CHAPTER IX.

On the Working of Silver.

Having reached a most important and very interesting part of our subject, viz. the working of silver, and being desirous of making this treatise useful to the silver-worker in all the branches of his art, it is our intention to enlarge upon these processes--which are purely mechanical--and somewhat minutely to describe the various manipulations and arrangements required in the production of the wares of the silversmith.

After the removal of the bar of metal from the ingot mould, it should be plunged into a vessel of cold water, dried, and then carefully weighed. At this stage of the process it is ready for the operation of rolling. This process, so far as it concerns large ingots of the metal, is a distinct branch of the trade, and is carried on in separate premises established by certain firms for the purpose. These establishments are called "rolling-mills," the machinery used in them (which is powerful and costly) being moved by steam-power, the reduction of the bars of metal to their various sizes is soon effected. The very thin ribbon-shaped metal is produced by submitting it to the action of rollers of smaller dimensions, one after the other, until the desired thinness is obtained. The bars of metal are taken to these mills by a man whose special duty it is to watch over them during the processes of rolling and annealing, otherwise it would be very easy to have an ingot of gold or silver exchanged for one of base metal, the mill companies not being responsible for the material intrusted to their care for rolling; hence the necessity for the porter's services, to watch over his employer's interests. To prevent accidentally exchanging the bars of metal, through their great similarity to each other, it is the usual thing for the men in charge of them to put a special mark upon the property of each person, previous to the process of annealing. This mark is applied by means of a piece of chalk or soap, and is not removable by heat. The annealing is performed in large iron muffles, heated to redness and kept in that condition by flues; the bars which require annealing being placed upon a piece of sheet-iron which slides into the muffle, and there they remain with the doors closed until they have become red hot. It is more particularly during this operation that each person's property requires marking and watching, because of the number of bars admitted at one time into the muffle; and unless the greatest care be exercised at such a time some mistake is almost sure to occur.

A register is kept of the weight of the metal sent to the mill for the purpose of being rolled into the required shapes and sizes by the manufacturer, who afterwards works it up into different wares and utensils. The metal is also weighed on its admittance to the mill, by the clerk of the works, and again on its passage out, and a comparison of the weights registered; but in Birmingham, in some cases, this has been so irregularly performed that great discrepancies have actually taken place in the weights at times, and it has led to the establishment of another rolling-mill for gold and silver, in which the proprietors take upon themselves the whole responsibility and care of metals intrusted to their charge for the above purpose. The method pursued by them in respect to their business is as follows: A manufacturer sends a bar of metal to be rolled, carefully noting the exact weight and size to which it is to be reduced upon a proper _order head_. This weight is carefully tested at the mill, and if found correct, an invoice is given in exchange, upon which is entered the cost of rolling and the time when the work will be completed. The messenger then goes away, returning at the time stated to bring away the rolled metal.

The advantages this system presents over the others are obvious; the return of the full weight of the metal is guaranteed by responsible persons, the messenger is at liberty during the time occupied in rolling to follow his other duties, the weighing of the respective metals is far more accurately performed both in and out of the mill, besides greater satisfaction being given both to the manufacturer and the roller, the reciprocation of confidence between each, being among some of the additional advantages which might be enumerated. Messrs. Kemp, of Birmingham, deserve the thanks of the jewellery community for their enterprising efforts in the establishment of a system so admirably suited to the requirements of the trade.

The following table gives the charges at the present time for rolling bars of silver:--

Table of the Cost of Silver Rolling.

oz. oz. s. d. Under 6 0 0 6 Above 6 and under 12 0 0 9 " 12 " 18 0 0 10 " 18 " 25 0 1 0 " 25 " 35 0 1 3 " 35 " 45 0 1 6 " 45 " 55 0 1 9 " 55 " 70 0 2 0 " 70 " 85 0 2 3 " 85 " 100 0 2 6 " 100 " 115 0 2 9 " 115 " 130 0 3 0 Above this 2s. 6d. per 100 ozs.

