Part 5

=38.= There is a short sound closely akin to it (in position, but not in sound), which we have in _but_, _much_, etc., and for which the sign is [ʌ]. The back of the tongue is raised a little in the production of this sound, and sometimes the front also; and in consequence there are several varieties of it. It occurs only in syllables having some stress; we have [ʌ] in _teacup_, _unfit_, _until_; but not in _welcome_, which is not felt to be a compound. When it is unstressed, it becomes the dull vowel [ə]; unstressed _but_ is [bət]. Observe the vulgar pronunciation of _just_ as [dʒest].

* * * * *

The dull vowel [ə] occurs very commonly in ordinary speech; most unstressed syllables contain this vowel or the variety of [i] mentioned below. It is found, for instance, in the italicised syllables of vow_e_l, vari_e_ty, carp_e_nt_e_r, ordin_a_ry. The long [əː] is variously written; we have it in _fern_, _fir_,[46] _fur_, _word_. (In northern English there is some variety in the [ə], according to the written vowel which it represents.) Notice the precise and the ordinary pronunciation of such words as _paternal_, _polite_, _potato_. The uneducated often insert [ə] in such words as _Henry_ [henəri], _umbrella_ [ʌmbərelə]; and sometimes they substitute [i] for [ə], as in _miracle_, wrongly pronounced [mirikl̩], _philosopher_, wrongly pronounced [fi´lɔsifə], and in _oracle_, _pigeon_.

The letters _e_, _i_, and _y_ in unstressed syllables represent a very laxly articulated sound, for which the sign [i] is used in this book. It varies somewhat in different speakers; several sounds intermediate between the open [ɪ] and the middle [_e_] may be heard. This serves to explain the uncertainty of spelling in such cases as _ensure_ and _insure_, _enquire_ and _inquire_.

Sometimes the vowel disappears altogether, as in _business_, _medicine_, _venison_.

The letter _o_ in unstressed syllables preceding the chief stress is usually [ə], but in precise speech an _o_-sound is heard in such words as _conceive_, _official_, _possess_. After the chief stress [ɔ] is rarely heard; but _epoch_ [ijpɔk] and other uncommon words keep the [ɔ].

=39. The front vowels.=--Utter the word _he_ and notice what the tongue does. You can do so by looking into your mirror, or by putting a finger just inside your front upper teeth, or by whispering the sound, and feeling what happens.

_You will generally find that you can analyse vowels best if you whisper them, because the "voice" does not interfere with your appreciation of the mouth resonances. By this time your muscular consciousness_ (see § 9) _should be considerably developed, and you should be conscious of what your tongue, lips, etc., are doing, without having recourse to a mirror_.

You will find that you are raising your tongue very high in front: [ɑ] and [i] are extremes; in the one case the front of the tongue is practically as low as it can be, in the other it is raised as high as possible. You might raise the tongue farther, but the resulting sound would not be a vowel. The passage would be too narrow, there would be friction, and a continuant would be the result (see § 34).

Utter a pure [ɑ] and gradually raise the front of the tongue until you reach [i]. You may either keep your vocal chords vibrating all the time, or you may whisper the sounds; but see that the tongue moves slowly and steadily. You will realise that very many sounds lie between [ɑ] and [i]; as they are all produced with the raising of the front of the tongue, they are called front vowels.

We have already noticed clear [a], and have met with [æ], which is the vowel sound in _hat_ [hæt]. When unstressed the [æ] gives place to [ə]; _that_ [ðæt] becomes [ðət].

* * * * *

The uneducated sometimes substitute a closer sound (the middle _e_) for [æ]; they say [k_e_b] for _cab_, [k_e_tʃ] for _catch_, [θ_e_ŋks] for _thanks_, [b_e_ŋk] for _bank_. The same mistake may also be heard in the pronunciation of _carriage_, _radish_, _January_. In _any_, _many_ the first vowel is always [_e_]. What is it in _manifold_?

The sound [æ] is only found short. There is a kindred long sound [ɛː], as in _fair_, for which the tongue is rather higher. It is often called the open [ɛ], [æ] being a still more open sound.

* * * * *

A difference in the formation of [æ] and [ɛː] must be noticed; it is not confined to this pair of vowels. In uttering a vowel sound we may adjust the articulations so favourably that the resulting sound is clear and decided; this may be called _tense_ articulation, producing tense vowels. If we do not trouble to adjust the articulations carefully, if we have lax articulation, we obtain _lax_ vowels. In standard English we do not articulate tensely, except in precise and emphatic speech. (Notice how tensely the French and the Germans articulate their accented long vowels.) In teaching children the terms _tight_ and _loose_ may be used.

