CHAPTER XIII.

EARLY ARCTIC EXPEDITIONS.

Attempts at the North-west Passage—Sir Humphrey Gilbert’s advocacy—The one thing left undone—Frobisher’s Expeditions—Arctic “Diggins”—A Veritable Gold Excitement—Large Fleet Despatched—Disaster and Disappointment—Voyages of John Davis—Intercourse with the Natives—His Reports concerning Whales, &c.—The Merchants aroused—Opening of the Whaling Trade—Maldonado’s Claim to the Discovery of the North-west Passage.

While these attempts at a north-east passage were being made, the north-west question was by no means forgotten. Several learned men, including Sir Humphrey Gilbert, employed their pens in arguing the practicability of such a passage. In his defence of such an attempt he spoke of a friar of Mexico who had actually performed the journey, but who, on telling it to the King of Portugal, had been forbidden to make it known, lest it should reach England. Whatever the facts of this case, some enthusiasm on the subject was the result, and Martin Frobisher spoke of it as _the_ one thing “left undone.” But although he also persisted in his advocacy, it took fifteen years of perseverance and constant effort before he could find any one who would give him the assistance he needed. At last, when hope was nearly dead within him, Dudley Earl of Warwick, came to the rescue, and aided him to fit out two small barques, the _Gabriel_ and the _Michael_, thirty-five and thirty tons burthen respectively. With these small craft—mere cockle-shells for such a voyage—he left the Thames. As he passed Greenwich Palace, on the 8th of June, 1576, Queen Elizabeth waved her farewell from a window. Briefly, they reached what is believed to have been the southern part of Greenland and Labrador, where they could not land because of the icy field surrounding the coast. Sailing to the northward, Frobisher met with a gigantic iceberg, which fell in pieces within their sight, making as much noise as though a high cliff had fallen into the sea. They saw a number of Esquimaux, and perhaps the description given of them by the commander is as good as any ever given in few words:—“They be like to Tartars, with long black hair, broad faces, and flatte noses, and taunie in colour, wearing seale skinnes; and so doe the women, not differing in the fashion, but the women are marked in the face with blewe streekes downe the cheekes and round about the eyes.” They came near the ship timidly, and after a while one of them ventured into the ship’s boat, when Frobisher presented him with a bell and a knife, and sent him back with five of the crew. They were directed to land him apart from the spot where a number of his countrymen were assembled, but they disobeyed his orders, and were seized by the natives, together with the boat, and none of them were heard of more. Returning to the same spot a few days afterwards, one of the natives was enticed alongside the vessel, when Frobisher, a very powerful man, caught him fast, “and plucked him with maine force, boate and all, into his barke out of the sea. Whereupon, when he found himself in captivity, for very choler and disdaine he bit his tongue in twaine within his mouth; notwithstanding he died not thereof, but lived until he came to England, and then he died of cold which he had taken at sea.” With this “strange infidele” Frobisher set sail for home, arriving at Harwich on October 2nd. It is very questionable whether this, the first of Frobisher’s arctic voyages, would not have been his last, but for one little circumstance, which had been overlooked until the return of the expedition.

Every one who visits a strange place likes to bring home some little memento, and several of the men on this voyage had collected trifles—flowers, moss, grass, pebbles, or what not. One of them had obtained a piece of stone, “much like to a sea-cole in colour,” which being given to one of the adventurer’s wives, she threw it in the fire, doubtless to see whether it would burn. Whether from accident or not, she threw some vinegar on it to quench the heat, when “it glistered with a bright marquesset of golde.” This incident soon became known abroad, and the stone was assayed, the “gold finers” reporting it to contain a considerable quantity of gold. It seems almost ridiculous to think of a fever, a veritable “excitement,” in connection with Arctic “diggins.” Nevertheless, the next voyage of Frobisher was instigated purely for the further discovery of the precious metal. Queen Elizabeth seems to have been infected with the same fever, and Frobisher on taking his leave of her Majesty had the honour of kissing her hand, and being dismissed with “gracious countenance and comfortable words.” He was furnished with “one tall ship” of her Majesty’s, named the _Ayde_, of 180 tons or so, and two barques of about thirty tons each. On the way north they observed some enormous icebergs, more than half a mile in circuit, and seventy to eighty fathoms (210 to 240 yards) under water. The ice being perfectly fresh, Frobisher came to the conclusion that they “must be bredde in the sounds, or in some land neere the Pole.” It is now admitted that icebergs properly so called, are but the _ends of glaciers_, broken off. Furthermore, he was the first to record that “the maine sea freeseth not, therefore there is no _mare glaciale_, as the opinion hitherto hath bene.” They loaded up with the ore from Hall’s greater island and on a small island in Frobisher’s Strait. “All the sands and cliffs did so glister, and had so bright a marquesite, that it seemed all to be gold, but upon tryall made it prooved no better than black-lead, and verified the proverbe, ‘All is not gold that glistereth.’” We shall see that it was only iron pyrites, a sulphuret of iron. They also professed to have found on another island a mine of silver, and more gold ore.

