CHAPTER XV.

Foreign Silver Standards--Pre-War.

Table showing the various standards of the silver work manufactured in the principal countries previous to the European War, 1914-1918:--

+------------+------------------+------------+---------------+ | | | Thousandth | | | Countries. | Silver per oz. | parts. | Remarks. | +------------+------------------+------------+---------------+ | | oz. dwts. grs. | | | | France | 0 18 23 | 948-1000 | Old Standard. | | " | 0 19 0 | 950-1000 | 1st " | | " | 0 18 0 | 900-1000 | Coinage. | | " | 0 16 0 | 800-1000 | 2nd Standard. | | Germany | 0 19 0 | 950-1000 | 1st " | | " | 0 18 0 | 900-1000 | 2nd " | | " | 0 16 0 | 800-1000 | 3rd " | | " | 0 15 0 | 750-1000 | 4th " | | Austria | 0 19 0 | 950-1000 | 1st " | | " | 0 18 0 | 900-1000 | 2nd " | | " | 0 16 0 | 800-1000 | 3rd " | | " | 0 15 0 | 750-1000 | 4th " | | Geneva | 0 19 0 | 950-1000 | 1st " | | " | 0 17 12 | 875-1000 | 2nd " | | " | 0 16 0 | 800-1000 | 3rd " | | Holland | 0 17 12 | 875-1000 | Old Standard. | | " | 0 18 16 | 933-1000 | 1st " | | " | 0 16 16 | 833-1000 | 2nd " | | Belgium | 0 19 0 | 950-1000 | 1st " | | " | 0 18 0 | 900-1000 | 2nd " | | " | 0 16 0 | 800-1000 | 3rd " | | Spain | 0 14 18 | 738-1000 | Lowest " | | Portugal | 0 16 21 | 844-1000 | One only. | | Neuchatel | 0 16 0 | 800-1000 | One only. | | Russia | 0 16 19 | 840-1000 | 1st Standard. | | " | 0 15 0 | 750-1000 | 2nd " | | Italy | 0 19 0 | 950-1000 | 1st " | | " | 0 18 0 | 900-1000 | 2nd " | | " | 0 16 0 | 800-1000 | 3rd " | | China | 0 19 14-1/2 | 980-1000 | About. | | Norway | 0 16 19 | 840-1000 | One only. | | Sweden | 0 16 19 | 840-1000 | " | | Denmark | 0 16 19 | 840-1000 | " | +------------+------------------+------------+---------------+

In France, all articles manufactured as silver are subject to _Government control_ and pay duty, but this is very slight compared with the English duty, amounting only to one _franc_ per _hectogramme_, which is equal to about threepence per ounce. This is exclusive of the charge for testing and marking; the state of the articles sent for this purpose with regard to the state of manufacture is, moreover, very different from the custom in this country. Here they are sent in their rough or half-manufactured state, and this seems better suited to the particular processes through which they have to pass; whereas in France they may be tested and marked in their whole or finished state; and, if thought requisite, this operation may be performed while the goods are on their way to their final destination, by calling at the Control Office for that purpose.

The Continental silversmiths, especially the French workmen, exhibit much ingenuity, original thought, and refined taste, in the execution of their work; and the natural capacity for design which they possess enables them to produce articles of a very high order and artistic character. The construction of some of their productions is exceedingly ornamental and decorative, and in some instances this is even carried to excess, as may be seen from some very elaborate articles which they manufacture.

To them belongs the credit of being producers of the most artistic and best decorative work in the whole world. They set the _fashions_ and work them out with a will to be only found in a people so enthusiastic as the French. Their jewellery is very elegant, light, and showy; some of which is prepared so thin as regards material, that it has to be supported underneath by a wax composition, which, however, gives increased strength to all articles so manipulated. With regard to articles of _vertu_, the French workmen certainly far excel those of any other country: they are more original, and bring into play greater ingenuity in the various processes which they employ in their manufactures. Still with all this ingenuity and skill, their works of art in this department are not durable, being very _tinselfied_; in wear their shape and form soon undergo a change, and eventually they soon get destroyed. In this branch of art the French workman might learn something to his advantage from the English style of work, which is the most durable of any nation in the world. French silver plate and jewellery of the best manufacture partake of the first standard; all other kinds are of the lowest standard.