The articulation of [ɛː] is relatively tense, that of [æ] is lax. For [ɛ] see the diagram on p. 123.

Notice that [ɛː] is always followed by a more or less distinct [ə]; _there_ is [ðɛːə], _Mary_ is [mɛː(ə)ri]. Consider the value of _-ear-_ in _bear_ and _bearing_.

There is a vulgar pronunciation of _I dare say_ as [ai desei], instead of [ai dɛːə sei].

=40.= The diphthongs in _bite_ and _bout_ are pronounced by the uneducated in many ways not permissible in standard English. The first element should be "clear" [a]. A "pure" [ɑ] would not be offensive here, though it is much less common;[47] but any pushing forward of the tongue beyond the [a] limit, any substitution of [æ] for [a], is not to be tolerated. The nasalising of these diphthongs adds to the unpleasant effect. Probably the best means of counteracting these tendencies is to insist on [ɑi] and [ɑu]; if the pure [ɑ] has been practised, as was suggested above, it will form a stepping-stone to the acquisition of good diphthongs.

Notice how a German pronounces these diphthongs; you will find that he dwells much longer on the first element than we do, and that it is more open.

The ending _-ile_ in _agile_, _docile_, _fertile_, _futile_, _hostile_, _puerile_ is pronounced [ail], and not [il] as used to be the case.

=41.= The next sounds in the series, obtained by raising the tongue a little higher than for [ɛ], are "middle" [_e_] and "close" [e]. The vowel in _pen_, _get_, _fell_ is usually the middle [_e_]; some speakers (perhaps mostly ladies) use the close [e] here, but the very close [e], heard in French _été_, is not found in standard English. For ordinary purposes the sign [e] may serve to designate both [e] and [_e_], as they are so closely connected. When unstressed, the [e] gives place to [ə]; thus unstressed _them_ is [ðəm]. Notice that _'em_ really goes back to the old form _hem_.

For [e] see the diagram on p. 122.

Observe the colloquial tendency to pronounce _get_ as [git].

* * * * *

A fairly close [e] is in standard English the first element of the diphthong in _laid_, _tame_, _late_, etc. There is not one uniform vowel sound in these words; pronounce _aid_ quite slowly, and you will notice that the tongue rises before the consonant is reached. The diphthong is long when a voiced sound follows it, short before a voiceless sound. Thus _laid_ [leid] is longer than _late_ [leit]. Test this statement by finding other words containing the diphthong, and pronouncing them to yourself or getting others to pronounce them. What is the quantity of the [ei] when the diphthong is final?

* * * * *

In vulgar speech the first element of the diphthong tends to [ɑ], sometimes almost to [ɔ].

Listen to a foreigner's pronunciation of English words containing this diphthong; what do you notice?

The vowel in _says_ and _said_ is short [sez, sed], as also in _ate_ [et]. The pronunciation of _-ain_ as [ein] in such words as _fountain_, _captain_, _bargain_, is a pedantic affectation.

How do you pronounce _villain_, _curtain_?

=42.= Two front vowels remain to be considered, the _i_ sounds. Say _bid_ and _bead_. You recognise that one is longer than the other; are they otherwise the same? Say _bid_ and repeat it with the same vowel drawn out; then say _bead_, and repeat it with the vowel shortened. If you are careful in each case to change only the length, and not the quality of the vowel, you will perceive that the vowels in _bid_ and in _bead_ are different.

* * * * *

The vowel in _bid_ is laxly articulated and is known as the open [ɪ]. In unstressed syllables (see § 38) it is often very open indeed, and when it is final, as in _very_, the tongue is raised very little higher than for close or even middle _e_. The sign for this sound is [e˔] or [ɪ˕]. (Here ˔ means more close, ˕ more open.) Can you hear any difference between the two vowels of _lily_?

The great phonetician Ellis remarked that the pronunciation of the _i_ in _six_ is the touchstone of foreigners, especially of those belonging to the Romance nations; they usually articulate it too tensely. Ask a Frenchman to say _fini_, and compare his sounds with those in _finny_.

Notice the frequent cockney pronunciation of _-y_ as [_e_i], _e.g._, in windy [wind_e_i].

Often [ə] is substituted for this sound, as in _unity_, _ability_, pronounced [juwnəti, ə´biləti], also in _April_, _visible_; but this is avoided by some speakers.

The [i] in the diphthongs [ai] and [ɔi], as in _buy_, _boy_, is very low.

