Part 7

The nursery rhyme then shows the following stresses:--

// × / × // \ × // × / × // // × \ × // \ // \ × // // × / × // \ × // × / × // // × / × // × / × // × / × //

Perhaps you do not read the poem in this way; mark the stresses for yourself, without looking at the book.

_Accept no statements without verifying them._

=53A.= It will have struck you that you have really been scanning the poem. Hitherto you may have done it by means of the signs – and ˘, taken from Latin prosody, where they stand for "long" and "short." Consider the question which of these two systems of scansion is the more accurate and the more convenient.

=53B.= It may also strike you that in reading the poem we do not make a pause at the end of each word; and of course we do not read it "all in one breath." How many breaths do you require for reading it slowly? for reading it quickly? What guides you in finding places for your pauses? Take any dozen lines of prose and read them aloud; notice where you pause for breath. The words which are read together in one breath are called a _breath group_. After considering several passages from this point of view, you will realise that good reading depends to some extent on the choice of suitable places for taking breath. Let your friends read to you, and observe how they manage their breath.

=54.= We have spoken several times of stress, and you have probably followed without difficulty. What is stress? Utter the series of sounds [´atata], then [a´tata], and [ata´ta].[70] You use more force for the stressed than for the unstressed vowels, that is to say, you put more breath into them. Place your hand close in front of your lips as you say the above sounds, and you will notice a distinct increase of breath as the stressed syllable is uttered.

We use this stress for purposes of emphasis; generally speaking, we expend more breath on those syllables of a word, or words of a sentence, which are more important for the meaning. We may say that English sentence stress is guided by logical considerations. Is this equally true of French? of German? Has anything struck you about the stress in French, or in English as spoken by a Frenchman?

=55.= Stress, due to force of breath, is not the only means of accentuation at our disposal. We can also produce various effects by changing the _pitch_ of the voice. When the pitch of a voice hardly varies at all, we consider it monotonous. Certain clergymen have acquired the habit of reading the Church service in monotone; consider whether this has any advantage or disadvantage. When there is very great and regular or monotonous variation of pitch in a voice, we call it a "sing-song."

In standard speech there is moderate variation of pitch; it becomes considerable only in dramatic and oratorical declamation, when a skilled use of pitch variations may produce a deeply moving or highly stirring effect, somewhat resembling that produced by song.

Observe the pitch changes in ordinary speech. The most obvious case is the rise of pitch in questions, in contrast with the tendency to lower the pitch in a statement. Even though we have the same order of words as in a statement, this change of pitch alone suffices to show that a question is being asked. Say: _You are going out_ and _You are going out?_ Try to say _Are you going out?_ with the same falling pitch as in _You are going out_, and observe the strange effect. Determine the changes of pitch in such questions as: _Is your brother tall or short?_ _Is your uncle's house in the town or in the country?_ Notice that joy or any great excitement leads to the use of a higher pitch than usual.

Sometimes the pitch may rise or fall, or rise and fall, or fall and rise during the utterance of a single vowel. Say _No_ in a doubtful, a questioning, a decided, and a threatening tone, and observe the pitch. If you wish to represent it roughly, you may use \ for fall in pitch, / for a rise, /\ for a rise and fall, \/ for a fall and rise.

=56.= We have devoted our attention mainly to standard English as it is spoken in ordinary life, because it is important to train the ear so that it perceives the sounds and ceases to be misled by the conventional spelling. Only when we can hear what sounds our pupils actually utter, only when we have a fair idea of the way in which they produce these sounds, are we in a position to correct what is faulty in the mother tongue, or to impart the sounds of a foreign language with any prospect of success. Hints have been given as to some of the faulty tendencies likely to be found; the teacher whose ear has been trained in the manner here suggested will be able to add to their number without difficulty, and probably with growing interest. In this respect every county presents its own problems, and many still require to be recorded; every teacher can help by contributing his own observations.