In Germany all silver manufactures are placed under _Imperative_ control, and lower standards than those given in the table, under their respective heads, cannot be worked. The German style is similar to that of the French, but the former manufacture an unusually large quantity of filigree articles, very light in construction, tasteful, and cheap; and the possession of these advantages enables them to export to England and other countries their wares at a cheap rate. They are commonly sold by weight, and not so much per article; in many cases the charge does not exceed 12_s._ 6_d._ per ounce. In filigree work the Germans cannot equal the taste and variety displayed in Indian workmanship. In India the natives have definite designs, but the Germans are too fond of a variety of colours in their wares, which do not always harmonize with their particular kind of work.

In Austria silver manufactures are commonly ornamented by enamel, niello, &c., which gives them a very pleasing appearance. They are usually light and showy, and something after the style of French work. The laws affecting the Austrian silver workers are the same as those of Germany.

The English style of work is strong and solid; and is undoubtedly superior to that of all Continental manufacturers as regards substantial workmanship, careful manipulation, and durability. It is, moreover, capable of a higher finish, and possesses more evenness of surface, together with a combination of strength, that admirably suits it for articles and utensils for daily use, and which causes it to be preferred before that of any other nation; and while France, Germany, and other countries may exhibit greater ingenuity, to England belongs the credit of producing the best _finished_ and the most _durable_ work of any nation in the world.

INDEX.

Acids, vegetable, 10

Action of acids on copper, 44 of silver under heat, 8

Acts of the Legislature, 189 on licences, 186 clause on, 193, 194

Advantages of scorification, 20

Air in furnace, 33

Alkalies, caustic, 10

Allowed, remedy in fineness, 72

Alloy, 41 Clark's patent, 172 commonly used, 63 for cupel quantity, 35 for hall-marking, 62 for plate, 71 for silver-wares, 72 French, for coinage, 69 French, for plate, 69 French, for silver-ware, 69 German, for coinage, 71 instructions in preparing, 70 new, 205 Nos. 1 to 8, 64-67 of the highest quality, 62 silver dissolving, 202 standard, 61 white, 172

Alloy, with copper, 68 with palladium, 173 with platinum, 172

Alloys of common silver, 167-170 characteristics of, 173, 174 imitation, 166-173 imitation, uses of, 173 of nickel, 46 of silver, 42 of tin with gold, 49 of tin with silver, 49 silversmith's, 40, 197

Aluminium alloy, 205 solder, 206

Amalgam, 41

Amalgamation of zinc, 153

America, 11

American supply of silver, 12

Ancient method of assaying, 37 workers in tin, 48

Ancients, 6

Annealing silver, 109

Anthracite, 21

Art in soldering, 90 in the silver trade, 122

Articles, hand-made, 54 of silver common, 147

Art of soldering, 74

Arts, metals employed in, 41

Assay crucible, 16 charge for, 17 English system, 39 fluxes, 16 of silver ores, 16 scorification, 19 weighing of, 30

Assayer's muffle, 28

Assaying, borax, use of, in, 22 Dr. Lamborn on, 38 of silver ores, 16

Austrian style of work, 211

Battery, Bunsen's, 152 constant, 150 exciting mixture, 151 for plating, 150 solution, 151

Bean-shot copper, 44

Best crucibles, 95

Birmingham, 52

Black cyanide, 157

Blowpipes, 89

Boiling-out mixture, 144 pan, 143 pickle, 93

Bone-ash, 32 cupel, 33

Borax, 22 sprinkle, 92

Breaking-down rollers, 112

Brightening, 29

British Isles, 11

Brown colour on silver goods, 146

Burning of lemel, 104 of polishings, 179, 180

Burnished silver work, 124

Burnishing silver work, 161, 162

Calculated alloys, various, 80

Calculating the qualities of silver, 64

Carbonate of soda, 16, 102

Casting-mould, 18

Cause of inferior work, 74

Caustic alkalies, 10

Cement for chasers, 121

Chain bracelets, 128

Chain solder, 85

Characteristics of imitation alloys, 173, 174 of metals, 41

Charcoal, 99

Charge and flux for crucible, 23 for assay, 17 for scorification assay, 20

Chief places for filigree, 53 of filigree manufacture, 8 uses of silver, 9

Chinese filigree, 56 silver, 170

Chloride of silver, 183

Christianity and tin, 48

Clark's alloy, 172

Cleaning plate, 198 powder for plate, 206

Coinage, 69 alloys for, 71 English, 61 French, 69 German, 71

Collecting-vessels, 184

Colour-improving, 149

Common articles of silver, 147 easy solder, 85 silver alloy, 167-173 silver solder, 84 solder, 85 solders, 81