It is a usual thing at all rolling establishments to provide slitting-rolls for those who choose to avail themselves of that mode of cutting up their metal. These rolls are used for the purpose of cutting stout bars of metal into strips suitable for wire-drawing, thus dispensing with the older process of cutting with a pair of vice shears, which method was slow and somewhat uncertain in the production of good work. The slitting-rolls consist of circular barrels, after the manner of the "breaking-down" rolls, only of course much smaller in diameter, and with this exception, the slitting-rolls have square grooves cut into each barrel, the projecting portion of each corresponding with the hollow of the other, whereas the breaking-down rolls are perfectly smooth and plain. Rollers something similar to those we have described are used by wire-drawers to facilitate the speedy reduction of the metal, the difference being in the construction and action of the grooves. In the grooves of the latter, which are inserted farther apart, the hollows take a half-round shape, and unlike the slitting-rollers, during the revolution of the barrels, the grooves in this case directly meet each other, and thus produce a strip of wire almost round. It is almost needless to remark that wire-rolling requires some amount of practical knowledge to perform it properly. The manipulations indispensable to the art of silver working are so varied and so numerous that we are at a comparative loss which part of the process to consider first; however, if we follow the course of the workman with regard to the production of the various manufactures of his art, we shall perhaps not be far wrong in our desire to effect the purpose we have in view.

In commencing to enlarge upon these mechanical processes we may at once state that it is our intention to refrain from going into the whole art of wire-drawing, because that process has been somewhat minutely alluded to in our other work recently published in the interests of the goldsmiths; the details of which are there fully described.

The draw-plate, Fig. 23, which is the principal tool of the modern wire-drawer, was unknown in this country until the middle of the sixteenth century, when it was introduced by Christopher Schultz, a Saxon, from France. It was supposed to have been the invention of a native of that country named Archal. The draw-plate had been in use some years on the Continent previous to its introduction into England. The old method of making wire was upon the anvil, by means of the hammer; and those who manipulated in this art were termed wiresmiths at that period. The best form of draw-plate consists of a piece of steel about nine or ten inches long, one and a quarter to one and a half inch broad, and about half an inch thick, each containing a number of conical holes of various sizes, becoming smaller in succession until the last hole in the plate is reached, when another plate, corresponding in size, having smaller graduated holes, is employed, and the wire drawn through it; and so on, until the proper size has been obtained.

The drawing of stout pieces of wire is effected very readily by means of the draw-bench (Fig. 24), and the thinner pieces, by the application of draw-tongs (Fig. 25), held in the hands of the operator, and made to do service by swinging the body backwards. Very fine wire is now drawn by means of an apparatus called a _drum_ (Fig. 26), revolving upon a perpendicular pin, the exterior of which receives the wire and prevents it from becoming entangled. When the end of the wire has finally passed through the draw-plate, the whole coil is carefully removed from the drum (which is made slightly conical in form for facilitating the process) and placed upon a skeleton frame made to receive it (Fig. 27); it is then in proper form for its passage through the next hole of the draw-plate.

In the production of very fine wire, the metal, after passing a few times through the draw-plate, requires annealing, as its fibres become so condensed and hardened that it is impossible to repeat the operation without some risk of the wire breaking. For fine wire the annealing is repeated five or six times during its passage through the draw-plate; for stouter kinds the annealing need not be so frequent. This process produces a scale or oxide upon the surface of the wire, which should be removed before the continuation of the drawing takes place, which is generally done by an immersion for a time in very dilute sulphuric acid pickle; or its passage may be assisted through the draw-plate by the application of some lubricating substance, such as beeswax, or a mixture of beeswax and oil, which enables it the more readily to pass through it. In the progress of the wire-drawing the holes have a tendency to become enlarged; these are made smaller again, by repeated blows upon the front of the plate with a somewhat pointed hammer (Fig. 28), and then opened from the back with a tapered steel punch, such as is shown in the woodcut (Fig. 29). The hardening and tempering of the punch is of importance. A gauge-plate is used in all establishments for the purpose of determining the size of the wire. The hammering should not take place upon a hardened draw-plate, as it would fly to pieces: it is only those known as soft which should receive such treatment; and those, by a continual alteration of the holes, gradually become hard and require annealing at intervals.

Draw-plates for wire-drawing purposes are mostly cylindrical in form, but they are employed in various degrees of fineness and in different shapes; such as oval, oblong, half-round, square, fluted, star, sexagon, triangular, and other complex sections, for the production of corresponding wires, all of which receive similar treatment to that above described.

The process of wire-drawing, in connection with the art of the silversmith, is more particularly employed in the manufacture of chains, in which branch a very large quantity of silver is consumed. This branch of the craft is almost a purely mechanical one, but, nevertheless, there are some designs in chains which require a considerable knowledge of art for the proper execution of them. It is, however, in "wrought" or hand-made work that true art is made to play so conspicuous a part; for it is here that perfect workmanship, together with great skill and taste, are required in the manufacture of an article. "Wrought" work was one of the earliest productions of the goldsmith and silversmith, and it still remains the true _artistic_ method, although it has been superseded by others of a less expensive character; such as stamping, chasing, engraving, enamelling, casting, &c., to which the older processes of ornamentation and decoration by means of hammering have given place.