No observer can fail to be struck by the different degrees of care with which most individuals speak English under different circumstances. In their talk among themselves, children, especially young boys, are often extremely careless; at home we find various degrees of care, much depending on the example set by the parents and the influence of governesses and nurses. In talking to educated strangers, we are usually careful in our pronunciation. If we occupy a position which makes it necessary to speak to large numbers, we must be particularly careful, and that in several respects: the voice must be pleasant, carry far, and have good staying power.

=57.= A pleasant voice is to a certain degree a natural gift; it depends on the quality of the vocal chords, the shape of the roof of the mouth, and so on. Many voices are spoilt by bad habits, such as excessive nasalising, or very high pitch. The teacher of elocution often gives valuable criticism and help here. Listen attentively to any criticisms which your friends make about your voice.

The voice of a public speaker (which includes the class teacher and college lecturer no less than the clergyman, actor, or politician) must carry far. His words must penetrate to every hearer, even in a large hall. If there is any straining to catch his words, those words will not produce their best effect. _The chief requirement is not loudness, but distinctness._ He must articulate more carefully than in ordinary conversation: unstressed vowels will have greater importance and be less reduced, consonants will never be slurred over. The stressed vowels are the most important of all because they are the most sonorous sounds and help the others (see § 52); he will let the vocal chords vibrate longer for them, to reinforce their value, and he will produce them in such a way that they give their characteristic sound most clearly. For this purpose he will find it best to articulate more tensely (this applies also to the consonants) than in ordinary speech; and a distinct rounding of the lips for the back vowels will enable him to add to their value. He will prefer to keep the tongue point well forward in the mouth for [l]. This and other hints he may obtain from the teacher of elocution.

However pleasant a voice may be, and however far it may carry, it will yet be of little use if it tires soon; it must have staying power. This again is to some extent a natural gift; the throat may be constitutionally weak. Training, however, can do very much to improve the powers of endurance. Above all, good breathing is essential; hints have been given in § 4 how this may be assured, and the teacher cannot be recommended too warmly to give from 15 to 25 minutes every morning to breathing exercises; he will be amply repaid for the time spent in that way by the greater ease with which he gets through his teaching, and by the inevitable improvement in his general health. It has also been pointed out above that bad ventilation and dust are calculated to interfere with his voice. Another suggestion may be helpful: to keep the tongue as forward in the mouth as possible. The average tongue position in many southern English teachers is too far back in the mouth, and this is found to lead to serious fatigue; it may indeed be regarded as one of the main causes of "teachers' sore throat."

It is in giving advice on the management of the voice for public speaking that trustworthy teachers of elocution are most helpful. When they make dogmatic statements as to how a sound or word is or should be pronounced, their guidance is not equally satisfactory, and the student is earnestly recommended always to test their statements himself. The same request is addressed to him with regard to the present book; if it arouses interest, there is no harm if it also arouses opposition.

FOOTNOTES:

[61] These forms are found, for instance, at the beginning of questions; thus _have you been there?_ is [həv ju bijn ðɛə]. They are also found after vowels, e.g., _I had done so_, [ai həd dʌn sou].

[62] See the note on p. 72.

[63] When contrasted with _inhale_, this word is also pronounced [eksheil].

[64] The change in the quality of the vowel is interesting; possibly _don't_ preserves the old pronunciation of the vowel in _do_.

[65] Strictly speaking the _s_ of the plural was always voiced in the older language, and it is in _cats_, _tips_ that we have assimilation.

[66] The first _d_ is sometimes heard in the pronunciation of this word.

[67] It should, however, be noted that in passing from [m] to [t] there is a transitional sound or "glide" which has the value of a faint [p].

[68] The _c_ in _victuals_ and _indict_ has no etymological justification, as may be seen from the middle English spelling (_vitaille_, _endite_).

[69] For syllabic _m_ see § 22; for syllabic _n_, § 24; for syllabic _l_, § 33.

[70] The mark ´ _precedes_ the stressed syllable.

APPENDIX I

Exercises.