* * * * *

In _bead_ we have not a single vowel, but a kind of diphthong. If you utter it slowly, you will find that the tongue does not remain in a uniform position, but rises a little towards the end, the sound becoming closer. It may begin close, in which case the further rising reduces the passage so much that we have [j]; _bead_ in this case is [bijd]. Or the vowel may begin fairly open and rise to the close position; then _bead_ is [bɪid].[48] When the diphthong is followed by a voiceless sound, it is shortened; _beat_ [bijt] [bɪit] is shorter than _bead_. Compare also _seed_, _seat_, _sit_; _feed_, _feet_, _fit_. Careful speakers pronounce _been_ like _bean_, not like _bin_; most speakers, however, use the shortened form in ordinary speech.

For [i] see the diagram on p. 122.

In _dear_, _fear_, etc., we have a rather open vowel, of varying length, followed by [ɔ]; we may write [diə], but strictly it is [dɪə, dIˑə] and sometimes [dIːə]. Before [r], as in _dearest_, the [ə] becomes faint or disappears. Standard English contains no [i] as close as the French [i] and the German [iː]. Convince yourself of this by asking foreigners to pronounce words containing these sounds, in their own language or in English.

Notice the frequent pronunciation of _ear_, _year_, as [jəː], and that of _dear_ as [djəː].

* * * * *

We are now able to give the whole series of vowels from [i] to [ɑ] occurring in standard English.

close i (diagram, p. 122) \ open ɪ \ close e (diagram, p. 122) \ middle _e_ \ open ɛ (diagram, p. 123) \ more open æ \ clear a (diagram, p. 123) \ ɑ (diagram, p. 125)

It will be good practice for you to utter this series of sounds, from [ɑ] to [i] and _vice versa_, and long as well as short.

The raising of the tongue for the [i] sounds is best seen if the upper and lower teeth are kept well apart.

=43. The back vowels.=--When the front vowels have been carefully differentiated, the back vowels will be found to present little difficulty. Owing to the fact that the back of the tongue does not admit of so much variety of movement as the front of the tongue, the number of sounds in the series [ɑ] to [u] is smaller than in the series [ɑ] to [i].

You will see that there is some resemblance between the sounds of the two series. Thus we had a lax [æ] and a tense [ɛː] in the front vowels; and there are corresponding open _o_ sounds when the tongue is raised a little at the back.

The articulation of these sounds is often unsatisfactory owing to the lower jaw not being moved down sufficiently, the teeth being hardly separated. The back vowels gain in quality (cp. § 36) if they are produced with lip rounding. The opening is large in the case of the sounds in which the tongue is only slightly raised; as it rises higher, the opening of the lips grows smaller, until for [u] it is only the size of the end of an ordinary lead pencil. This lip rounding is rare with southern English speakers who have not had special voice training; they usually bring together or separate the lips without rounding.

* * * * *

The short vowel sound in _not_, _what_, etc., is a laxly articulated, open [ɔ], much more open than any _o_ in French or German, with the front of the tongue even lower than for [ɑ]. It is lengthened a little before a voiced final consonant, as in _dog_ [dɔg]; but it should never be made quite long. The pronunciation [gɔːd] for _God_ is detestable. Before _ss_ [s], _st_ [st], _sp_ [sp], _th_ [θ], and _f_, _ff_, or _ph_ [f], the long sound is occasionally heard. Determine whether in the following words you use the long or the short sound: _loss, ost_, _froth_, _cross_, _cough_, _soft_, _coffee_, _off_, _officer_, _cloth_, _moss_, _gospel_. Extend the inquiry to your friends.

When the short [ɔ] is in an unstressed syllable it either disappears entirely (as in _lesson_, where the [n] is syllabic, see § 24), or it may become [ə], as in _minor_ [mainə], or it may become the sound [ö], which will be explained in § 44. Thus _October_ is [ɔk´toubə] or [ök´toubə]; _connect_ is [kɔ´nekt] only in precise speech, but usually [kö´nekt] or [kə´nekt].

* * * * *

The long [ɔ] in _law_, _laud_, _lord_ is rather tensely articulated, certainly not so laxly as the short [ɔ].[49] Before voiceless sounds the vowel is somewhat shortened, as in _short_ (compare _shawl_ and _shot_). It is in standard English the only sound of stressed _or_ (or _oar_) before a consonant;[50] there is no difference in sound between _laud_ and _lord_, _fought_ and _fort_, _stalk_ and _stork_, _cawed_ and _cord_. It is true that some speakers try to make a distinction. The long [ɔː] is not a simple long vowel, but really a diphthong of which the second element is [ə][51]; and in words containing a written _r_, these precise speakers somewhat lengthen the [ə] element. Thus they will say [lɔːᵊd] for _laud_, and [lɔːəd] for _lord_. It may be added that they generally do so only if the distinction has been spoken about, and they have expressed their firm belief in its existence; then, for a while, the [ɔːə] may be heard. A simple test, which the student should apply to his friends, is that of asking them to write down the word he utters. If he says [fɔːt], meaning _fought_, most people will write down _fort_, because the sound gives them no guidance, and the substantive is likely to occur to them first. Similarly, if he says [lɔːd], meaning _laud_, they will write down _lord_.[52]

