Chile, 127

Talca (city), captured, 166; independence of Chile proclaimed at, 176

Talcahuano (city), 163, 164, 171, 174

Tambo, battle of, 316, 437

Tarapacá, province of Peru, 106; nitrate deposits of, 212

Tarija (city), 249

Tarqui, decisive battle of, 324, 325

Taxation, 64, 66, 69, 118, 152, 158, 211, 243, 269, 270, 276, 301, 307, 328, 336, 353, 424

Teques Indians, the, 350

Tiocajas nudo, 291; battles of, 291, 293, 294, 298

Titicaca, Lake, 8, 39, 54, 71, 78, 256, 258; placer gold around, 240, 246; Jesuit mission at, 245; basin, 4, 11, 236, 239; plateau, 8, 41, 99, 240; copper and silver mines of, 8, 240

Titu Yupanqui, 62, 63

Toa, Cara Princess, 288

Tobacco, Europe indebted to Peru for, 66; in Chile, 159; in Colombia, 424, 427; in Venezuela, 352, 353, 355

Tocaima (city), 416

Tocuyo founded, 349, 350

Toledo, Don Francisco de, founder of Spanish colonial system, 62-67; arrives at Lima, 62; puts to death last Inca emperor, 63; _Libro de Tasas_ of, 63

Tolima, plateau of, 411, 419

Tolima, State of, 467

Tolu founded, 408

"Toquis," 139, 144, 150

Torata (city), 124

Torico, General, 106

Toro, Captain-General, 160, 161

Torres, Camilo, Dictator, 437

Trafalgar, battle of, 311

Treaties, 117, 118, 150, 151, 206, 209, 210, 280, 281, 327, 470, 471, 480, 485-489

Trinidad, Island of, captured by British, 356, 359

Trujillo, birthplace of Pizarro, 21

Trujillo (city) founded by Pizarro, 36, 60, 350

Trujillo, province of Venezuela, 362, 363, 366

Trujillo, President of Colombia, 468

Tucuman (province), subject to viceroyalty of Lima, 67; attached to viceroyalty of Buenos Aires, 78; thinly populated, 78; cattle-raising in, 243; subject to audiencia of Charcas, 250; battle of, 258

Tumbez (city), 25, 53, 301; Spaniards land at, 20, 28

Tumibamba, Huascar captured at, 20

Tumusla, 265

Tundama, plateau of, 413

Tunjá (city), founded, 414; captured by Bolivar, 378

Tunjá (province), 312, 376, 377, 413, 416

Tupac Amaru, last Inca emperor, 62; death of, 63

Tupac Amaru, lineal descendant of Inca emperors, 72, 251; heads Indian rebellion, 72, 251, 252; cruel death of, 72, 253

Tupac Yupanqui, Inca emperor, conquests of, 10, 11, 14, 18, 135, 289-292, 295; death of, 12, 292

U

Uira Cocha, Inca emperor, 8, 9

Ulloa, ----, 308

"Ulmens," 139, 150

Umachiri, battle of, 78

_Union_, the, 120, 123

United States, the, threatened rupture between Great Britain and, 398; recognises independence of Colombia, 446; undertakes Panama Canal, 470, 471, 482, 485; negotiations of, with Colombia, 470, 471, 488; appealed to by Colombia, 471, 480; neutrality and free transit guaranteed to Panama by, 480, 487, 488; Colombia rejects treaty with, 486, 487; recognises republic of Panama, 488; treaty of, with Panama ratified, 488, 489

United States of Colombia, the, 98, 99, 322, 378. _See_ Colombia.

