Part 4

As soon as the plants are fairly up, hoes and the fingers are to be used, taking out all the plants but 1 in each 10 or 12 inches. As soon as weeds appear, hoeing is to commence; hoeing the tops of the ridges to the width of about 6 inches, showing the plants distinct and clean. Then the plough is introduced, taking a furrow from the side of one ridge, going up the field, a furrow from the other ridge coming down, then another furrow from the same side of the first ridge going up, and another furrow from the same side of the other ridge coming down. In taking away the last two furrows, you go within three inches of the turnip plants. Thus a ridge is formed over the original gutter. The next process is, to turn these furrows back again to the turnips. This hoeing and ploughing is to be repeated, when the appearance of the weeds requires it; and afterwards, the few weeds which may rise are to be hoed or pulled up. In this way, Mr. Cobbett thinks, a thousand bushels of Ruta Baga may be raised on an acre that will yield 50 bushels of Indian corn.

In describing the culture of the Mangel Wurtzel, transplanting was mentioned, to fill vacant places. The same may be practised with the Ruta Baga. But unless those vacant spots be dug afresh, the transplanted roots will be much inferiour to their transplanted neighbours; as I found in my last year's experiment. And Mr. Cobbett mentions the like difference in his practice.--At the same time he strongly recommends the raising of the Ruta Baga, by _transplanting_, for _entire crops_, as for preferable to the sowing of the seeds, and letting the plants grow where their seeds first vegetated. But then he considers it indispensable to perform this transplanting _on ground fresh ploughed_. And by sowing the seeds in beds, to raise plants, as we do for cabbages, a month's more time is allowed to prepare the ground for their reception. In the work of transplanting, the plain dibble before described is a necessary instrument. The hole made by it must be fully as deep as the length of the root; and this being introduced (taking care in putting it into the hole not to bend its point) the dibble is thrust down by its side, and by a dexterous twist, or circular motion of the hand, the earth is pressed close against the root, in its whole length. The largest crop of Ruta Baga he ever raised in England, Mr. Cobbett says, was by transplanting, on 17 acres, which produced 33 tons to the acre; the rows (on ridges) 4 feet asunder, and the plants a foot asunder in the rows.

In this mode of raising the Ruta Baga, by transplanting the entire crop, so much time is gained for preparing the ground, that two crops of weeds may be destroyed, by that number of ploughings; the first in the beginning of June, and the second immediately before transplanting. But Mr. Cobbett recommends a previous _deep_ fall-ploughing, and another _deep_ ploughing in April, of the ground intended for the Ruta Baga. The like two deep ploughings will be equally proper and beneficial for the Mangel Wurtzel and Carrots.

Among the advantages of the transplanting method, mentioned by Mr. Cobbett, one is, that it "saves almost the whole of the _after culture_. There is no _hoeing_, no _thinning_ of the plants; and not more than one ploughing between the ridges."

_Harvesting of Roots._ The Mangel Wurtzel, growing chiefly above the surface, and thus exposed to frost, should be taken up the latter end of October or beginning of November, according to the nature of the season. The harvesting of Carrots may follow that of the Mangel Wurtzel; and the Ruta Baga succeed the Carrots. In the first experimental culture of the roots, in which but small quantities are raised, they can be preserved in dry cellars not liable to freezing. Where large quantities are raised, they may be deposited in heaps, sufficiently covered, in a dry field. The common method of heaping and covering roots in the field, and which Mr. Cobbett practised with the Ruta Baga, is perhaps, as good as any. Holes of a round or square form are dug about a foot deep, and about fifty bushels are put into each, piling up the roots above the level of the surface of the land, sloping to the top: then covering them with straw, throw earth over the whole to a depth sufficient to guard them from frost. Smooth the surface of this earth by beating it close with the back of a spade, or other instrument, the better to cast off rain. On Long Island and in Pennsylvania, a covering of earth, a foot or 15 inches deep has been found sufficient. A greater depth will probably be necessary here. In throwing up this cover, a trench will be formed on all sides of the heap, to receive the water running off it. It may be well to sink the bottom of the trench lower than the bottom of the hole in which the roots are deposited. Where large quantities are to be thus preserved, several loads may be put into one hole: and then oblong heaps will be best as requiring less labour in covering them. A quantity of roots, for feeding cattle till the middle of December, may be kept in a barn or stable covered with straw or any dry litter. I would begin feeding with Mangel Wurtzel--follow next with Carrots--and conclude with Ruta Baga; for the latter root will keep sound until the commencement of the summer succeeding their growth.