The word _lore_, which hardly occurs in ordinary speech, is often pronounced [lɔːə] in order to distinguish it from _law_, the [ə] sound being much more distinct than in _law_, _more_, _bore_, etc. Consider the value of _-ore-_ in _more water_, and in _more ink_.

* * * * *

There is much variation in the pronunciation of the words _daunt_, _flaunt_, _gaunt_, _gauntlet_, _haunch_, _haunt_, _jaundice_, _jaunt_, _launch_, _laundry_, _paunch_, _saunter_, _staunch_, _taunt_, _vaunt_. The general tendency seems to be in favour of [ɔː], not [ɑː].

* * * * *

When unstressed, the sound is often shortened to [ɔ] or [ö][53]; thus _autumnal_ becomes [ɔ´tʌmnəl] or [ö´tʌmnəl]; _or_ when stressed is [ɔː], unstressed [ɔ] or [ö] or [ə].

* * * * *

A variety of the open [ɔ], not equally open in all speakers of standard English, is the first element in the diphthong found in _boy_ [bɔi]. The pronunciation [böi[53]] is also heard.

In vulgar speech [ɔi] sometimes becomes [ɑi]; thus _boil_ is pronounced [bɑil]. Only in _choir_ (also written _quire_) is this pronunciation current in good speech.

=44.= Utter the sound usually called "long _o_" and found in _bode_, _boat_, etc,; you will observe that the sound is not uniform, as the tongue rises a little before the consonant is reached.[54] Indeed the action of the tongue is quite similar to what we noticed in the case of [ei] in § 41; and also to [iːj] or [Iːi] in § 42, where, however, it is less obvious to the ear. The diphthongal character of the "long _o_" is so essential, that when a stranger merely says [oːnoː] for _oh no!_ we at once recognise that he is not English.

The first element of this diphthong is a middle [_o_], sometimes a fairly close [o]; in standard English the [o] is never so close as in French [o] or in German [ɔː].[55] (Watch foreigners when they utter these sounds; notice how tensely they articulate, and how much more they round their lips than we do.) In cockney speech the first element is pronounced with the tongue lower and raised in front.--The second is a _u_ sound; place a finger against the interval between the upper and lower teeth, and notice how they are brought a little closer towards the end of the diphthong. Observe also the action of the lips. The diphthong is longer before voiced than before voiceless continuants; verify this statement by saying, or getting others to say, _bode_ and _boat_, _goad_ and _goat_, _robe_ and _rope_, _brogue_ and _broke_.

In syllables that are weakly stressed, the first part of the diphthong becomes [_o_], [ö][56] or even [ə], the second part disappearing altogether. Thus _fellow_ is in precise speech [feloːu], but in ordinary speech [fel_o_, felö], and in careless (but not necessarily vulgar) speech [felə].[57] In "ladies' speech" the [öü] occurs even in stressed syllables, and may then be confidently described as a sign of affectation.

The prefix _pro-_, when stressed, is generally pronounced [prou]. In _process_ and _progress_ [prɔ] is sometimes heard; in the substantives _project_ and _produce_ it is the rule.

=45.= The _u_ sounds are clearly parallel to the _i_ sounds. In both cases we have a laxly articulated short sound, and a diphthong in which the tongue rises towards the end.

* * * * *

The short sound in _would_, _book_, etc., is open, and the sign for it is [ᴜ]. Do you notice any difference in the length of the vowel sound in the words _should_ and _put_, _pull_ and _cook_? Observe others, if you are uncertain in your own case. (You will sometimes find it hard to determine what is your natural, instinctive way of pronouncing a word, when once you have grown accustomed to watching your own speech.)

When this [ᴜ] is unstressed it becomes [ü][58] or [ə], or is dropped altogether. Thus _helpful_ becomes [helpfül, helpfəl], and _should_ becomes [ʃüd, ʃəd, ʃd, ʃt].