Universities, 67, 154, 198

Urbina, General, 334, 338

Urco, Inca emperor, 9

Urdaneta, General, 452

Uruguay in possession of Portuguese, 261, 316

V

Valdez, General, 88, 96, 262

Valdivia (city), besieged, 141, 142, 145; taken by Dutch, 150; size of, 151; strength of, 171, 187; possessed by Spanish, 171, 185; captured by patriots, 187

Valdivia, Pedro de, conqueror of Chile, 43, 44, 137-139, 240; cities founded by, 137, 139; capture and death of, 141

Valencia, founded, 350; loyal to Spain, 363, 364, 439; patriots in, 367, 369, 372

Valmy, battle of, 359

Valparaiso (city), 104, 119, 120, 262, 285, 317, 341; size of, 151; bombarded, 204; battle at, 223-225

Valparaiso Bay, 220

Valverde, Friar, 30

Varas, Chilean Minister, 200, 201

Vargas, Doctor, President of Venezuela, 389

Veintemilla, General, President of Ecuador, 339

Vela, Blasco Nuñez de, Viceroy of Peru, 50-53

Velez (city) founded, 410, 414

Venezuela, sighted by Columbus 347; named, 348; cities founded in, 348-350, 352; colonisation of, 348; governors of, 349, 426; fertility of, 349, 350, 352, 395; granted to Welser family, 349; settlement of, 349-351; savage tribes of, 350; subject to viceroyalty of Lima, 67; under jurisdiction of Bogotá and Caracas, 71, 356, 419, 426; revolutionary spirit in, 76, 358-361, etc.; revolts against Bolivar, 79, 101, 323, 378; war of independence in, 86, 261, 316, 317, 362, 364, 366-370, 378-383, 388, 434, 437, 451, 452; in Colombian confederation, 98, 322, 376, 378, 384, 443; Bolivarian constitution of, 99, 385; separates from confederation, 99, 324, 385, 387, 388, 451; cattle-raising in, 345, 355, 395; topography of, 351, 352; negro labour in, 351, 352, 357; agricultural products of, 352, 358, 390, 395; exports from, 352, 390; commercial conditions of, 352-358, 390-392, 395, 396, 398, 399; gold placers of, 352; taxation in, 353, 389, 391, 392, 395; education in, 353; trading posts in, 354; made a captaincy-general, 355, 419; captains-general of, 356, 360, 361; boundaries of, fixed, 356; population of, 357, 390; characteristics of population of, 357, 358; Bonaparte claims allegiance of, 360; first independent republic of South America, 362; constitution of 1811, 362; financial conditions in, 362, 394-396, 398; earthquake in, 363; important battles of war of independence in, 369, 374, 375, 378, 381-383; impoverished by wars, 384, 394; constitution of 1831, 389, 391, 394; civil wars in, 387-392, 396-398; political conditions in, 389-392; roads built in, 390; bank established in, 390; slavery abolished, 391; liberty of the press permitted, 392; religious conditions in, 392, 395; smuggling in, 394; stable currency of, 395; railroads built in, 395, 396; debt of, 396; boundary dispute with British Guiana, 398; foreign relations of, 398; navy of, destroyed, 398; progress of, 399; provinces under jurisdiction of, 426

Vernon, Admiral, 428

Viceroyalties, of Bogotá, 71, 250, 356, 420, 426; of Buenos Aires, 71, 251; of Lima, 50, 67, 250, 375; of Quito, 86, 418, 420

Vicuña, Claudio, President of Chile, 193, 194, 219, 226

Vicuñas, 238

Vidal, Dictator of Peru, 102, 106

Vilcabamba, 40, 61, 63

Vilcañota nudo, the, 4, 8

Villapugio, battle of, 170, 258

Villarica, gold-mines of, 144-146

Viluma, battle of, 256, 260

Vista Florida, Dictator of Peru, 102

Vivanco, Peruvian general, 106

W

Welser family, the, Venezuela granted to, 349

Wheat introduced into South America, 66, 151, 211, 303, 332, 343, 352, 421, 428

Wheelwright, William, establishes first Pacific steamship line, 198

Windward Islands, the, 347

Wool, 8

Y

Yahuarcocha Lake, 294

Yahuar Huaccac, Inca emperor, 8

Yngavi, decisive battle of, 105, 107, 273

Yucay, valley of, 61

Yungay, battle of, 105, 198, 272

Yupanqui, Inca emperor, 9

Z

Zaldua, President of Colombia, 479

Zaruma, plateau of, 288, 291

Zenufana (Antioquia), 407

* * * * *

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The narratives are the work of writers who are recognized authorities on their several subjects, and, while thoroughly trustworthy as history, will present picturesque and dramatic "stories" of the Men and of the events connected with them.

