Part 3

Language is constantly changing. The rate of change is not perhaps always the same, but change there always is. As we have seen above, the older generation and the younger do not speak exactly alike. Now the changes in the spoken language are gradual, and quite unconscious; but a change in the recognised spelling of words is something tangible. It conflicts with a habit we have acquired.

In mediæval times, when there was no printing, no daily paper, no universal compulsory education, there was a good deal of freedom in the spelling, and people wrote very much as they pleased--phonetically, if they were not spoilt by "a little knowledge." But the invention of printing and the dissemination of learning changed all this. A uniform spelling came to be recognised; the nation acquired the habit of regarding it as correct, and would tolerate no deviation from it. Though it represents the pronunciation of a former age, we still use it; and we are quite upset when we read the spellings _labor_, _center_, _therefor_, nay even when two words are, contrary to our usage, run together, as in _forever_.

When our spelling received its present form not only was the language very differently pronounced, but the pedantic had already been able to wreak their wicked will on it. Thus the "learned" men of mediæval France spelled _parfaict_, though the _c_ of Latin _perfectum_ had developed into the _i_ of _parfait_, and they did not pronounce the _c_ which they introduced into the spelling. The word passed into English, and here also the _c_ was at first only written; later on it came to be pronounced. The "learned" similarly introduced a _b_ into the French words _douter_ and _dette_ (because of the Latin _dubitare_ and _debita_), but had the good sense to drop it; we have it still in _doubt_ and _debt_, though we leave it unpronounced. In later times we find something similar: the learned force us to spell _philosophy_ with _ph_ and not _f_. The word comes from Greek through Latin; the Greeks pronounced the _ph_ actually as _p_ plus _h_ at the time when the Romans took to spelling Greek words in their language, and these continued to spell _ph_ even when the Greeks no longer pronounced _p_ plus _h_, but _f_, as we do now.

=18.= The subject of =spelling reform= is not within the scope of this book; but it presents itself naturally to all who take an intelligent interest in the language. It seems probable that much good will be achieved by the Simplified Spelling Society (44 Great Russell Street, London, W.C.; annual subscription from 1s.), which has been recently established and will undoubtedly profit by the experience of the sister society in the United States. Such spellings as _wel_, _ful_, _tho_, _thoro_, _bred_, _plesure_, will surely commend themselves as soon as the eye of the man in the street has been made familiar with them and the etymological sentimentalist has realised the astounding weakness of his arguments.

However distant may be a complete reform, it is certainly helpful to be conscious of the evil; only thus can we neutralize some of its bad effects. The most obvious of these is the lack of =ear training= in our schools, where the mother tongue has been learnt on the basis of the written and not the spoken language. The only method for teaching English reading and writing which can commend itself to the student of the language no less than to the student of childhood is the method identified with the name of Miss Dale. Apart from the sympathy and love of children pervading all her work, it is of unusual importance because she has solved the problem of starting from the spoken language, while avoiding all phonetic symbols.

=19.= It is, however, convenient for the student of phonetics to have a set of generally accepted signs; otherwise he would be unable to express in writing the pronunciation in such a way that other students could understand what he meant. Without phonetic symbols the designation of sounds becomes awkward. It was one of Miss Dale's many happy thoughts to connect sounds and their written form with definite words, for instance the "moon oo" and the "fern er"; but however suitable that is for the little ones, it is inconvenient for the grown-up student.

There are many phonetic alphabets; all else being equal, the one most widely used is clearly the most valuable. We have therefore chosen for this book =the alphabet of the Association phonétique internationale,= which is already well known in England owing to its use in a number of books for elementary instruction in French, German, and even Latin. It will commend itself to the student by its great simplicity. What will really present difficulty is rather the determination of the actual nature of the spoken word, than the representation of the sounds when once determined.

=20.= We now give the sounds occurring normally in standard English, and their phonetic signs; the signs for consonants which are likely to be unfamiliar are enclosed.