Composition for solder, 81

Conducting-wires, 154

Connections for soldering, 77

Constant battery, 150

Continental cheap labour, 54 method of assaying, 22 silversmiths, 208

Copper, 42 action of acids on, 44 bean-shot, 44 characteristics of, 43 chemical name, 44 dissolving, 202 for alloying, 68 powder for, 199 protoxide of, 44 solder with, 76

Cost of silver alloys, 64, 67 of silver-rolling, 112

Cronstedt, 45

Crucible, dimensions, 16 for lemel, 106 mixture for, 104 pouring lemel from, 107 weighing metal for, 95

Crucible assay, 16 fluxes for, 16 process of, 19

Crucibles, 95 best to employ, 95 action with fluxes, 96 testing soundness, 97

Cupel, defects in, 33 mode of manufacture, 26 mould, 27 quantity of alloy for, 35 tongs, 28 withdrawal of silver, 34

Cupellation, 26 of silver ores, 31 purity of silver, 37

Cup-fusing, 19

Currents of air to furnace, 33

Cyanide solution, 156 black, 157

Defects in bone-ash cupel, 33

Density of nickel, 45 of silver, 7 of tin, 48

Dimensions of crucible, 16

Dipping-mixture, 199

Directions on melting, 94 in preparing solders, 88

Discoverer of electro-plating, 149

Dissolving silver, 202 copper, 202 impurities, 103 soft solder, 202 silver solder, 202 sealing-wax, 202 tin, 48

Dissolution of silver, 9

Dr. Lamborn, 38

Drawbacks to hall-marking, 63

Draw-bench, 114, 115

Drawing fine wire, 116

Draw-plate, 114

Draw-tongs, 115

Drossy solders, 88

Drum for wire-drawing, 115

Ductility of nickel, 45 of silver, 6 of tin, 49 of zinc, 48

East Indian silversmiths, 141

Easy solders, 79 for chains, 85 silver solder, 80 solder, 81 solder, for filigree work, 84 solder, common, 85

Economical processes, 175

Economy, 1

Education, technical, 2

Electro-plate, 46

Electro-plating, 147 discoverer of, 149 soft solder, 202

Elements, metallic, table of, 50

Employed metals, 41

Enamelling, 131

England, alloy commonly used, 63

English and foreign workmen, 2 coinage, 61 filigree workers, 91 silversmiths, 63 standard for silver, 60 style of work, 211 system of assay, 39

Enriching the surfaces of silver, 139

Exciting mixture for battery, 151

Experts, Government, 73

Filigree manufacture, 8 method of making, 57 of China and Japan, 56 of Norway and Sweden, 56 silver work, 127 wire, new, 59 work, 5, 40, 52 working, 56

Filed solders, 76

Flatting of twisted wire, 59

Flux and charge for crucible, 23 for soldering, 77 in pouring, 101

Fluxes for assay, 16 their action on crucibles, 96 employed in melting, 96

Foreign silver currency, 13 silver standards, 207, 8 workmen, 2

French alloy for silver ware, 69 alloy for coinage, 69 alloy for plate, 70

French duty, 208 standards, 69 style of work, 209

Fusibility of nickel, 45 of tin, 48 of silver solders, 80

Fusing-cup, 19

Galvanic ring, 129

German coinage, 71 standards, 72 style of work, 210

Gold alloyed with tin, 49 mode of soldering, 88 removing, from silver, 198, 205

Goods, silver, brown colour of, 146

Government experts, 73

Gravity, specific, of zinc, 47

Great Britain, 11

Guarantee mark, 73

Hall-marking, alloy for, 62 drawbacks, 63

Hand-made articles, 54

Hard silver solders, 79 solder, best, 81

Hardest silver solder, 78 silver solder, 79

Hardness of silver, 8

Hawk-sparrow, 119

Heating power of silver, 7

Hollow silver work, 131

Imitation silver alloys, 166, 173 alloys, characteristics of, 173 alloys, uses of, 173 silver, 166, 197