Wrought work is produced by hammering and soldering the various pieces or ornaments together; and one of the very first things to be attended to in the production of this kind of work is proportion, a knowledge of which is indispensable to true art-workmanship; for the piece of metal which is to be operated upon by the hammer should be of the proper size, so as to require none to be cut off afterwards. Every portion of a design should be wrought out of the piece of metal separately, and soldered in its proper place upon the article in process of manufacture. When circular forms have to be raised or flanged by the employment of the hammer, as in the case of a raised or flanged brooch "bezil," the _modus operandi_ is as follows:--Take a piece of metal of the exact size and shape, turn the two ends together from the longitudinal direction, and unite them by soldering; when this is done, the circular band of metal is taken and flanged by means of the hammer and a miniature anvil, placed upon a stout piece of wood which the workman renders secure by placing between his knees, the pressure of which retains it steadily in its place during the various manipulations performed upon it; this kind of tool is termed a "sparrow-hawk"--a representation of it is given in Fig. 31. The work is effected by a series of blows dealt with the hammer in regular concentric circles, the bezil all the time gradually working round the pointed end of the sparrow-hawk. It requires great skill and practice to produce the proper shape, and to keep all parts of the metal of equal thickness. The bezils may be produced in this manner round or oval, as well as other complex shapes; the hammering taking place according to the shape required. When raised or ornamental brooch bezils, such as concave or convex patterns, are to be made, the means adopted in their execution are somewhat more complicated than the mode of flanging above alluded to. A tool called a "swage" is employed, which partakes of many forms, the pattern or ornamental device which the metal is required to take being the shape of the swage, or otherwise cut upon it. The metal is easily raised to take the proper design, by a very careful application of the hammering process.

Sometimes in silver-working the form of the object to be manufactured is of such a nature as not to allow of the use of the swage tool, and this is more particularly the case in the manufacture of plate. Such things, for instance, as cups or tankards which have raised ornamental surfaces, and which have to be executed after the vessel is roughly finished, require altogether a different tool for the effecting of such purposes. The one commonly employed in operations of this description consists of a bent piece of steel, upon one end of which is cut the device required; this end being turned up to the required height for raising the design, and the other end being bent in an opposite direction, which, when required for use, is secured in a vice. The workman, in executing the design upon the object in hand, places it upon the "snarling-iron" (for such the tool is called) at the part to be raised, and there holds it securely while another man strikes the piece of steel at the top of the angle, or just above where it is secured in the vice, the reaction of the steel wire then throws out the metal, in accordance with the device or pattern cut on the end of it. Designs are only roughly raised in this manner, the perfecting of them being performed by the application of various kinds of chasing tools. To prevent a change in the form of the object undergoing this operation, it is filled with a composition formed of pitch, resin, and brick-dust, in the following proportions:--

Pitch 4 parts. Resin 4 " Brick-dust 2 " --------- 10 parts. =========

The preparation of the cement is as follows:--Reduce the brick-dust to a very fine powder, and pass it through a fine sieve; then take the other ingredients and melt them in an iron ladle or other suitable vessel over a slow fire, stirring them well together; when this has taken place, the mixture will present a thin liquid appearance, which is the time for using the brick-dust. This should be added in small quantities at a time, and well stirred together, until the mass has become tolerably thick. It is then poured out either upon the floor, or into some suitable vessel provided for its reception. While undergoing the operation of chasing, the lower part of the object is preserved from injury, by being laid on a sand-bag. The illustrations, Figs. 32 and 33, represent the snarling-tool, and its mode of application to the work of the silversmith.

The progress of the silversmith's art, in conjunction with the researches and discoveries in the mode of working the precious metal during the past century, have wrought a great change both in the style and manner of workmanship. Before the period referred to, the gold and silversmiths' trade was in its lowest possible condition; partly, no doubt, on account of the war then raging on the continent of Europe, and partly because the silversmith at that time was not allowed to manufacture articles of any standard inferior to that of the coinage of 11 ozs. 2 dwts. Until the peace of Waterloo, few people were busy but the gun-maker, and other smiths who were able to work at similar occupations; but with respect to most other trades, the men did all they were capable of, in order to earn their daily bread. If at that time the silver trade had been specially cultivated, the art, as regards its progress, would have met with many drawbacks, as compared with the present time; the knowledge of the workmen in the production of finished work was not equal to that to be found upon the best articles now manufactured. And although forbidden by law to work in inferior metal, they would have been incapable of effecting the beautiful surfaces which modern articles of inferior quality are made to present. The recent scientific discoveries, both chemical and mechanical, that have taken place during the last sixty or seventy years, have wrought a great change in the general conditions, as well as in the mode of the manufacture of silver wares.