To the Life of each "Hero" will be given one duodecimo volume, handsomely printed in large type, provided with maps and adequately illustrated according to the special requirements of the several subjects.

Nos. 1-32, each $1.50 Half leather 1.75 No. 33 and following Nos., each (by mail $1.50, net 1.35) Half leather (by mail, $1.75) net 1.60

_For full list of volumes see next page._

HEROES OF THE NATIONS.

NELSON. By W. Clark Russell. GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS. By C. R. L. Fletcher. PERICLES. By Evelyn Abbott. THEODORIC THE GOTH. By Thomas Hodgkin. SIR PHILIP SIDNEY. By H. R. Fox-Bourne. JULIUS CÆSAR. By W. Warde Fowler. WYCLIF. By Lewis Sergeant. NAPOLEON. By W. O'Connor Morris. HENRY OF NAVARRE. By P. F. Willert. CICERO. By J. L. Strachan-Davidson. ABRAHAM LINCOLN. By Noah Brooks. PRINCE HENRY (OF PORTUGAL) THE NAVIGATOR. By C. R. Beazley. JULIAN THE PHILOSOPHER. By Alice Gardner. LOUIS XIV. By Arthur Hassall. CHARLES XII. By R. Nisbet Bain. LORENZO DE' MEDICI. By Edward Armstrong. JEANNE D'ARC. By Mrs. Oliphant. CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS. By Washington Irving. ROBERT THE BRUCE. By Sir Herbert Maxwell. HANNIBAL. By W. O'Connor Morris. ULYSSES S. GRANT. By William Conant Church. ROBERT E. LEE. By Henry Alexander White. THE CID CAMPEADOR. By H. Butler Clarke. SALADIN. By Stanley Lane-Poole. BISMARCK. By J. W. Headlam. ALEXANDER THE GREAT. By Benjamin I. Wheeler. CHARLEMAGNE. By H. W. C. Davis. OLIVER CROMWELL. By Charles Firth. RICHELIEU. By James B. Perkins. DANIEL O'CONNELL. By Robert Dunlop. SAINT LOUIS (Louis IX. of France). By Frederick Perry. LORD CHATHAM. By Walford Davis Green. OWEN GLYNDWR. By Arthur G. Bradley. $1.35 net. HENRY V. By Charles L. Kingsford. $1.35 net. EDWARD I. By Edward Jenks. $1.35 net. AUGUSTUS CÆSAR. By J. B. Firth. $1.35 net. FREDERICK THE GREAT. By W. F. Reddaway. WELLINGTON. By W. O'Connor Morris

Other volumes in preparation are:

CONSTANTINE. By J. B. Firth. MOLTKE. By Spencer Wilkinson. JUDAS MACCABÆUS. By Israel Abrahams. SOBIESKI. By F. A. Pollard. ALFRED THE TRUTHTELLER. By Frederick Perry. FREDERICK II. By A. L. Smith. MARLBOROUGH. By C. W. C. Oman. RICHARD THE LION-HEARTED By T. A. Archer. WILLIAM THE SILENT. By Ruth Putnam. CHARLES THE BOLD. By Ruth Putnam. GREGORY VII. By F. Urquhart. MAHOMET. By D. S. Margoliouth.

G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS, PUBLISHERS, NEW YORK, LONDON.

* * * * *

Transcriber's note:

1. Passages in italics are surrounded by _underscores_.

2. Images have been moved from the middle of a paragraph to the closest paragraph break.

3. Certain words use the oe-ligature in the original.

4. The punctuation in the idex was made consistent.

5. The following misprints have been corrected: "COLUMBIA" corrected to "COLOMBIA" (page x) "slaughterd" corrected to "slaughtered" (page 43) "agressive" corrected to "aggressive" (page 286) "recalcitant" corrected to "recalcitrant" (page 296) "stategist" corrected to "strategist" (page 375) "familes" corrected to "families" (page 422) "succeded" corrected to "succeeded" (page 460) "surborned" corrected to "suborned" (page 464) "Gautemala" corrected to "Guatemala" (page 491) "Bogatá" corrected to "Bogotá" (page 508)

6. Other than the corrections listed above, printer's inconsistencies in spelling, punctuation, hyphenation, and ligature usage have been retained.