Improving colour of electro-plate, 149

Impurities, dissolving, 105

Indian filigree workers, 5

Indian filigree silversmiths, 141 mode of whitening, 142

Industrial arts, 41

Inferior plating solution, 159

Ingot-mould, 100

Instructions in preparing alloys, 68

Irregularities in rolling-mills, 110

Japanese filigree, 56

Jewellery trade, state of, 12

Law on silver wares, 73

Lead, 103

Legislature, Acts of, 186

Lemaille solder, 91

Lemel, 104 burning, 104 crucible, 106 melting, 104-106 pot for, 104 pouring from crucible, 107

Licence question, 191

Licences, 190

Litharge, 17

Loss, working, 175 real, 175 total working, 176

Making filigree, 56

Malleability of nickel, 45 of silver, 6 of tin, 49 of zinc, 48

Maltese filigree, 55

Manner of removing litharge, 35

Manufacture of cupels, 26 inferior, 73 of filigree, 53 of silver wares, 72

Mark, guarantee, 72

Marking, hall, 62

Marking, hall, drawbacks of, 63

Material, bad working, 98

Mechanical uses of silver, 52

Medium solders, 82 silver solder, 79

Melting, crucible for, 99 directions on, 94 fluxes employed, 96 imitation alloys, 166 points of metals, 51 solders, 86 tongs for, 100

Mercury, 15

Metal, fusible, 98 pure, 56

Metallic elements, table of, 50

Metals, 41 their characteristics, 41

Method of assaying, 22 for whitening, 139 of calculating qualities, 64 of preparing filigree, 59

Mills, rolling, 110 Kemp's, 111

Mine, richest, 12

Mining, 11

Mixing metals for melting, 97

Mixture, boiling-out, 144 dipping, 199 for washing-out, 138 stripping, 200

Mixtures for whitening, 147 for battery, 152 nitrate of silver, 148

Modes of melting lemel, 105 of preparing ring, 130 of whitening, Indian, 142 of whitening, our, 145

Molten metal, 99 lemel, 103

Mould-casting, 18

Mould cupel, 27

Mould ingot, 100

Muffle assayers, 28

Native silver, 11

Necessity for pure metal, 56

New alloy, 205 method for filigree, 59

Nickel, 45

Nitrate of silver, 8 of silver, mixture, 148

Nitre, 10

Norway filigree, 56

Old method of filigree, 57

Oldest method of whitening, 140

On the melting of silver, 94 working of silver, 108

Ores of silver, 9

Our mode of whitening, 145

Oxidizing silver work, 163

Palladium alloy, 173

Pallion solder, 89

Parliament, Acts of, 190

Perchloride of iron, 205

Physical properties of metals, 51

Plain solid work, 127

Plate, 4 alloy for, 70 cleaning powder, 206 electro, 46, 150 French, 70 manufacture, 190 powder, 202

Plating, battery for, 150 discoverer of, 149 electro, 150 fluid silver, 206 soft solder, 201 solution, 157

Plating solutions, recovery of silver, 160

Platinum alloy, 172

Plumbago, crucible for melting, 99

Polished silver, 7

Polishing, 135 lathe, 137

Polishings, burning of, 179

Pouring off lemel, 107

Powder for silver, 200

Precious metal, 1

Precipitation of silver, 183

Preparation for assay, 17 of bone-ash, 32 of plating solution, 155 of solders, 87

Present state of silver trade, 128

Press, 127 stamping, 132

Price of silver, 9

Principal alloys of silver, 42 metals, 51

Process, scorification, 18 advantages of, 20 details of, 23 of silver recovery, 180-183

