Part 4

The pronunciation of _associate_ as [ə´sousieit],[32] _officiate_ as [o´fisieit], instead of [ə´souʃieit, o´fiʃieit], is pedantic; [pro´pisieit] is also faulty for [pro´piʃieit].

* * * * *

The voiced [ʒ] standing alone between vowels is not common in English, being found only where _s_ is followed by a front vowel, or by _u_ which goes back to [juː]. Here the development is from [sj] to [zj] and then to [ʒ]. Examples are _vision_ [viʒən], _measure_ [meʒə]. The spelling _z_ is found only in _azure_ [æʒə] or [eiʒjə], sometimes [æʒjuə].

Observe the careless pronunciation of _as usual_ as [æʒ juwʒuəl], _praise ye the Lord_ as [preiʒ jij ðə lɔːd]. _India rubber_ is generally pronounced [indʒə rʌbə].

On the other hand, the combination [dʒ] is quite common. This is written _j_ (as in _jet_ [dʒet]), _g_ before _e_ or _i_. (as in _gem_ [dʒem], _gin_ [dʒin], _age_ [eidʒ]; observe also _gaol_ [dʒeil]), and sometimes _dg_ (as in _edge_ [edʒ]). It is spelled _ch_ in _ostrich_, _sandwich_, _Greenwich_, _Harwich_, _Woolwich_, and in _spinach_.

What is the value of _ng_ in the following words:--_hang_, _longing_, _lounging_, _language_, _engage_, _hunger_, _hinge_, _ungraceful_?

=30. The hissing sounds.=--Distinguish clearly the voiceless [s] as in _seal_ and the voiced [z] as in _zeal_. Compare the manner of production of the hissing and the hushing sounds: utter [ʃ] and [s]. (Why will these show the distinction more clearly than [ʒ] and [z]?) You will find that the breath is more widely diffused when you utter [ʃ]; in producing [s] your tongue forms a narrow channel and the breath is thus directed against a point. See the diagram on p. 126.

The usual spelling of both voiceless [s] and voiced [z] is _s_. Notice that

1. The _s_ of inflections is [z] after a voiced sound: compare _fills_ [filz], _glances_ [glɑːnsiz], _dogs_ [dɔgz], _faces_ [feisiz], but _hits_ [hits], _cats_ [kæts].

2. The final _s_ of some words of one syllable is [z]: _as_, _has_, _is_, _his_, _was_; but _this_, _us_.

3. Sometimes the verb has [z], the substantive or adjective [s]:

_use_ [juwz] _use_ [juws] _diffuse_ [di´fjuwz] _diffuse_ [di´fjuws] _close_ [klouz] _close_ [klous] _lose_ [luwz] _loose_ [luws]

(Notice the difference in the length of the vowel.)

4. Notice also that we have

[z] [s] in _reserve_ in _research_ _disease_ _disobey_ _dissolve_ _dissolvent_, _dissolute_ _presumption_ _presuppose_

Find other examples (there are many). How do you pronounce _disarm_?

5. _x_ represents [ks] in _exercise_, _excellent_, and in _extra_, _exceed_, _express_, _extol_, but [gz] in _exert_, _examine_, _anxiety_, _exult_, _exonerate_, _exorbitant_, _exotic_.

Do you agree with this statement?

Try to find a rule for the pronunciation of _x_.

In _exile_ both pronunciations of _x_ may be heard, [ks] being perhaps the more common.

For the dropping of _h_ in compounds with _ex-_ see § 47.

The voiceless [s] is usually written _s_, but also _ss_, and _c_ or _sc_ before _e_ and _i_ (as in _city_, _scene_, but not in _sceptic_ [skeptik]).

Say which of the sounds [ʃ, ʒ, tʃ, dʒ, s, z] occur in the following words:

_church_, _machine_, _ledger_, _leisure_, _seizure_, _cease_, _ease_, _scissors_, _chisel_, _lesion_, _legion_, _singe_, _excessive_, _example_.

Notice that final [z] is unvoiced towards the end; thus _is_ is strictly [izz̥]; compare what was said about final [v] in § 27.

* * * * *

The term lisping is given to various mispronunciations of the _s_ sounds. It may be due to a lasting or a passing malformation of the teeth, palate, or tongue,[33] or it may be simply a bad habit. A slight habitual lisp is often heard, and parents and friends have been known foolishly to encourage a child in the belief that the lisp is "pretty"; it is important to drive this idea out of the child's head. The treatment of lispers is varied; generally they can produce the right sound after some experimenting. When the right sound has been found and distinguished by the child, the rest is entirely a matter of perseverance. There must be frequent repetition in many combinations. The exercises should be practised sparingly at first, and gradually increased, otherwise the strain may be too great and interfere with the child's regular work.