=Consonants.=

=b= as in _bat_ _rabble_ _tab_ =p= as in _pat_ _apple_ _tap_ =m= as in _man_ _hammer_ _lamb_

=d= as in _dab_ _bidden_ _bad_ =t= as in _tap_ _bitten_ _pat_ =n= as in _nut_ _winner_ _tun_

=g= as in _gut_ _waggle_ _tug_ =k= as in _cat_ _tackle_ _tack_

=ŋ= as in _singer_ _sing_

=w= as in _wit_

[10]=ʍ= as in _when_

=v= as in _van_ _never_ _leave_ =f= as in _fan_ _stiffer_ _leaf_

=ð= as in _this_ _leather_ _clothe_

=θ= as in _thistle_ _Ethel_ _cloth_

=z= as in _zeal_ _easel_ _lose_ =s= as in _seal_ _lesson_ _lease_

=ʒ= as in _leisure_ _rouge_

=ʃ= as in _shed_ _ashes_ _dash_

=j= as in _yes_

=r= as in _red_ _very_ =l= as in _lip_ _pallor_ _pill_ =h= as in _hot_

=Vowels.=

_Attention should be paid to the signs for these, as many are unfamiliar. The examples given will convey only a general idea of the sounds, which are discussed in detail in § 36 and foll. The sign ː indicates length, and ˑ half length_.

=iː= is the first vowel sound[11] in _bead_.

=ɪ= is the vowel sound in _bit_.

=eː= is the first vowel sound[11] in _braid_.

=e= is the vowel sound in _bet_.

=ɛː= is the first vowel sound in _fairy_.

=æ= is the vowel sound in _bat_.

=a= is the first vowel sound[11] in _bout_, _bite_.

=ɑː= is the first vowel sound in _father_.

=ɔː= is the first vowel sound in _glory_.

=ɔ= is the vowel sound in _pot_.

=o= is the first vowel sound[11] in _boat_.

=uː= is the first vowel sound[11] in _rude_.

=ᴜ= is the vowel sound in _put_.

=əː= is the vowel sound in _burn_.

=ə= is the second vowel sound in _better_.

=ʌ= is the vowel sound in _but_.

The following sentences written in the conventional and the phonetic spelling will give some idea of the use of this alphabet for representing connected speech as spoken (_a_) very carefully, (_b_) quite colloquially.

For purposes of convenience the ɪ and ᴜ are not used in ordinary transcript, as there is no danger of confusion.

(_a_) The seriou student of phonetics soon grows ðə siᵊrjəs stjuwdənt[12] əv fo´netiks[13] suwn grouz

interested in the subject, and every fresh speaker intərestid in ðə sʌbdʒikt, ænd evri freʃ spijkə[12]

presents new materials for study. pri´zents njuw mə´tiːᵊriəlz fə stʌdi.

(_b_) Did you hear what he told me last night? dʒu hiə wɔt i toul mi lɑːs nait?

FOOTNOTES:

[2] Another defective method of breathing consists in raising the shoulders for the purpose of increasing the capacity of the lungs. The shoulders should, however, not be moved at all in breathing.

[3] The custom of insisting on tightly-folded arms is not to be encouraged.

[4] The exercises suggested by Mr Burrell in _Clear Speaking and Good Reading_ (p. 16 and foll.) are also recommended.

[5] Also called tone.

[6] Or, toned.

[7] Or, untoned, breathed.

[8] This definition has its drawbacks, as will be seen later.

[9] Consider what happens in the case of such words as _vintner_, _lampman_.

[10] It is doubtful whether this can be called a sound of standard English; see § 31.

[11] It is most important that you should not confuse _sound_ with _letter_. Thus in bead we have the letters _e_ and _a_, which represent vowels in _bed_ and _bad_; but the _e_ in _bead_ has quite a different value from the _e_ in _bed_. The two letters _ea_ in _bead_ together represent two sounds which are described in § 42.

[12] In the _Specimens of English_ the diphthongs here represented by [uw] and [ij] are simply printed [uː] and [iː].

[13] Observe that the accent [´] _precedes_ the stressed syllable. In the _Specimens of English_ the vowel of the stressed syllable is printed in =this type=.

THE SOUNDS CONSIDERED SEPARATELY

=Consonants--stops.=

=21.= The sounds which present least difficulty to the student are the stops, in producing which the flow of breath is completely checked. We have already seen in § 11 that every stop, strictly speaking, consists of three parts, the closing and the opening of the passage and the pause between, and that only the closing or only the opening need be heard for the ear to distinguish the sound. The interval between the closure and the opening may be noticeable, in which case we call the consonant double.

Stops may be voiced or voiceless, that is, they may be produced with or without vibration of the vocal chords (see § 7).

Stops may be produced by stopping the breath at some point in the mouth and then letting it burst through the obstacle; these are =oral= stops.

The breath, stopped at some point in the mouth, may be allowed to pass out through the nose; the sounds thus produced are called =nasal=.[14]

Utter the following sounds, and determine whether they are voiced or voiceless, oral or nasal:

[p, g, n, t, b, k, m, d, ŋ.][15]

According to the place of articulation we distinguish lip[16] stops, point[17] stops, front (palate)[18] stops and back (palate)[19] stops.