Producing various shades, 165

Production of surface, 135

Protect polish of metals, 200

Protoxide of copper, 44 of zinc, 102

Pure silver, 3

Purity of silver, 37

Qualities used by silversmiths, 64

Quantity of alloy for cupel, 35

Quick-running solder, 85

Raised work, 120

Raising, 122

Recovery of silver from waste, 160 of silver from waste waters, 183, 185

Refining surface of silver, 146

Remarks on silver solders, 80

Remedy in fineness, 72

Removal of litharge, 35

Removing gold from silver, 198 gold from silver-wares, 205

Resist varnish, 202

Ring, galvanic, 129 preparing wire for, 130

Rollers, slitting, 112 breaking-down, 112

Rolling, silver, 108 mills, 110 silver, 112 wire, 113

Sal-ammoniac, 103

Saving waste, 177

Scientific name for tin, 49

Scorification process, 18 assay, 20

Scorifier, 19 special form, 19

Scrap silver, 102

Scratch-brushing, 161 brush lathe, 161

Scriptural testimony, 37, 38

Sealing-wax, dissolving, 202

Sediment, 185

Separation of silver, 21

Shades, 165

Shop floors, 177

Shot copper for alloying, 44

Silver a precious metal, 1 action under heat, 8 alloy, dissolving, 202 alloy for coinage, 72 alloy, standard, 61 alloyed with tin, 49 alloys, Chinese, 170 alloys, common, 167, 172 alloys, imitation, 167, 172

Silver alloys, No. 1, 64 No. 2, 64 No. 3, 65 No. 4, 65 No. 5, 66 No. 6, 66 No. 7, 67 No. 8, 67 American supply, 12 and aqua-regia, 8 and mercury, 15 annealing, 109 articles, 194 articles, common, 147 assay, 14 British, chief sources, 13 British yield, 11 burnishing, 162 characteristics of, 5 chief alloy of, 30 chloride, 183 commercial, 9 currency, 6 currency, foreign, 13 density of, 7 dissolution of, 9 dissolving, 202 ductility of, 6 easily tarnished, 129 European supplies, 12 filigree work, 125 for filigree work, 5 fusibility of, 7 goods, brown colour, 146 hardness of, 8 heating power of, 7 imitation, 198 known to the ancients, 6 law on, 73 lead and tin in, 103 malleability of, 6 mechanical uses of, 52

Silver, method of calculating, 63 mining, 11 native, 11 nitrate of, 8, 148 ores, 9 ores, assay of, 16 oxidizing, 163, 198 plating fluid, 206 polished, 7 powder, 199, 200 powder for copper, 199 precipitating, 183 principal alloys, 42 pure, 3 purity of, after cupellation, 37 recovery of, 160 recovery, 177, 178 rolling, 109 rolling, table of cost, 112 solders, 81 solder, dissolving, 202 solder, easy, 82 solder, hardest, 79 solder, medium, 82 solder, zinc in, 46 solders, fusibility of, 80 standards, foreign, 207 stripping mixture, 200 surface, improving, 139 tarnished, 7 test for, 6 trade, art in, 123 uses of, 9 various qualities, 52 ware, 69, 195 ware, French, 69 ware, German, 71 wares, alloys for, 72 wares, removing gold, 205 wares, testing, 203 weighing, 30 whitening of, 140

Silver work, burnished, 124 work, hollow, 131 yield of, 13

Silversmiths, 63 alloys, 40, 197 continental, 209 East Indian, 141 working, 2

Skittle-pot, 25 for lemel, 104

Slitting-rollers, 112

Snarling-tools, 122

Soda, carbonate of, 16, 102

Soft solder, 90, 202 dissolving, 202 plating, 202

Solder, composition for, 81, 98 best hard, 81 common, 83, 85 common easy, 86 dish, 89 easy, 79, 82, 86 filed, 76 for aluminium, 206 for chains, 85 for filigree, 84, 91 hard, 77 Lemaille, 91 medium, 76, 82 pallion, 88 quick running, 85 very common, 87 with arsenic, 86 with copper and silver, 76 with zinc, 76

Soldering, art of, 74, 90 alloy, dissolving, 202 connections, 77 mode of, 88 fluid, 201 flux, 77

Solders containing tin, 75

Solders, drossy, 88 for enamelling, 84 melting of, 83 preparations of, 87 remarks on, 80 tin in, 49

Solid plain work, 127

Solution for battery, 151 cyanide, 156 for plating, 157, 158 for precipitation, 184 inferior, 159 No. 1, 163 No. 2, 164 No. 3, 164