=31. The lisping sounds.=--Distinguish clearly the voiceless [θ] as in _thistle_, and the voiced [ð] as in _this_. Compare the manner of production of the lisping and the hissing sounds: utter [θ] and [s]. You will find that in the case of [θ] the breath is not passing through a narrow channel, and issues between the tips of the upper teeth and of the tongue. The tongue may be between the teeth, and the sounds are accordingly sometimes called interdental; but this is by no means essential. Our English lisping sounds are usually formed between the point of the tongue and the back of the front upper teeth; part of the tongue fills up the small gap between the teeth, without advancing beyond their back surface.

Which of the following words have [θ] and which have [ð]?

_thorn_, _thou_, _bath_*, _baths_*, _bathe_*, _then_, _think_, _clothe_*, _cloth_*, _with_, _father_, _thump_, _lethal_, _leather_, _lath_, _lathe_, _lithe_, _loath_*, _loathe_*, _breath_*, _breathe_*, _heathen_, _heath_, _heaths_, _wreathe_*, _wreath_*, _wreaths_*, _seethe_, _truth_*, _truths_*.

What do you notice with regard to the words marked with an asterisk? Of what does it remind you in connection with the hissing sounds?

Notice that final [ð] is unvoiced or whispered towards the end; compare what has been said about final [v] and final [z].

* * * * *

A fault, common especially in bad southern English, and found almost invariably in baby speech, is the substitution of [v, f] for [ð, θ]. The baby says [fʌm] for [θʌm], the cockney [nafiŋk] for [nʌθiŋ], [fevə] for [feðə]. This fault should on no account be tolerated; the child (we are of course not referring to the baby) can produce the lisping sounds without difficulty. It need only be told to place the tongue between the teeth. When once the difference in the manner of production of [f] and [θ] is known, the child can also _hear_ the difference; all that is now required is perseverance.

In careless speech [h] is sometimes substituted for [θ], thus _I think so_ becomes [ai hiŋk sou]. This also has its parallel in baby speech, e.g. [hugə] for _sugar_.

=32. The liquids.=--This designation comprises the _r_ sounds and the _l_ sounds.

The sounds written _r_ are extremely varied, and are likely to give some trouble to the student. He should in the first place ascertain from his friends (we are assuming that these speak standard English) whether they notice anything peculiar about his _r_. If they do not, it is probable that he uses the untrilled _r_. (The phonetic sign for this is [ɹ], but it is customary to use [r], unless exceptional accuracy be desired.)

This sound is produced by allowing the breath to pass between the raised point of the tongue and the ridge of the upper gums.[34] When the breath makes the tip of the tongue vibrate, we have the trilled or rolled [r]. Can you roll your _r_? Does anyone you know habitually do so? Have you noticed whether Frenchmen or Germans ever do it?

Another kind of _r_ is that produced at the back of the mouth, by the help of the uvula (see § 8), and called the throat _r_ or uvular _r_ (phonetic sign: [R]), as distinguished from the tongue or teeth _r_ (lingual or dental _r_). It is not a normal sound in standard English, but is occasionally found. It used to be frequent in Durham and Northumberland (the "Northumbrian burr"), but is dying out there now.

Notice that after [t] and [d] the narrowing for [r] is particularly small, and therefore the friction of the breath particularly noticeable. Say such words as _dry_, _drink_, _droll_, _try_, _trill_, _trap_, and carefully observe the nature of the [r]. Notice also that after voiceless sounds the [r] often becomes voiceless [r̥], as in _praise_, _try_, _increase_. Sometimes _tried_ almost sounds like _chide_, because the passage of the breath is not stopped and the vocal chords have not begun to vibrate. Try to utter a voiceless [r̥] by itself; practise the series [r r̥ r r̥ r].

There is also a peculiar variety of _r_ found after _g_, as in _great_, _green_, _grass_. This _r_ is a kind of palatal blade continuant, and its use should be avoided, as it is generally held to be affected.

* * * * *

In standard English the written _r_ is only pronounced initially (as in _red_), between a consonant and a vowel (as in _bread_, _angry_), and between vowels, the second of which is not only written, but actually pronounced (as in _very_).[35]

It is not pronounced between a vowel and a consonant (as in _arm_, _lord_), nor when it is final in the spelling or followed by a vowel which is only written and not actually pronounced (as in _bar_, _bare_). Its place is in many cases taken by the neutral vowel [ə] (see § 38).