=22. Lip stops.=--When the breath is stopped at the lips, three different sounds may be produced.

1. [p], when there has been no vibration of the vocal chords.

In precise or emphatic speech, sufficient breath escapes after the opening of the passage to give the effect of [h][20]; thus _Pay, pay!_[21] [pͪei, pͪei]. This occurs mostly before accented vowels, and sometimes finally[22]: _I hope_ [ai houpͪ].[23]

[p] is written _p_ or _pp_; rarely _ph_ (as in a common pronunciation of _diphtheria_ [dipθiːᵊriə], for which see § 27).

Notice the spelling of _hiccough_ [hikʌp].

2. [b], when there has been vibration of the vocal chords.

[b] is written _b_ or _bb_.

3. [m], when the velum is lowered and part of the breath passes out through the nose. (Generally speaking, this sound is voiced; but when it is immediately followed by a voiceless sound, it may be partly voiced, then voiceless (phonetic sign: mˑ). Then _lamp_ is strictly [læmmˑp]. We may say: [m] is =unvoiced= or =devocalized= before a voiceless stop.) Notice the difference in length of [m] in _lamb, hammer, glum, moon_; in which of these words is it short?

In _comfort, triumph_ the [m] is often labiodental: the breath is stopped by the upper teeth and lower lip, not by both lips.

In _prism, schism_ the _m_ may have =syllabic= value; it then does the work usually performed by a vowel. We say [prizəm] or [prizm̩], where [m̩] is the sign for syllabic _m_.

[m] is written _m_ or _mm_.

=23.= In the production of the lip stops the tongue plays no part, except by leaving a free passage; but it is active in the production of the stops we next have to consider. This is therefore the right place to give the names by which we designate the various =parts of the tongue=. We distinguish

the _point_,

the _blade_ (above and behind the point when the tongue lies flat),

the _front_ (yet further behind), and

the _back_; also

the _ridge_ or _dorsum_ (an imaginary line drawn along the middle of the top of the tongue from end to end), and

the _rim_ (running all round the edge of the tongue when it lies flat).

When the narrowing or closure of the passage is made by the front rim of the tongue, we say it is of _apical_ formation; when it is made by the surface of the tongue behind the front rim, we say it is of _dorsal_ formation.

24. =Point stops=.[24]--The breath is stopped by the action of the point of the tongue touching the teeth (in which case we have true dentals) or the upper gums (this is known as _alveolar_ articulation, "alveoli" being the learned word for the gums). In English the point of the tongue rarely touches the teeth; usually it touches the upper gums, sometimes the hard palate (this should be avoided), in which case it approaches [k]. See the diagram on p. 126.

Hence in careless speech _at last_ sometimes becomes [ə´klɑːst].[25] Little children are heard to say [ikl] for _little_; compare also the change from Latin _tremere_ to French _craindre_.

Three different sounds may be produced with this stoppage:

1. [t], when there has been no vibration of the vocal chords.

In precise or emphatic speech, sufficient breath escapes after the opening of the passage to give the effect of [h]; thus _take it!_ [tʰeik it]. This occurs mostly before accented vowels, and sometimes finally; _he sent me such a charming note_ [hi sent mi sʌtʃ ə tʃɑːmiŋ noutʰ].[26]

In certain kinds of uneducated southern English speech [t] is occasionally dropped between vowels, in such words as _water_, _butter_.

[t] is written _t_ or _tt_; _d_ in the _ed_ of verbs after voiceless sounds, as in _stopped_ [stɔpt]; rarely _th_, in words of foreign origin.

2. [d], when there has been vibration of the vocal chords.

[d] is written _d_ or _dd_.

3. [n], when the velum is lowered and the breath passes out through the nose. (Generally speaking, this sound is voiced; but when it is immediately preceded or followed by a voiceless sound, it may become voiceless (n̥) in part. Then _sneer_ is strictly [sn̥niə], _hint_ [hinn̥t].) Notice the difference in length of [n] in _mine_, _own_, _manner_, _an_, _name_; in which of these words is it long?

In _month_, _anthem_ the [n] is a true dental: the tongue touches the teeth.

In _listen_, _open_ we may have syllabic _n_ [n̩]. Compare what was said about syllabic _m_ in § 22.

[n] is written _n_ or _nn_.

=25. Front and back stops.=--The breath is stopped by some part of the ridge of the tongue meeting

the front or hard palate, giving _front stops_; or the back or soft palate, giving _back stops_.

Say [ku] and then [ki]; now whisper them. In which case is the closure more forward in the mouth? Compare with these the place of closure when you say [kɑ].