All the roots, especially the Mangel Wurtzel and Carrots, should be fully dried before they are housed, or covered in the field, to guard them against rotting.

_Roots for raising Seed._ Of the Mangel Wurtzel I would select large and fair roots of a red colour, whose bodies have grown most above ground, and with a moderate, if not the smallest, quantity of leaves; for although _these_ are valuable for stripping, the _roots_ are much more valuable; and I am inclined to think those with small tops are least liable to rot.

Of Carrots, large and fair roots of the deepest yellow colour, and with the smallest tops in proportion to the size of the roots, are to be preferred.

With regard to the Ruta Baga, Mr. Cobbett says, it is apt to _degenerate_, if the seed be not saved with care. "We in England (said he) examine well to find out those that run least into _neck_ and _green_. We reject all such as approach at all towards a _whitish_ colour, or which are even of a _greenish_ colour _towards the neck_, which _there_ ought to be a little of a _reddish cast_."

Varieties of plants of the _same kind_ (the different sorts of cabbages, for instance, or of Indian corn) if growing near together and bearing seed, will impart to one another their respective peculiarities, and injuriously, whenever it is desired to preserve their distinct qualities unmixed, and to prevent an inferiour engendering with one of a superiour quality; the impregnating dust of the flowers of plants falling on the flowers of other plants of the same kind, producing effects similar to the crossing of animals of the same kind but of different breeds. In a word, the _sexual_ system exists in plants as well as among animals; only in plants the male and female are generally united in the same plant; as in Indian corn, the male impregnating dust (the farina) is in the tassel or flower, at the top: the ear is the female, and from every cell of the future grain proceeds a thread, which together constitute what is called the silk, on which the farina falling causes the cells to fill, and become, when ripe, kernels of corn. In most fruits, as the apple and pear, the male and female are in the same flower. But in hemp, some of the plants are exclusively male, and others exclusively female.

The Ruta Baga, therefore, when set out for bearing seed, should be placed at a distance from every other seed plant of the Turnip or Cabbage kind. So likewise the Mangel Wurtzel intended to bear seed, should not be set near any other seed beet plants. It may not be amiss to add, that for the same reasons, pumpkins, squashes, melons, cucumbers, in all their varieties, in order to preserve them in purity, should be planted at some distance from each other.

Pumpkins, as food for domestic animals, seem closely connected with the roots before-mentioned. Every farmer knows their value for milk cows, for fattening cattle, and for swine. Their consumption conveniently precedes that of the Mangel Wurtzel.

With ample supplies of the Vegetables whose culture I have mentioned and described, our present Stocks may be better fed, their numbers enlarged, our coarse fodder be more advantageously consumed, our manure increased, and pork and beef and the products of the dairy, probably doubled. The latter, in particular, are miserably deficient, from the want of juicy food for cows, in continuance of the supply yielded by our common pastures just at midsummer. Pumpkins and the roots, indeed, will not be ready to keep up that supply; but oats and barley, and above all Indian corn, may be sown and planted, to be cut green, and carry along our cows to the last of September, when pumpkins will begin to ripen. The consumption of these green crops and roots, by producing vast additions to our manure, will enable us to enrich our fields, and to make annual additions to the products of our farms.