Soundness of crucibles, 97

Spain, 11

Sparrow-hawk, 119

Special soldering flux, 92

Specific gravity of zinc, 47

Spelter, 46 used by jewellers, 47

Spinning, 134, 135

Sprouting, 29

Stamped work, 126

Stamping-press, 132

Standard alloy for hall-marking, 62 alloys of the highest quality, 62

Standards, English, 60 French, 70 German, 71

State in which silver is found, 14

State of silver trade, 128

State of the jewellery trade, 12

Stone, Water-of-Ayr, 136

Strength of solution, 152

Stripping silver, 201

Style of work, Austrian, 211 English, 211 French, 209

Style of work, German, 210 Indian, 210

Surface, refining of silver, 145

Swedish filigree, 56

System of assaying, 39

Table of cost of silver-rolling, 112 of metallic elements, 50 of various duties, 90

Tarnishing of silver, 7 of zinc, 47

Tax or licence, 196

Technical education, 2

Test for pure silver, 6

Testing crucible, 97 silver wares, 203

Testimony, Scriptural, 37, 38

Test-ring, 31

Tin, 48 alloyed with gold, 49 alloyed with silver, 49 ancient workers, 48 and Christianity, 48 density of, 48 dissolving, 48 ductility of, 49 fusibility of, 48 in solders, 49, 76 malleability of, 49 scientific name, 50 tenacity of, 49 vapours, 49

Tongs, draw, 115

Tongs for melting, 100

Total working loss, 176

Trade, silver, state of, 128 useful information for, 197

Treatment, economical, 1 in furnace, 18 of waste, 179

Treatment of waste liquids, 180

Twisting wires, 58

Unjustly assessed tax, 195

Uses of silver, 9 borax, 22 for imitation alloys, 173 of lathe, 58 silver, mechanical, 52

Vapours of tin, 49

Various qualities of silver, 52 duties, table of, 190 metals, mixing, 95

Varnish, resist, 1

Wares, ornamental, 4 law on, 73 removing gold from, 205 silver alloy for, 72 silver, 197 testing purity, 203

Washing-out mixture, 138

Waste, saving, 178 liquids, treatment of, 180 treatment of, 181 waters, 182-185 water, precipitation in, 184

Water-of-Ayr stone, 139

Weighing of silver assay, 30

Whitening, old method, 140 Indian mode of, 142 our mode of, 145 powder, 147

Wire for filigree, 59 rolling, 112 drawer's drum, 115 drawer's punch, &c., 117 drawing, fine, 117

Wires, conducting, 154

Withdrawal from cupel, 34

Work, Austrian style, 211 burnishing, 162 English, style, 211 filigree, 5, 40, 125 French duty on, 208 French style, 209 German style, 210 hollow, 131 Indian style, 210 silver, burnishing, 124 solid, 127 stamped, 132

Workers, Indian, 5

Working filigree, 56 loss, 175 material, bad, 98 silversmiths, 2 total, 176

Workmen, English and Foreign, 2

Workmanship, process of, 55

Wrought work, 118

Yield of silver, 11, 13

Zinc, 46 a fusible metal, 98 amalgamation, 153 annealing, 47 ductility of, 48 gravity of, 47 in silver solder, 46, 76 malleability of, 48 on floors, 178 tarnishing of, 47 tenacity of, 48

PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED, LONDON AND BECCLES.

LOCKWOOD'S MANUALS

_Trade_

Clock Repairing Garrard Net 6/- Watch Repairing Garrard " 6/- Mechanical Dentistry Hunter " 6/- Electro-Plating Watt " 5/- House Painting Davidson " 7/6 Carpentry and Joinery Tredgold " 6/- Gas-Fitting Briggs " 6/- Bricks and Tiles Dobson " 7/6 Metal Plate Work Barrett " 3/6

_Technical_

Engineers' Screw Cutting Pull " 2/6 Engineering Measuring Tools Pull " 4/6 Slide Rule Hoare " 4/-

_Craft-Work_

Modern Fretcutting Makinson " 2/6

_Art-Work_

Illuminating Whithard " 6/-

_Educational_

Portuguese Dictionary Elwes " 8/6

_Business_

Foreign Commercial Correspondent Baker " 7/6

_Complete List on Application._

LONDON:

CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON

Transcriber Note

The following changes were made:

p. 47 "Fahr." moved from after "6·8 and 7·2" => to after "773°" p. 93 "week pickle" => "weak pickle" p. 175 "regulated workships" => "regulated workshops"

End of Project Gutenberg's The Silversmith's Handbook, by George E. Gee