We have said that previous to the year 1815 all was dark and obscure with the precious metal worker, but from that period the work gradually rose in artistic excellence, and the trade very slowly improved; the cause of this no doubt being due, in a great measure, to the security afforded as the result of peace, and with it a revival of the industrial occupations. With the increased industries of the nation arose the pleasures and pastimes of the people, and racing became a national sport. This kind of pleasure soon led to an increase in the work of the silversmith, in consequence of the demand for racing cups, which gave opportunities for the artistic excellence of design in their manufacture; and the silversmiths who made them soon acquired a prestige as Art-manufacturers. The demand for work of that and a similar kind led to the employment of regular designers and modellers, who gradually improved both the designs and the work in different parts of the country.

At the period of which we are speaking, polished or burnished silver goods were most in demand, the modern processes of surface finishing not being then understood. The introduction of the French style of work in filigree soon afterwards caused a demand for that class of work; and the attention of those in the trade was then turned in that direction for a time, and others springing up, the silversmith's and goldsmith's trade generally began to assume a position of importance. This kind of work required no polishing and very little artificial finish; besides being exceedingly light in weight and graceful in appearance. It required fine material for its manufacture. In England filigree work has been superseded by other processes, but in India, and in other parts of the East, it is still cultivated to perfection.

Silver and gold filigree is also manufactured in the Ionian Islands, in Switzerland, and in some parts of Germany and France, where labour is cheap. In the two latter countries it is made from a very inferior material to that used in India. Silver filigree work in this country was soon found not to answer all the requirements of modern society, so far as regarded its utility, durability, and cheapness; fashion therefore demanded something different. It is worthy of remark that while this class of jewellery in both gold and silver was so much in vogue for ladies' wear, the old-fashioned seals and keys had undergone a change, and the chasing of them in representation of filigree ornamentation had become the fashion for gentlemen's wear. The processes of the manufacture of filigree wire and its mode of application to the work of the artist, have been considered in a previous chapter, further detailed information is therefore rendered unnecessary.

When filigree work was no longer used, the fashion changed into "stamped" or "struck-up" ornament. Small pieces of metal were struck-up by means of the hammer and punch, or by the use of the hand-press or stamp; in the former case a lead cake would be prepared, composed of a mixture of lead and tin, and upon it the various ornaments would be produced from the flat metal, corresponding with the pattern of the punch employed for the purpose; in the latter a small die (Fig. 34) would be employed with the pattern sunk upon it; this would have an aperture through it, the dimensions of the off-side being generally rather large, gradually becoming smaller towards the front surface, which takes the form, in general outline, of the desired pattern. When the necessary blanks have been cut out, another die and punch are used, by which they are raised to their proper shape. These tools should be firmly secured in the press (Fig. 35), otherwise they are likely to be soon destroyed.

The small ornaments thus raised were variously arranged one upon another, until a design or pattern was formed, which in every way appeared very showy. Such articles suited the tastes of the people at that time, and still suits those who require good weight for their money. The same kind of thing existed at that period in chains, and being heavy-looking, and costly in appearance, they attracted attention and caused a demand. Thus with the continual changing of the fashions a new era for the goldsmiths and silversmiths of England began. They were beginning to work in all sorts of qualities, with the manipulations and finish of which they were becoming now thoroughly conversant, and a demand springing up for goods for purposes of exportation, encouragement was given to the trade, which soon assumed the position of a thriving industry.

The style of work that followed the "struck-up" patterns was that of plain and solid silver-work, well polished and whitened. This sprung up about the period when coloured gold became the fashion, and the mode of finishing it being somewhat similar, no doubt the demand arose as much from the introduction of colouring as from any other assignable cause. In the chain-maker's branch of the art, a great variety of new patterns came into existence at this period; chain bracelets also began to be introduced; and altogether the trade made rapid strides, and fast rose into a great commercial industry. This kind of work has remained more or less in fashion up to the present time, and vast quantities of silver chains of the plain and solid patterns are now being made in Birmingham.