From these examples it will be seen that the effect for the ear is very much the same, and we shall here make use of the same signs for front and back stops.

In cockney speech there is a distinct tendency to make the closure so far forward that the [k, g] are perceptibly modified. (This pronunciation is suggested by the spelling _gyarden_, _kyind_, employed by those who try to represent cockney speech.) The "palatalizing" tendency is not to be encouraged; a more effective [k] is produced by distinctly backward articulation. Slight variations in the place of closure due to the place of articulation of neighbouring sounds in a word are inevitable.

Three different sounds may be produced with this stoppage.

1. [k], when there has been no vibration of the vocal chords.

In precise or emphatic speech, sufficient breath escapes after the opening of the passage to give the effect of [h]; thus _come, come!_ [kʰʌm, kʰʌm]. This occurs mostly before accented vowels, sometimes finally, _give him a good shake!_ [giv im ə gud ʃeikʰ].[27]

[k] is written _c_, _k_, _ck_, _cc_ (as in _accuse_ [ə´kjuwz]), _ch_ (as in _chord_ [kɔːd]), _q_ (as in _queen_ [kwijn]); [ks] as _ks_, _cc_, _x_, _xc_.

2. [g], when there has been vibration of the vocal chords.

Sometimes [g] is pronounced with the tip of the tongue so that it sounds like [d]; thus _glory_ becomes _dlory_ [dlɔːri]. The way in which [l] is produced (see § 33) explains this.

[g] is written _g_ and _gg_; rarely _gh_ (as in _ghost_ [goust]). For [ks] and [gz] written x see § 30.

3. [ŋ], when the velum is lowered and the breath passes out through the nose. (Generally speaking, this sound is voiced; but when it is immediately followed by a voiceless sound, it may be at first voiced, then voiceless [̇ŋ̇]; the [ŋ] may be unvoiced (see § 23, 3) before a voiceless stop. Then _length_ is strictly [leŋŋ̇θ] or [leŋŋ̇kθ].) Notice the difference in length of [ŋ] in _sing, singer, drink, bang_; in which of these words is it short?

[ŋ] is written _ng_, as in _long_ [lɔŋ], and _n_ before _g_, _k_, or _x_, as in _longer_ [lɔŋgə], _lank_ [læŋk], _lynx_ [liŋks]. What does ng represent in _singer_? in _finger_? in _English_?

The "dropping of g" is really an incorrect term. There is no [g] in the ending-_ing_ [iŋ];[28] what does take place is the substitution of [n] for [ŋ]. This occurs in baby speech, in vulgar speech, and in the speech of some sections of society. It is on no account to be tolerated.

The opposite mistake is made only by the uneducated, who pronounce _kitchen_ as [kitʃiŋ], _chicken_ as [tʃikiŋ], and _sudden_ as [sʌdiŋ].

Notice the substitution of this sound by the uneducated for the unfamiliar palatal nasal [ɲ] in _Boulogne_ [bulɔɲ], the uneducated [bulɔŋ],[29] and for the equally unfamiliar nasal vowel [ɑ̃] in the French word _continent_ [kɔ̃tinɑ̃], the uneducated [kɔntinɔŋ].

For [n] becoming [m] or [ŋ] by assimilation, see § 49.

=26. Consonants--continuants.=

It will be seen that the articulations of these sounds are more difficult to analyse than those of the stops. There is, roughly speaking, only one way of closing a passage entirely; but there are various ways of closing it partially.

The continuants usually go in pairs, one being voiceless, the other voiced.

* * * * *

=Lip continuants.=--The breath passes between the two lips (hence the term _bilabials_); the tongue is in a position somewhat closer than the [u] position, _i.e._ bunched up at the back (see § 43), and we may therefore call these sounds lip-velar continuants.

The voiced sound [w] is that commonly used in standard English, whether the spelling be _w_ or _wh_. In northern English and in Scotch the voiceless [ʍ] is used where the ordinary spelling has _wh_.

It is very doubtful whether [ʍ] has a right to be regarded as a normal sound in standard English. It is taught by professors of elocution, and is therefore commonly heard at recitals and also at amateur theatricals. On the regular stage it is by no means the rule, and in the pulpit it is probably the exception. If it comes naturally to pupils, who bring it with them from the North, they need not be interfered with; there is certainly no good reason why it should be forced on speakers of southern English, who generally produce a grossly exaggerated and quite ludicrous travesty of the northern sound. Which do you use yourself? If [ʍ], is it natural to you, or acquired? Do the rest of your family use it? Any of your friends? What proportion of children in your class?