Observe that a final _r_ is pronounced when the next word begins with a vowel. (Is there anything like this in French?) Thus we say _better_ [betə], but [betər ən betə]; _ever_ [evə], but [fər evər ənd evə]; _here_ [hiə], but [hiᵊr ən ðɛːə]; _stir up_ [stəːr ʌp], but [stəː ðə faiə]. There is, however, nowadays a tendency to leave even this _r_ unpronounced.

The fact that such words as _better_ have two forms, with and without [r], has led to the addition of [r] when there is no justification for it. Even educated people are often heard to pronounce _the idea of it_ as [ði aidiər əv it]; _The India Office_ sometimes becomes [ði indjər ɔfis]; _china ornaments_ becomes [tʃainər ɔːnəmənts]; and clergymen have been known to say [vik´tɔːjər auə kwijn]. Similarly, in vulgar speech [ðə windər iz oupən], [pə´pɑːr əz gɔn aut], etc., are quite common.

There is an affected pronunciation of this [ə] which makes it approximate to a deep [ɑ]; the comic papers represent _my dear fellow_ as "my deah fellah" to indicate the speech of a swell.

The substitution of [w] for [r] is a mannerism which should not be tolerated; it is the result of a bad habit, not of any defect of the organs of speech.

When a word contains the letter _r_ twice, careless speakers incline to drop one of them; _February_ becomes [febjuəri], _temporarily_ [tempərili], _library_ [laibri], _literary_ [litəri], _supernumerary_ [sjuwpənjuwməri], _contemporary_ [kəntempəri]. _Veterinary_ usually becomes [vetənri] or [vetnəri].

=33.= In order to produce the sound of [l], we let the breath pass out between the side rims of the tongue and the side gums and teeth; the point of the tongue touches the roof of the mouth somewhere along the middle line.

Utter [l] with the point of the tongue drawn back as far as possible; then utter [l] several times, gradually bringing the point of the tongue forward, until it eventually touches the teeth. You will notice a difference in the quality of the sound: the sound is "dark"[36] when the tongue is farther back, "clear" when it is forward in the mouth. Notice that when the tongue is drawn back, it is bunched up behind. In standard English the [l] is frequently pronounced with the tongue fairly back in the mouth; the "darkness" of the [l] is particularly noticeable when it comes at the end of a word.[37]

Excessive withdrawal of the tongue tip is not to be encouraged in children; they should rather practise the "clear" [l], though they need not go so far as actually to "let the tongue touch the teeth." This is, however, a good rule, and if instilled in the children will do something to counteract any tendency to "darkness" of the [l]. It is not likely that they will acquire the habit of actually touching the teeth when they say [l]; but a sufficiently "clear" [l] can be obtained if the point of contact is at the upper gums, and even a little farther back than that. It should be noted that the [l] may be "dark," even when the point of the tongue touches the teeth, if the back of the tongue is raised.

In cockney speech the [l] is sometimes lost, through no contact taking place; _tail_ is pronounced [tæjɔ] or something similar, with a very open [ɔ] (see § 43) in place of [l], and after consonants also the final _l_, as in _giggle_, is very liable to disappear. This recalls the treatment of final _r_ in standard English. In careless speech the [l] also disappears in _only_ and in _all right_.

_Colonel_ is pronounced [kəːnəl]; the older spelling _coronel_ explains this.

Notice that when [l] comes next to a voiceless sound, it may become partly or wholly voiceless [l̥]. Thus _clear_ becomes [kl̥iːə], _halt_ [hɔl̥t]. The friction becomes noticeable then; try to utter [l̥] and observe this. The voiceless sound is the familiar Welsh _ll_.

In _bubble_, _riddle_, etc., we may have syllabic _l_ [l̩]. Compare what was said about syllabic _m_ in § 22, and about syllabic _n_ in § 24.

The _l_ is not pronounced in _calf_, _half_, _salve_,[38] _balk_, _caulk_, _chalk_, _falcon_,[39] _folk_, _stalk_, _talk_, _walk_, _yolk_, _almond_, _alms_, _balm_, _calm_, _palm_, _psalm_, _qualm_, _salmon_, _solder_, _should_, _would_, _could_ (where it is not etymologically justified); _golf_ is usually [gɔlf], but also [gɔf][3], and rarely [gɔːf].[40]

It was said above that for [l] we let the breath pass out at both sides of the mouth; but, as a matter of fact, most people let it out only on one side. On which side does it pass out in your own case? Is the same true of your whole family? Ascertain which is the usual side in the case of friends.