The immense importance of providing for cows a full supply of food, and of food which they relish, to the extent of their appetites, has been demonstrated by many examples of very large products of milk, butter and cheese, from cows so supplied. The following statement from a recent English publication, is a further illustration of the fact:--"A farmer, some years since, kept _eighteen_ cows upon a _Common_, and was often obliged to buy butter for his family. The Common was _enclosed_, (which deprived the farmer of his pasture,) and the same person supplied his family amply with milk and butter, from _four_ cows _well kept._"

_III. On Indian Corn and Winter Grain._

The ancient, and to this day the general practice, in cultivating Indian corn, has been to plant it in squares, and in the course of its growth to draw up earth about the stems of the plants, forming _hills_; under the idea of supporting them against strong winds; but the necessity or utility of this practice has long been doubted. I have sometimes cultivated Indian corn without raising any hills about the plants; and, from the result, am satisfied that hills are not necessary. If, indeed, winter wheat, or rye, is to be sown among the corn, at its last dressing, I think the hilling must be injurious; for the richer mould being drawn up into hills, the intervals are robbed of what is requisite to produce an even crop.

I am aware that some intelligent farmers consider it bad husbandry to sow winter grain among Indian corn--to _double-crop_ the ground. But if this be _rich_, and in _fine tilth_ by deep ploughing before the corn crop is put in, and good and clean tillage accompanying its growth, I can perceive no solid objection to the practice. With us, the early sowing of winter grain is of the first importance, to insure a full crop, early ripe, and most secure from mildew. The husbandry of Mr. Ducket, already described, justifies the practice. I know it is already common amongst us; but without the _deep tillage_ which enabled him to put in seven crops with only four ploughings. With such complete tillage, of a soil so enriched as to yield forty or fifty bushels of Indian corn to the acre, grown on a level, without hills or ridges; and if, in harvesting the corn, it be cut close to the ground; I see no reason why grass seeds may not properly be sown on the winter grain, in the spring. In this way, may be obtained a crop of Indian corn the first year--a crop of wheat or rye the second year--and hay the third and fourth years; and all from one deep ploughing, and a handsome culture of the Indian corn.

By the early sowing of winter grain among Indian corn, it quickly vegetates, and sends forth numerous branches; and soon covering the ground, prevents or checks the growth of weeds. Probably, too, the plants, acquiring so much strength by early sowing (for the roots must multiply and extend in proportion to the growth above ground) are less liable to be winter-killed.

_IV. On Live Stock._

I have now to present to your notice the other of the three celebrated English Farmers, described by Arthur Young--Mr. Bakewell--the most distinguished improver of live stock, on principles of his own, in Great Britain. "The principles he began upon (says Mr. Young) were _fine forms_, _small bones_, _and a true disposition to make readily fat_, which is indeed inseparable from small bones, or rather fine bones, and fine forms, or true symmetry of the parts." Before Bakewell's day, the rules which governed Breeders of Live Stock, Mr. Young pronounces a tissue "of absurdities."

He began his improvements of sheep, by selecting from the best in his neighbourhood. And so little had any correct principle of improvement been known, or regarded, that a guinea or half a guinea extraordinary would give Mr. Bakewell the choice of any sheep in any flock. And his uncommon sagacity enabled him, by the best selections and judicious crossings, to form a breed distinguished above all others, for _the disposition to fatten_, _early maturity_, _a form indicating strength of constitution_, _weight in the most valuable parts_, with _lightness of offals_. Mr. Young expresses his opinion, that there is not a breed of any sort of live stock in Great Britain, that does not derive its improvement from the skill, knowledge and principles of Mr. Bakewell. Another eminent Agriculturalist declares, (and Mr. Young does not think he exaggerates) "that Mr. Bakewell enabled those who followed his ideas, to produce two pounds of mutton where only one was produced before."