It may be noted that after voiceless sounds [ʍ] sometimes takes the place of [w], even in standard English; _twenty_ is pronounced [twenti] or [tʍenti] and _swim_ [swim] or [sʍim]. Sometimes also the sound [ʍ] is heard in _where_ pronounced with great emphasis, in the case of speakers who do not ordinarily use it.

It should be noted that these sounds are not continuants in the strict sense of the term, for the lips are gradually brought nearer and gradually drawn apart. The sounds do not _continue_ in the same position at all; hence they have been described as "gliding," not "held."

The word _conquer_ is sometimes pedantically pronounced [kɔŋkwə] instead of [kɔŋkə]; but it is the rule to sound the [w] in _conquest_. Compare _liquor_ [likə], _exchequer_ [eks´tʃekə].

A _w_ has often influenced a following _a_. Consider the following cases:

_was_, _warm_, _squabble_, _quality_, _quack_, _quarrel_, _quaff_, _wasp_, _water_, _waft_, _walk_, _swallow_.

=27. Lip teeth continuants.=--The breath passes between the lower lip and the upper teeth (also between the interstices of the upper teeth); the sounds produced in this way are also called _labiodentals_.

* * * * *

The voiceless sound [f] is usually written _f_ or _ff_, also _ph_ (in words taken from Greek); note also the _gh_ in _laugh_, etc.

Notice our reluctance to pronounce _phth_ [fθ], as shown in the dropping of _ph_ in _phthisis_, and the frequent substitution of _p_ for _ph_ in _diphtheria_, _diphthong_, _naphtha_, _ophthalmia_, which is, however, avoided by careful speakers.

* * * * *

The voiced sound [v] is usually written _v_.

Sounds very like [f, v] can be produced with both lips. Though they do not ordinarily occur in English, it will be good practice for you to produce them.

When [v] is final, it is not voiced to the end, but passes into whispered [v] (symbol v̥), which sounds very much like voiceless [f]; in other words, the vocal chords cease to vibrate before the breath ceases to pass between the lower lip and the upper teeth. We may say: final [v] is devocalised.

Observe _thief_, but _thieves_ and _to thieve_; _loaf_, but _loaves_; _shelf_, but _shelves_ and _to shelve_.

The _ph_ in _nephew_ is pronounced [v], but [f] is heard in dialects.

=28. Point continuants.=--We have seen above (§ 24) that in English the tongue, as a matter of fact, rarely touches the teeth in the case of point stops. Similarly the narrowing of the passage which leads to the production of point continuants (except [θ,ð]) is not necessarily between the tongue and the teeth; in some cases it is indeed a good deal farther back.

The point continuants include:

1. The hushing, hissing,[30] and lisping sounds, and the _r_ sounds, in which the place of articulation is along the middle line of the mouth (_medial_ formation); and

2. The _l_ sounds, the narrowing for which is between the side rim or rims of the tongue and the side teeth (_lateral_ formation).

The _r_ sounds and the _l_ sounds are sometimes called =liquids=.

=29. The hushing sounds.=--For the production of the _sh_ sounds the passage is narrowed between the blade (see § 23) of the tongue and the hard palate. A broad current of air is broken against the edge of the teeth. There is some friction between the tongue and the gums, but that against the front teeth is more noticeable.

Watch a Frenchman uttering these sounds, and see what he does with his lips. Do you use your lips in the same way?

* * * * *

The voiceless [ʃ] is usually written _sh_; also _s_ after consonants (as in _tension_ [tenʃən], _censure_ [senʃə]). It is written _ss_, _c_ or _t_ before a front vowel (_e_ or _i_), (as in _passion_ [pæʃən], _capricious_ [kə´priʃəs], _station_ [steiʃən]). In all these cases [ʃ] arose from [sj].

Observe the colloquial pronunciation of _this year_ as [ðiʃ jəː]; _six years_ [sikʃ jəːz].

The combination [tʃ] is very common, and is usually written _ch_ or _tch_. In some cases it arises from [tj], when _t_ follows the chief accent of the word and precedes either a front vowel (_e_ or _i_) or _u_[31] which goes back to [juː] (as in _righteous_ [raitʃəs], _nature_ [neitʃə]). The combination [kʃ] similarly goes back to [ksj] in _anxious_ [æŋkʃəs] (notice _anxiety_ [æŋ(g)´zaiəti]). _Luxury_ is [lʌkʃəri], but _luxurious_ is [ləg´zuːriəs] or [ləg´zjuːriəs], sometimes [ləg´ʒuːriəs].