1. How is _-ious_ pronounced in _gracious_, _bilious_, _victorious_?

2. How is _-ion_ pronounced in _motion_, _onion_, _criterion_, _vision_, and _Ionian_?

3. How is _-ial_ pronounced in _labial_, _judicial_, _martial_, _partiality_?

4. What difference in pronunciation, if any, do you make between _hire_ and _higher_, _lyre_ and _liar_, _cure_ and _(s)kewer_, _alms_ and _arms_?

5. Consider the value of _oar_ in _roar_ and in _roaring_, and the value of _air_ in _pair_ and in _pairing_.

6. Determine the vowel sounds corresponding to the italicized letters in ch_i_ld, ch_i_ldren; wom_a_n, wom_e_n; r_ea_d (infinitive), r_ea_d (past participle); s_ay_, s_ay_s; dr_ea_m, dr_ea_med; l_ea_p, l_ea_ped; h_ea_r, h_ea_rd; c_a_n, c_a_n't; d_o_, d_o_n't; gentlem_a_n, gentlem_e_n.

7. Write in transcript the words italicized:

_a._ I have _learned_ much from this _learned_ man.

_b._ He has _aged_ a good deal. He is _aged_.

_c._ I _used_ to _use_ it; you _used_ it too.

Try to account for the pronunciation of _used_ in the sense of "was accustomed" (see § 49).

8. Transcribe your pronunciation of _halfpenny, twopence_, _threepence_. Show the difference between the English and the French pronunciation of _franc_, and between the English and the German pronunciation of _mark_.

9. A waiter was heard to remark pathetically that he never _could_ tell whether a customer wanted "cold lamb" or "cold ham." What caused his uncertainty?

10. The pronunciation of the children of Walworth attending the Church schools has given much concern to Canon Horsley, who says that in their speech "I've been to take her home" becomes "binter tiker rome," "Oh, shake hands" becomes "ow shy cans," and "I've been having a game" becomes "binnavinagime." Consider the pronunciation suggested by this rough transcription, transcribe it more carefully, and comment on such features of the Walworth dialect as it illustrates.

11. You are familiar with the term "alliteration," and know that it is a favourite device of cheap journalism. Criticise the alliteration in the following scare-lines: CITY CLERK CHASED. THIEF TAKEN. SOLICITOR SHOT.

12. Mention words in which the following letters are written but not sounded: _b_, _g_, _gh_, _k_, _l_, _m_, _n_, _t_, _w_.

13. Comment on the following statement: "The letters _l_ and _r_ are called trills, because there is a vibration in the sounds, or in some part of the vocal apparatus by which we pronounce them."

14. Consider this statement: "The _ai_ in _fair_, _ea_ in _lead_, _ie_ in _field_, _ei_ in _receive_, are none of them true diphthongs; they are more or less clumsy ways of showing the length of an elementary vowel-sound."

15. "English has two _e_ sounds, as in _fed_, _feed_, and four _u_ sounds, as in _but_, _pull_, _fur_, _fool_." Do you agree with this?

16. Why does _crystal_ look nicer than _kristle_, which represents the same sounds? Account for such spellings as Edythe, Smythe, Whyte.

17. Say quickly but distinctly:

She sells sea-shells in a salt-fish shop.

Is Stephen Smith's son a smith too?

How many houses had Harry Hall?

Long and loudly little Lily laughed.

The skilled dentist extracted the three teeth.

Do you want the thick thread or the thin?

In silence he sat on the sands by the silvery sea.

A boat is floating over the ocean.

With a loud shout he came out of the house.

The first question Charles asked was strange.

Three grey geese in the green grass grazing.

18. Discuss the old-fashioned form of address "mine host." Do you say "an historical novel"? "a (or an) hotel at Folkestone"? How do you pronounce "the Grand Hotel"? Transcribe your pronunciation of "I gave her her hat."

19. What is the derivation of _ventriloquist_? Does the term correctly indicate the way in which ventriloquists produce their sounds? Which sounds do you think most likely to give them difficulty?

20. In the French of the 12th century _l_ under certain circumstances became a vowel; thus _altre_ became _autre_ and _chevals_ became _chevaus_. How do you explain this change? Point to a similar change in English.