=34. Front continuants.=--Watch with your mirror what the tongue does when you utter the word _he_. You see that it rises in front. Raise it a little more, until the passage becomes quite narrow; the vowel will pass into the sound which we have at the beginning of _yes_ [jes], and which we also have in _sue_ [sjuːw], for which see § 45. As a rule the friction is very slight, and indeed hardly perceptible to the ear; but in the slowly uttered, deliberate _yes_ the friction can often be heard very distinctly. The sound is also noteworthy as being, like [w] and [ɹ], "gliding," not "held" (see §§ 26, 32). In careless speech it sometimes passes into [ʒ] after [d]; _during_ is pronounced [dʒuwriŋ] instead of [djuwriŋ], the _dew_ becomes [dʒuw], _it made you start_ [it mei dʒu stɑːt]. _Soldier_ is regularly pronounced [souldʒə], not [souldjə]; and _verdure_, _grandeur_, have both pronunciations, [djə] being preferred by careful speakers.

After voiceless sounds, as in _Tuesday_, _tube_, [j] occasionally passes into the corresponding voiceless [ç], which is the consonant sound in the German _ich_; and sometimes it even becomes [ʃ], compare the careless pronunciation of _don't you know_ [dountʃənou], _last year_ [lɑːs tʃiə], _he'll meet you_ [hijl mijtʃu]; _I shall hit you_ is in vulgar speech [ɑi ʃəl itʃə]. For this development in unstressed syllables, see § 45.

* * * * *

=Back continuants.=--When we utter the vowel sound of _who_ the back of the tongue is raised; if we raise it a little higher, there is friction, and we obtain the back continuants. These do not normally belong to standard English. The voiceless [x] is, however, not uncommon in the pronunciation of words taken from Scotch, Welsh, or German; even in such words [k] is generally substituted. The Scotch _loch_ is pronounced [lɔx] or [lɔk]; the German _Hoch(heimer)_ is always spelt and pronounced _hock_ [hɔk]. In Scotch [x] occurs normally.

* * * * *

=Throat r= (_uvular_ =r=).--This sound, which does not normally belong to standard English, has been referred to in § 32.

=35. The h sounds.=--We considered the glottis (the interval between the vocal chords) in § 6. We saw that when it is quite open, the breath passes through without producing any audible sound. When, however, the glottis is somewhat narrowed, the breath brushes past the vocal chords, and an _h_ is produced; this we may call a voiceless glottal continuant.[41]

Now there may be various kinds of glottal [h]. The passage between the vocal chords may be more or less narrow, and it may remain uniform or gradually grow narrower or wider. The current of breath may be strong or weak; it may be of uniform force, or gradually grow stronger or weaker. When there is a strong current of breath, and the opening is very narrow, we call it "wheezing."

In standard English the _h_ is a glottal continuant only when there is precise and emphatic utterance. Ordinarily it is produced in the mouth passage. When we say _ha_, the vocal chords are not drawn together until the vowel is sounded; the mouth, however, gets into position for uttering the vowel a little before the time, and the breath as it passes through produces an _h_ sound. In [hɑ] then, we practically have a voiceless [ɑ] followed by the ordinary voiced [ɑ]; in _he_, a voiceless [i] followed by the ordinary [i] vowel; in _who_, a voiceless [u] followed by the ordinary [u]. Whisper these words, and also _hay_ and _hoe_; and after each, whisper the [h] only. Notice that the ear detects an actual difference in these _h_ sounds.

* * * * *

A good deal depends on the current of breath with which the [h] is uttered. In standard English the current does not keep on growing in volume until the vowel is sounded; it distinctly diminishes before the vowel appears. This may be graphically represented by the signs [ ].

* * * * *

If the current of breath does not diminish in this way, but starts weakly and does not reach its maximum force until the vowel is reached, the ear does not receive the impression of a distinct [h]. This sound may be written [h<] or simply [<]. This (the "soft breath") precedes initial vowels in standard English; it is the sound which in cockney speech commonly represents the more distinct [ ]; those who use it are said to "drop their h's." Conscious of the defect, they often prefix a full, even an exaggerated [h] to words which have no _h_. It need hardly be said that carelessness in the use of _h_ is not to be tolerated. It is interesting to note that no _h_ is ever dropped in the speech of Americans, except in the weak forms of _he_, _him_, _her_.

[h] occurs in standard English only before stressed vowels. Initial _h_ before unstressed vowels is only pronounced when preceded by a pause.