The silver trade seems to be an exception to the general depression which now prevails in all the other branches of the jewellery trade; the fashion just now is for silver, which causes a greater demand than is usual for goods manufactured of that material. In a short time we believe this fashion will undergo a change, and then no doubt manufacturers who have taken advantage of it to make large stocks will have goods remaining upon their hands which they will not be able readily to dispose of, unless at a sacrifice; for it should be borne in mind, that to keep a large stock of silver goods in a saleable condition, and without a quick sale, considerable expense is entailed above the cost of making, to keep them in that condition, through their great liability to become tarnished.

After the introduction of plain and solid-looking work, it next became the fashion to have it chased over its entire surface. Following this, about the year 1825, came the beautiful process of enamelling, which added artistic beauty to the work, and brought out the harmonies of colour. About this time, too, there sprung up a great demand for the so-called "galvanic ring," which consisted of a lining of zinc and one of silver. The ring represented, in appearance, those large, plain, half-round rings which are now made in 18-carat gold, and which weigh from 7 to 10 dwts. each. It was then as now made of half-round shape, and sometimes with the addition of a buckle upon it. The silver was so drawn upon the zinc that the outer surface appeared entirely of silver, and a portion of the inner surface was made to show the zinc only, which was quite sufficient for the purpose required. When the ring was put on the finger the zinc, in conjunction with the silver, touched the flesh of the wearer, and was thus supposed to create a galvanic action, which it was alleged had a tendency to remove or prevent _rheumatism_. This kind of work had a good run at the time of its introduction, but like all the rest, the fashion lasted only for a while, when something else had to be brought to the front in the silver trade. The mode of the preparation of the wire was as follows:--A bar of silver would be rolled out until a certain thinness was attained, occasionally annealing it during the process; it was then cut into strips wide enough for the purpose required, again annealed, and subsequently doomed. The latter process was effected in this manner:--A block of hard wood, such as boxwood, would be made use of, having a round groove in one side of it, the metal to be doomed would be laid along the groove and a round piece of iron or steel held upon the upper surface with the left hand; a wooden mallet is then taken with the right hand, and by a skilful application of it to the piece of iron or steel, the metal is soon forced down in the groove and made to take the proper form for drawing. The flat strip of metal should be pointed; this may either be done before or after the dooming process, though it commonly takes place before. It is performed by taking away a small portion in a conical form, from one of the ends with a pair of hand-shears. A piece of zinc wire should be provided, corresponding in shape with that the ring is to take; this is placed in the hollow of the silver to be drawn, with the flat side outwards, so as to correspond with the aperture in the plate through which it has to be drawn. A draw-plate is then taken, with holes of the half-round shape, and the two metals carefully drawn through them. The drawing through a succession of holes produces an edge upon the silver coming against the flat side of the aperture in the draw-plate which overlaps the zinc and thus holds it securely in its place.

A change in the style of work gradually took place in the course of every few years, and thus it was that hollow-work became the fashion. This kind could be made in a variety of ways, and being very light and showy, it appeared much more expensive than it really was. It is therefore very easy to account for the changes which have taken place in the manufacture of articles of adornment and luxury, and for the encouragement which the art has received. With the present styles of the "plain," the "solid," the "filigree," the "stamped," the "mosaic," the "cameo," the "repoussé," the "inlaid," the "enamelled," and a variety of others, we can fearlessly say that silver-working has of late years made rapid progress, and attained to a higher standard than it ever before possessed.

The art of stamping and shaping articles of jewellery from sheets of the various metals came into general use just previous to the first Exhibition in 1851. These, which are made in considerable numbers, are produced by means of dies, having the shape of the pattern upon them, both at the top and bottom, made of hardened steel. Fig. 37 represents a bottom die for the use of the stamping press, and Fig. 38 represents the press. In raising the metal by stamping, the material undergoes the same bendings and extensions between the dies as if it were being manipulated by the hammer, and consequently it requires to be repeatedly annealed, otherwise it would crack and fall to pieces in a subsequent operation. The raising should be brought about gradually, and this is done by placing a number of sheets of metal between the dies, which prevents the top die from falling with too sudden an action upon the metal, which it would do, as it falls with a succession of forces if the process be repeated, and if its action be not arrested by the means we have pointed out. After every blow of the stamp one of these pieces is removed from the bottom, and a fresh one added at the top; the continual falling of the stamp gradually forces these plates, if placed in the manner we have indicated, to take the shape of the die. The exact form of the figure is effected by striking the plates singly between dies which exactly correspond. A very large quantity of work is now produced by the means we have stated, such as brooches, studs, locket-backs, earrings, rings, and an endless variety of other things; moreover, by the cultivation of this art a considerable amount of the labour formerly bestowed by hand upon the work is now saved, as the stamping in many instances is so complete, almost taking the form of a finished article after that process has been performed, that the workman has only to arrange the parts and supply the ornamentation when required, to render the article complete.