21. How would you teach a foreigner to pronounce the English _th_ sounds?

22. Little children say _pease_ for _please_, _gamma_ or _granma_ for _grandma_, _dess_ for _dress_, _tocking_ for _stocking_. Illustrate the tendency shown in these examples from the speech of grown-up people.

23. Comment on the little child's pronunciation of _tsain_ for _chain_, _fee_ for _three_, _noder_ for _another_, and _bafyoom_ for _bathroom_.

24. Consider carefully the question, why the pronunciation of a foreign language presents difficulties; draw on any foreign language you know for illustrations.

25. The Latin _camera_ is our _chamber_, _numerus_ our _number_, Latin _humilis_ our _humble_, Latin _similare_ our _(re)semble_. Account for the _b_ in the English words.

26. Consider the value of _ure_ in _sure_, _pure_, _nature_, _figure_.

27. What light is thrown on the pronunciation of the past by the following quotations:

(_a_) While he, withdrawn, at their mad labour smiles, And safe enjoys the Sabbath of his toils. (Dryden.)

(_b_) Dreading even fools, by flatterers besieg'd, And so obliging that he ne'er oblig'd. (Pope.)

(_c_) _Cóntemplate_ is bad enough, but _bálcony_ makes me sick. (Rogers.)

(_d_) The dame, of manner various, temper fickle, Now all for pleasure, now the conventicle. (Colman.)

(_e_) There is little doubt that in the pronunciation of _successor_ the antepenultimate accent will prevail. (Walker.)

(_f_) To ketch [catch] him at a vantage in his snares. (Spenser.)

(_g_) Yet he was kind, or, if severe in aught, The love he bore to learning was in fault. (Goldsmith.)

28. Determine which sounds are represented by _ea_ in the following words: _bear_, _beard_, _bread_, _bead_, _yea_, _create_, _realm_, _leap_, _leapt_, _hearken_; and by _eo_ in the following words: _yeoman_, _people_, _leopard_, _re-open_.

29. Determine which sounds are represented by _oi_ in the following words: _boil_, _heroic_, _choir_, _tortoise_, _turquoise_, _coincide_; and by _ou_ in the following words: _south_, _southern_, _mourn_, _journal_, _though_, _thought_, _uncouth_.

30. Determine which sounds are represented by _g_ in the following words: _gem_, _goal_, _gaol_, _gill_, _gibberish_, _fatigue_, _gnaw_; and by _ough_ in the following words: _trough_, _through_, _thorough_, _sough_, _cough_, _rough_, _plough_, _lough_.

31. A character in one of Miss Braddon's novels says: "Supernumery--it's no use, I don't think anybody ever did know how many syllables there are in that word." What is it that leads to the shortening of this word in uneducated speech? Mention similar cases of shortening.

APPENDIX II

Lists of Words with Phonetic Transcription.

NOTE.

The accent shows that the _following_ syllable has the chief stress.

As these lists are intended for the use of English students, it has been thought sufficient to let [e] represent the first vowel sound and [i] the second vowel sound in _very_.

The variation in length of [ij] and other diphthongs and of [m, n, l], etc., has not been indicated.

Words which have occurred in the text of the book are not repeated here.

When two pronunciations are given, both may be considered as common; the first is generally to be preferred. If, however, a pronunciation is enclosed in brackets, it is to be regarded as faulty.