Notice that:

1. Written _h_ is not pronounced in _heir_, _honest_, _honour_, _hour_, and words derived from these.

It is now pronounced in standard English in _herb_, _hospital_, _humble_, _humour_ (a fair number of educated speakers still pronounce this word without [h]).

2. It is regarded as correct to say _a history_, but _an historical novel_; _a habit_, but _an habitual action_; many, however, pronounce the _h_ in both cases.

3. Certain words drop the _h_ when they occur in an unstressed position in the sentence; this is a regular feature of standard colloquial speech, and does not convey the slightest suggestion of vulgarity. It must be recognised that such words have two forms, weak and strong, according as they are used without or with emphasis. Compare the following sentences:

Tom has been there. Has he though? tɔm əz bijn (bin) ðeːə. hæz i ðou?

I gave her a book. What, to her? ai geiv ər ə buk. wɔt, tu həː?

Find as many words having strong and weak forms as you can by observing the ordinary speech of those around you. Then compare the list given in § 47.

For the dropping of _h_ in the second part of compound words, see § 47.

=36.=

VOWELS

We have considered the sounds produced when the passage through which the breath passes is closed (stops) or narrowed (continuants); we now have to consider the sounds produced when the passage is wide enough for the breath to pass through without audibly brushing against the sides. These sounds are the vowels.

"Voice," produced by the vibration of the vocal chords, may be said to give body to the vowel; the shape of the passage through which the breath passes determines the features that distinguish one vowel from another, _i.e._ its quality. The shape of this passage is capable of almost infinite variation, which leads to a corresponding variety of resonances, and these determine the quality of the vowels.

Picture to yourself the inside of the mouth, and consider how the cavity may become larger or smaller, according as you separate or draw together the jaws; see what a difference it makes if you raise the tongue at the back, or in the middle, or in the front; bear in mind that the position of the lips may also modify the sound, as you will notice if, for instance, you utter [u] as in _who_, first with the lips forming a long narrow slit, and again with the lips forming a very small circle (of the same size as the end of a lead pencil).

=37.= Of the well-defined vowels that which is articulated with least effort is [ɑ].[42] It is the earliest vowel sound uttered by the baby, before it has acquired control over the muscles of the tongue. It is also common as an interjection. Utter it, and watch the tongue with your mirror; you will see that the middle of the tongue ridge is slightly raised. The opening of the mouth is generally larger than in the case of the other vowels. See the diagram on p. 125.

Utter the standard English sound of _a_ in _hat_, for which the sign is [æ]. Say several times [ɑ æ] and watch the tongue as you do so; you will see that it moves forward and is a little higher in front and lower at back for [æ]. The opening of the mouth is often quite as large for [æ] as for [ɑ].

Now try to produce the sound which lies between the two, with the tongue occupying an intermediate position; you will obtain the sound [a], which is the northern English vowel in _hat_, and the vowel in the French word _chat_; in standard English it occurs only as the first part of the diphthongs in _bite_ [bait] and _bout_ [baut].[43] This [a] is sometimes called the "clear" _a_ sound. See the diagram on p. 123.

Next, draw the tongue a little back, and you will obtain a variety of [ɑ] which is "dark" and has a suggestion of the vowel in _all_ [ɔːl]. This sound is commonly substituted for the "pure" or "neutral" [ɑ] in cockney speech, so that _fast_ is made to sound like [fɔːst], _park_ like [pɔːk].

This "darkening" of the _a_ sound should not be permitted; in order to counteract it, it may be advisable to make the class utter [ɑ] singly and in chorus, until they are quite clear as to the nature of the required sound.

It is sometimes found that precise speakers, through an excessive desire to avoid any suspicion of cockney leanings in their speech, substitute [a] for [ɑ], saying, for instance, [faːðə] in place of [fɑːðə]; it is particularly ladies of real or would-be refinement who commit this mistake. A mistake it is, like every other deviation from what is generally recognised by the educated.

In other cases the "clear" pronunciation of _a_ is often heard, _e.g._, in _glass_, _bath_, _past_, _answer_, _demand_, _grant_, _everlasting_. Both [a] and [æ] occur, particularly in the speech of ladies. What is the American pronunciation of _half_?

In standard English there is practically no short [ɑ],[44] but only the long [ɑː], which should be neither "dark" nor "clear." If we analyse it carefully, we often find[45] that it is not a single vowel of uniform value, only the first part being "pure" [ɑ], the rest being a faint variant; but for practical purposes we may regard it as uniform in quality, as in good speech it is a pure long vowel.