* * * * *

The vowel sound in _who_ is not uniform. (See what was said about the corresponding _i_ sound in § 42). It may begin as close [u][59], in which case the further rising towards the end reduces the passage so much that we have [w]; _who_ in this case is [huːw]. Or the vowel may begin fairly open and rise to the close position; then _who_ is [hUːu]. When the diphthong is followed by a voiceless sound, it is somewhat shortened; _hoot_ is [huwt] or [hᴜut]; compare _root_ with _rude_. A half-long vowel is now generally heard in _room_; some speakers make it quite short.

In unstressed syllables the first element is shortened and often becomes [ü]; thus _July_ is [dʒüw´lai].

Before [ə] the diphthong loses its second element; _cruel_ is [kruəl]. When the [ə] represents a written _r_, the first element often changes to a vowel with lower tongue position. Thus _poor_ is pronounced [pᴜə, poə], and some educated speakers of southern English even say [pɔː], riming with _door_, _floor_; but this can hardly be considered standard English. Notice also the various pronunciations of _your_, _sure_. Before spoken [r], as in _poorest_, _enduring_, the [ə] becomes very faint or disappears.

* * * * *

The so-called "long u" in such words as _due_, _dew_, _dude_ consists of three parts. The second and third are the vowel sounds in _do_, which have just been discussed; the first is [j], which after voiceless sounds tends to become the voiceless [ç] and even [ʃ], as was mentioned in § 34. Thus _tune_ is in ordinary speech [tjuwn], and often [tçuwn]; in careless speech it may even become [tʃuwn].

The _-ture_ in _nature_, _creature_, _forfeiture_, etc., is generally pronounced [tʃə][60]; the pronunciation [tjə] or [tjü] sounds affected in ordinary speech. _Venture_ is usually [ventʃə], sometimes [venʃə], [ventjə], or [ventjü]. _Censure_ is always [senʃə].

In _allude_, *_allusion_, _lute_, _lucent_, _luminous_, *_flute_, _salute_,*_absolute_, *_absolution_, _dissolute_, *_dissolution_, *_superstition_, *_Susan_ both [uw] and [juw] may be heard; [uw] is probably more common in the words marked with an asterisk. Precise speakers prefer [juw] in all the words given. In _assume_, _presume_ [juw] is regularly heard. As a rule [j] is not inserted after [r], [ʃ], [ʒ], or consonant plus [l].

Notice the pronunciation of _casual_ [kæʒuəl] or [kæʒwəl], _sensual_ [senʃuəl], _usual_ [juwʒuəl] or [juwʒəl], _visual_ [vizjuəl]. _Educate_ is [edjukeit] or [edʒukeit]; careful speakers prefer the former.

As the "long _u_" begins with a consonantal sound it is correct to say _a uniform_, _a university_, _a union_, _a European_, _a eulogy_. To write _an_ before such words is a gross mistake.

We find the [u] element changed in unstressed syllables; thus _value_ becomes [væljü], _regular_ becomes [regjülə, regjələ], and, very colloquially, [reglə].

* * * * *

We are now able to give the whole series of vowels from [u] to [ɑ] occurring in standard English:

ü close u (diagram, p. 124) / open ᴜ / close o (diagram, p. 124) / ö middle _o_ / open ɔ (diagram, p. 125) / dark ɑ

Practise this series, as was suggested in § 42, in connection with the [i] to [ɑ] series.

FOOTNOTES:

[14] For the sake of convenience the nasal sounds, in producing which the breath does not also pass out through the mouth, _i.e._ which are not nasal vowels (see § 8), are included under "stops."

[15] Sounds in phonetic transcript are enclosed in square brackets.

[16] Also called labial.

[17] Also called dental.

[18] Also called palatal.

[19] Also called velar (from velum, for which see § 8) and more usually, but less accurately, guttural.

[20] An oral stop followed by [h] is called an aspirate. Aspirates are common in German, but practically unknown in standard French.

[21] Examples in the conventional spelling are printed in _italics_.

[22] _i.e._ at the end of a word, before a pause.

[23] When the aspiration is strongly marked, it forms a characteristic of the speech of the lower middle class in London and some home counties.

[24] The point stops are also called teeth or dental stops.

[25] On the other hand, in Somerset _clean, clod_ are sometimes pronounced with [tl-].

[26] See footnote 8 on page 29.

[27] See footnote 8 on page 29.

[28] In standard English; in certain dialects the ending-_ing_ is always pronounced [iŋg].

[29] The educated commonly say [buloun]; [bulɔin] is also heard.

[30] The hushing and hissing sounds are also called sibilants.

[31] See also § 45.

[32] Some speakers say [ə´souʃieit] but [ə´sousieiʃən], [i´nʌnʃieit] but [i´nʌnsieiʃən].