On this expedition they had several altercations with the natives, and in one skirmish in Yorke Sound killed five or six of them. It is said that they found here some of the apparel of their five unfortunate companions who had been seized the previous year by the natives. By means of two captives they brought about some degree of intercourse with the Esquimaux, and left a letter, understanding that their own sailors were still alive, but they were never more seen. Having loaded with about 200 tons of the supposed gold ore, they set sail for England, where they arrived safely, to the great delight of the queen and court, who considered that there were now great hopes of riches and profit. It was determined that a third expedition should be despatched the following year (1578).

The fleet on this occasion consisted of no less than fifteen vessels. One hundred persons were taken to form a settlement and remain there the complete year, keeping three of the vessels for their own use; the others were to bring back cargoes of the ore. Frobisher was appointed admiral and general. From first to last the voyage was disastrous. In the straits named after Frobisher, one of their larger barques struck so violently on a mass of ice that she sank in sight of the whole fleet, and although all the people on board were saved, a part of the house intended for the settlers went down with the wreck. A violent storm next ensued, which dispersed the fleet, some of the vessels being fixed in the ice of the strait, others being swept away to sea. It was a severe season, and they were bewildered by fogs, snow, and mist. After many perils, a large part of the fleet assembled in the Countess of Warwick’s Sound, when a council was held. It was at first determined to plant the colony on the adjoining island, but on examination so much of the wooden house was missing, and so great a quantity of the stores and provisions were on the ships which had parted company, that the idea was abandoned. “A great black island,” where so much black ore was found that it “might suffice all the gold gluttons of the world,” was discovered by one of the captains, and was named after him, “Best’s Blessing.” It was at length decided that each captain should load his ship with ore and set homewards. The fleet arrived in England on or about October 1st, having lost some forty persons. The ore being now carefully examined proved worthless pyrites; and the Arctic gold mines seem to have proved a “fizzle” as great as any of the worst which have succeeded them. One Michael Lok, who had advanced money and become security for Frobisher, was ruined, and cast into the Fleet prison. One of the accounts mentions the fact that when the ore was first examined, one of the assayers, “by coaxing nature, as he privately admitted to Michael Lok,” _pretended_ to make the discovery of its precious qualities. It seems that the Master of the Mint had reported on it adversely; but the favourable opinion of others and the lust for wealth overcame all reason and judgment, until queen, courtiers, and subjects were sobered by the complete disappointment, which ended all further search for the time. Frobisher did good service for his country afterwards, and fought with such bravery against the Spanish Armada that he was knighted. He died from the effect of a shot-wound received at the assault of Croyson, during the war with Henry IV. of France.

The disastrous voyage of Sir Humphrey Gilbert, with its melancholy termination, has been already described; but the merchants of London and elsewhere, being still persuaded “of the likelyhood of the discoverie of the north-west passage,” only two years later subscribed for fresh attempts. John Davis—a name inseparably associated with arctic enterprise—received the appointment of captain and chief pilot of the new expedition. Two small vessels, the _Sunshine_ and _Moonshine_, were employed, and on one of them four musicians were taken. They left Dartmouth on the 7th of June, 1585, and on the 19th of July were off the west coast of Greenland, where they noted “a mighty great roaring of the sea,” which was found to proceed from the “rowling together of islands of ice.” As they proceeded northward, the fog, which had hampered their movements, clearing away, they observed “a rocky and mountainous land, in form of a sugar-loaf,” its summit, covered with snow, appearing, as it were, above the clouds. The aspect of all around was so uninviting that Davis named it “The Land of Desolation.” He could not land there, owing to the coast ice, and after sundry explorations to the southward, and again to the north-westward, discovered an archipelago of islands, “among which were many free sounds, and good roads for shipping,” to which he gave the title of Gilbert’s Sound. Here a multitude of natives approached in their canoes, on which the musicians began to perform, and the sailors to dance and make signs of friendship. This delighted the “salvages,” and the sailors obtained from them almost whatever they wished—canoes, clothing, bows, and native implements. After other explorations they reached a fine open passage (Cumberland Strait) between Frobisher’s Archipelago and the land now called Cumberland’s Island, entirely free from ice, “and the water of the colour, nature, and quality of the main ocean.” They proceeded up it a distance of sixty leagues, when they found a cluster of islands in the middle of the passage, and the weather being bad and the season late, they, after a week’s further stay, determined to sail for England, where they arrived safely on September 30th.