Works of art are also produced by other methods; as an example, we will take the process of "spinning or burnishing into form," which consists in spinning the metal to the desired shape in a lathe, by means of burnishing tools, specially made for the purpose. This process is employed in the production of large bangle bracelets with plain surfaces and other similar works. The metal to be operated upon should be soft and malleable, otherwise the process is very difficult to perform. The disc, or other form of metal, is taken and fixed in the lathe with the aid of holdfasts, a chuck or mould of the desired pattern being provided, upon which the disc is turned by the tools referred to. The metal, as in the other processes, is _gradually_ spun into the required form. In most cases the mould is exactly the shape of the interior of the article required to be made, and under these circumstances it would be made up in several pieces together with a key-piece; so that when this latter is taken away, there is no difficulty in removing the rest, and leaving the article free. It is of importance, during the spinning, to keep the edges free from notches, but should these occur, it would be better to touch them a little with a turning tool. The metal for spinning into a bangle bracelet should be of the form of a flat circular band, soldered of course; it would then be secured upon a properly shaped mould, composed of several pieces, in the manner above described; this would then be placed in the lathe, and the application of the spinning tools would soon bring about the desired form. After the removal of the spun piece of metal, the workman trims the edges up a little, then saws it into two pieces, and at once proceeds to the operations of snapping and jointing, which are delicate processes to perform properly in work of this kind, and require the services of a skilled and competent workman.

Having now described some of the processes in the working of silver, and alluded to the various articles which are produced by _wire-drawing_; _raising_ with the hammer; _stamping_; _spinning_; _chasing_, &c.; we shall next direct attention to those processes which immediately come after the putting together and soldering the article; and foremost of these is _polishing_. We trust that the foregoing details in reference to this part of the subject will convey some idea of the art of silver-working.

Polishing is an important process With all precious metal workers. It is applied for the production of _surface_ to their wares, and in proportion to the smoothness required upon the work, so should be the fineness of the material employed in effecting it. The polishing powders are _emery_, _powdered pumice_, _crocus_, _rottenstone_, _putty of tin_, and _rouge_. In the best work, scratches are removed with a smooth and rather soft dark grey stone (Water-of-Ayr stone); it is then polished in the lathe with a stiff brush, and the application of a little fine polishing mixture. We have placed the materials for polishing in their respective order of smoothness or fineness, beginning with emery, which is the coarsest. A very good mixture for ordinary work consists of equal portions of emery, pumice, and crocus, with oil added to the consistence of a thick paste. Good work does not want much polishing, for the beauty of it depends _more_ on its being executed by a well-trained workman; whereas rough and badly executed work requires much polishing, and for this the coarser powders are preferable, or a mixture of them; but for the smoother work the finer powders should be employed.

The Water-of-Ayr stone employed for polishing is usually obtained in the form of small square sticks, and is used with a small quantity of water to the surface of the work, in a similar manner to filing. The stone is softer than the material upon which it operates (and, in fact, so are all the materials for polishing), and therefore wears away, producing a mud-like substance upon the article, which should be repeatedly removed in order to ascertain the progress made. This may be done with a piece of clean rag, or tissue-paper. When the work is polished at the lathe it will gradually become enveloped in grease, &c., which should be removed occasionally, to show when the process has been carried far enough. The polishing of silver work is a branch of the trade commonly performed by girls. It is hard work for them, as the metal possesses a very soft nature; it therefore pulls hard against the brush which holds the polishing mixture. The lathe employed is the ordinary polishing lathe with a horizontal spindle, and is worked with a common foot-treadle; steam-power is used by some firms for moving these lathes, but it is by no means the usual custom at present.

After the completion of the polishing process, the work is well washed out in a prepared solution, to remove the mixture which adheres to it; a solution of soda is found to answer the purpose best, both from its cheapness and effectiveness. It should be used hot, with the addition of a little soap, and with a stiff brush the dirt is soon removed. The quantity of soda used to a given proportion of water differs in the trade, and there is no set rule to go by; it depends, more or less, upon the adhesiveness of the polishing mixture. We have found about two ounces of it to a quart of water amply sufficient for the purpose.