A. General.

abdomen, æb´doumən (´æbdomən) ab initio, ´æb i´niʃiou, -jou abscission, æb´siʒən acacia, ə´keiʃə accent (subst.), ´æksənt, ´æksent; (verb) æk´sent acclimatize, ´æklimətaiz, ə´klaimetaiz accolade, ´ækɔleid accoutre, ə´kuwtə acetic, ə´sijtik, -se- acoustics, ə´kaustiks (ə´kuwstiks) acrobat, ´ækrobæt adage, ´ædidʒ adept, ´ædept, ə´dept adieu, ə´djuw ad infinitum, ´æd infi´naitəm admirable, ´ædmirəbl admiration, ædmi´reiʃən ad nauseam, ´æd ´nɔːsiæm, -jæm ado, ə´duw adult, ´ædʌlt, ə´dʌlt ad valorem, æd və´lɔːrem advantageous, ædvən´teidʒəs, ædvæn´teidʒəs advertisement, əd´vəːtizmənt aegis, ´ijdʒis aegrotat, i´groutæt aerated, ´ɛːəreitid aerial, ɛ´eriəl, ɛ´iːəriəl aerie, ´ɛːri, ´iːəri aeronaut, ´ɛːronɔːt aesthetics, ij´sθetiks (e´sθetiks) a fortiori, ´ei fɔː´ʃjɔːrai again, ə´gen, ə´gein against, ə´genst, ə´geinst aged (adj.), ´eidʒid aggrandizement, ə´grændizmənt aghast, ə´gɑːst agile, ´ædʒail ague, ´eigjuw aisle, ´ail albeit, ´ɔːlbijit algebra, ´ældʒibrə alibi, ´ælibai alienate, ´eiljəneit allegiance, ə´lijdʒəns allegro, ə´legrou, -leig- allot, ə´lɔt alloy, ə´lɔi ally, ə´lai almanac, ´ɔːlmənæk also, ´ɔːlsou, ´ɔlsou always, ´ɔːlwiz, -wəz, -weiz amateur, ´æmətəː, ´æmətʃuə amenity, ə´meniti among, ə´mʌŋ (ə´mɔŋ) anæmic, ə´nijmik anarchist, ´ænəkist anarchy, ´ænəki, ´ænɑːki anchovy, æn´tʃouvi anemone, ə´neməni angina, æn´dʒainə anglice, ´æŋglisi ant, ´ænt (´ɑːnt) antipodes, æn´tipodijz antique, æn´tijk antithesis, æn´tiθisis aorist, ´ɛːərist aperture, ´æpəˑtʃə aphasia, ə´feizjə apophthegm, ´æpoθem apotheosis, æpoθi´ousis, əpo- apparatus, æpə´reitəs apparent, ə´pɛːrənt, -pær- a priori, ´ei pri´ɔːrai apropos, ´æpropou arch-, usually ɑːtʃ archangel, ´ɑːkeindʒəl archetype, ´ɑːkitaip archi-, ´ɑːki-, ´ɑːkj- archives, ´ɑːkaivz arid, ´ærid arras, ´ærəs artificer, ɑː´tifisə artiste, ´ɑːtijst, -ist asafœtida, ´æsə´fetidə askance, ə´skæns, -ɑːns aspirant, ə´spairənt assignee, æsi´nij atoll, ´ætɔl, ə´tɔl attorney, ə´təːni avalanche, ´ævəlɑːnʃ awkward, ´ɔːkwəd awry, ə´rai ayah, ´ajə aye (always), ´ei aye (yes), ´ai

baboo, ´bɑːbuw bacillus, bə´siləs bagatelle, ´bægətel bakshish, ´bækʃijʃ balcony, ´bælkəni ballet, ´bælei balsam, ´bɔːlsəm basalt, ´bæsɔlt, bə´sɔːlt bass (voice), ´beis because, bi´kɔːz, bi´kɔz bedizen, bi´daizən begone, bi´gɔn belligerent, be´lidʒərənt betroth, bi´trouð bicycle, ´baisikl (´bai´saikl) bigot, ´bigət bijou, ´bijʒuw billet-doux, ´bilei´duw bison, ´baisən bitumen, ´bitjumən, bi´tjuwmən bizarre, bi´zɑː blancmange, blə´mɔn(d)ʒ blithe, ´blaið blouse, ´blauz (´bluwz) boatswain, ´bousən bodega, bo´dijgə bombast, ´bɔmbæst, ´bɔmbəst bona fide, ´bounə ´faidi booth, ´buwð borough, ´bʌrə (´bʌrou) bouquet, bu´kei bourn, ´bɔːn, ´buːən bravado, brə´veidou, brə´vɑːdou brazier, ´breiʒə, ´breizjə breeches, ´britʃiz, ´brij- brougham, ´bruːəm, ´brouəm (´broum) brusque, ´brusk, ´brʌsk buffet, ´bufei bulwark, ´bulwək bureau, ´bjuːrou, bju´rou burgher, ´bəːgə