The reports given by Davis respecting the vast number of whales and seals observed, and the peltries to be obtained from the Esquimaux, aroused the enterprise of the merchants, and several persons in Exeter and other parts of the West of England combined to add a trading vessel, the _Mermaid_, of one hundred and twenty tons, to those which had been employed the previous season. Davis again reached the west coast of Greenland, where much intercourse was held with the natives, who came off to the vessels sometimes in as many as one “hundred canoes at a time ... bringing with them seale skinnes, stagge skinnes, white hares, seale fish, samon peale, smal cod, dry caplin, with other fish, and birds such as the country did yield.” The natives do not seem to have made quite so favourable an impression as on the former occasion, and were described as thievish and mischievous, prone to steal everything on which they could lay their hands. After some remarks on their diet, we are gravely informed that they “drink salt water,” and eat grass and ice as luxuries. They were found to be extremely nimble and strong, and fond of leaping and wrestling, in which they beat the best of the crew, who were west-country wrestlers. In the middle of July the adventurous navigators were alarmed at the appearance of a most “mighty and strange quantity of yce in one entire masse,” so large that Davis was afraid to mention its dimensions, lest he should not be believed. The same modesty and diffidence has not been observed, to any marked degree, in the narratives of most modern voyagers and travellers! They coasted the ice till the end of July, and the cold was so severe, even in this month, that the shrouds, ropes, and sails were frozen, and the air was loaded with a thick fog. Sickness prevailed among the men, and they commenced to murmur. They “advised their captain, through his overboldness, not to leave their widows and fatherless children to give him bitter curses.” He therefore left the _Mermaid_ to remain where she was, in readiness to return, while with the _Moonshine_ he would proceed round the ice. Davis made several discoveries of some geographical importance, and thought that off the Labrador coast, in latitude 54° N., he had actually discovered the opening to the north-west passage. Two of his vessels, the _Sunshine_ and _North Star_, had been despatched previously to seek a passage northward, between Greenland and Iceland, as far as latitude 80°. They proceeded some little distance north, being much hampered by the ice, but in effect accomplished nothing. The latter vessel was lost on the passage home.

The second voyage of Davis had not been particularly prosperous either as regards commerce or discovery, but his persistency and perseverance induced the merchants to despatch a third expedition in 1587. On this voyage he proceeded as far north as 73°, and discovered the strait which now bears his name. The merchant adventurers would doubtless have continued these voyages, even in part for discovery, had they been reasonably profitable. But although Davis tried very zealously to persuade them, they now declined most absolutely. We find him eight years after appealing for the same object to Her Majesty’s Privy Council in a little work entitled, “The Worlde’s Hydrographicall Discription,” a book of which it is believed there are not over three copies in existence. Among the headings to the various divisions is one to this effect: “That under the Pole is the greatest place of dignitie.” Davis made no more arctic voyages, but was employed by the Dutch in the East Indian service.

While there are so many well-authenticated voyages to record, we shall not be blamed if those of a doubtful nature are here omitted. The so-called voyage of Maldonado, in which he claimed to have effected a north-west passage from the Atlantic to the Pacific in 1588, and back again the following year, is universally discredited, and the narrative bears every indication of being an utter forgery. The genuine voyage of Juan de Fuca, in 1592, who, while searching for the same imaginary “Straits of Anian,” of which Maldonado wrote, discovered the straits which now bear his own name, belongs properly to voyages in the Pacific Ocean, and will be considered in its place.