cabal, kə´bæl cachet, ´kæʃei cadi, ´keidi caesura, si´zjuːrə cambric, ´keimbrik campanile, kæmpə´nijli cañon, ´kænjən cantata, kæn´tɑːtə cantonment, kæn´tuwnmənt, -tɔn- caoutchouc, ´kautʃuk cap-à-pie, ´kæpəpij capitalist, ´kæpitəlist caprice, kə´prijs capuchin, ´kæpjutʃin carouse, kə´rauz cashier, kə´ʃiːə casino, kə´sijnou cathedra, ´kæθidrə (kə´θijdrə) cauliflower, ´kɔliflauə celibate, ´selibət 'cello, ´tʃelou centenary, ´sentenri, sen´tenəri cere (-cloths, -ments), ´siːə- chagrin, ʃə´grijn, ʃə´grin chalybeate, kæ´libjet chamois (leather), ´ʃæmi chaperon, ´ʃæpəroun charade, ʃə´rɑːd, ʃə´reid charivari, ´ʃærij´vɑːrij charlatan, ´ʃɑːlətən, -æn chastisement, ´tʃæstizmənt chauffeur, ´ʃoufə chaunt, ´tʃɑːnt chauvinist, ´ʃouvinist chic, ´ʃik chimera, kai´miərə, ki- chiro-, ´kairo- chivalric, ʃi´vælrik } also chivalrous, ´ʃivəlrəs } with chivalry, ´ʃivəlri } tʃi- choir, ´kwaiə choleric, ´kɔlərik chough, ´tʃʌf cicala, si´kɑːlə cicerone, sisə´rouni cinque, ´siŋk circuit, ´səːkit circumstance, ´səːkəmstəns clandestine, klæn´destin clematis, ´klemətis, (kli´meitis) clique, ´klijk coalesce, kouə´les cobalt, ´koubɔlt cochineal, ´kɔtʃinijl cognisant, ´kɔgnisənt coign(e), ´kɔin coincide, kouin´said colonel, ´kəːnəl combat, combatant, combative have ´kʌm- or ´kɔm- comely, ´kʌmli commentary, ´kɔməntri comparable, ´kɔmprəbəl comrade, ´kʌmrid, ´kɔmrid conch, ´kɔŋk condign, kən´dain condolence, kən´douləns conger, ´kɔŋgə congeries, kɔn´dʒeriijz, -´dʒij- conjure (sleight of hand), ´kʌndʒə conjure (implore), kən´dʒuːə connoisseur, kɔni´səː, kɔni´sjuːə consignee, kɔnsi´nij Consols, kən´sɔlz constable, ´kʌnstəbl, ´kɔnstəbl construe, ´kɔnstruw, kən´struw contagion, kən´teidʒən contemplate, ´kɔntempleit (kən´templeit) contemplative, kɔn´templətiv contents, ´kɔntents, kən´tents contumacy, ´kɔntjuməsi contumely, kən´tjuwmili conversazione, kɔnvəsætsi´ouni corollary, kə´rɔləri, kɔrələri corps, ´kɔː coterie, ´koutərij cotillon, ko´tiljən counterfeit, ´kauntəfit courteous, ´kɔːtjəs, ´kəːtjəs (´kəːtʃəs) courtesy, ´kəːtəsi courtier, ´kɔːtjə covetous, ´kʌvitəs covey, ´kʌvi coxswain, ´kɔksən cozen, ´kʌzən crayon, ´krejən croup, ´kruwp cui bono, ´kai ´bounou cuirass, kwi´ræs, kju- cuisine, kwi´zijn cuneiform, ´kjuwniifɔːm cupola, ´kjuwpolə cynosure, ´sainosjuə, ´sainoʃuə, ´sino-