Mr. Young adds, that Bakewell was the most careful feeder of stock that he ever met with, and who made his food go the farthest. To horses and cattle in stalls, he did not permit more than a handful of hay to be given at a time; and the same economy was used in all other feeding.--But his stocks were so large as to require one or more persons to be appropriated to that service. This practice, in our small farms and with our small stocks, cannot be fully adopted; but it may be imitated, in some degree, during the season (winter) most requiring such attention. By feeding them in this manner, the cattle will doubtless _eat more_, but they will _waste less_; so that while, in the whole, no more fodder will be consumed, the stock will be put into much better plight.

Cleanliness, also, will materially contribute to the health and thriving of stock. The common cattle-stalls of our country are so ill contrived, and so straitened in their dimensions, that the cattle are constrained to lie down, in part in their own dung. This dries and forms a thick coat on their hind quarters, from which they are not relieved till they shed their hair in the spring. They are thus rendered _uncomfortable_; to be _uncomfortable_ is to suffer some degree of _pain_; and no one will suppose that animals in _pain_ can _thrive_, or _preserve their plight_, with the same food, equally with others perfectly at ease. Even hogs, though prone to wallow in the mire, in warm weather, are always pleased with a dry bed, and thrive best when kept clean. I have some where read an account of an experiment made with two, confined in separate pens, and fed exactly alike: one was suffered to be constantly foul with the mire of his sty; the other, washed every day, and kept clean, far outstripped the former in thriving.

It may be useful to add some further information on Live Stock, from the writings of Sir John Sinclair, President of the British Board of Agriculture. He proposed to a gentleman in England,[10] who is eminent for his knowledge and accurate observations relative to plants and animals, some questions concerning Live Stock. In one of his answers, he says--"I have found the food animals generally require, to keep them in proper condition, is much more nearly proportioned to their _height_ and _length_, than to their _weight_." In confirmation of this opinion, he adds, that one of his neighbours made a comparative experiment with the Devon and Hereford cows; and though fond of the former for their neatness, he gave them up, because "they would not nearly live upon the same food which supplied animals _stouter_ and _more compact_, of the same weight."

[10] Thomas A. Knight, Esq.

To the question, "What is the best shape for feeding with little food?" Mr. Knight answers--"The more deep and capacious the chest, and the shorter and lower any animal is, relative to its weight, the better adapted it will be to live and fatten upon little food; the more labour it will also go through; and I have always found the short legged oxen to be the best labourers. Mr. Marshall also observes, in his Rural Economy of Gloucestershire, that the best labouring ox he ever saw, had the shortest legs."

I will detain the Society no longer than to make a few observations.

_V. On Orchards._

I advert to this subject for the purpose of suggesting the utility of propagating Sweet Apples.

After providing a due proportion of apples for the table, and the ordinary purposes of cookery, I do not hesitate to express my opinion, that for all other uses, sweet apples are entitled to the preference. The best cider I ever tasted in this country, was made wholly of sweet apples. They afford also a nourishing food to man and all domestic animals. What furnishes a more delicate repast than a rich sweet apple baked and eaten with milk? I recollect the observation made to me by an observing farmer, before the American revolution, that nothing would fatten cattle faster than sweet apples. Mentioning this, a few years since, to a gentleman of my acquaintance in an adjoining state, he informed me, that he was once advised to give sweet apples to a sick horse. Happening then to have them in plenty, the horse was served with them, and he soon got well: and continuing to be fed with them, he fattened faster than any other horse he had ever owned (and he had owned many) that was fed with any other food.

Mentioning to the same gentleman, what I had long before heard, that a good molasses might be made of sweet apples, he confirmed the fact by an instance within his own knowledge: and further expressed his opinion (and I have not known a man whose practical judgment was entitled to more respect) that it would not be difficult, by forming orchards of sweet apples, to supply molasses for the general consumption of the United States. I have never tasted any sweet apple molasses; but I suppose it has not (nor has honey) the rich sweet of molasses from the sugar-cane; yet, for family uses in general, it would be a useful substitute for the latter. The process in making it I suppose to be very simple.--The apples being ground, and the juice (or cider) expressed, at the cider-mill, it is immediately boiled, (that is, before any fermentation takes place) and the scum being taken off as it rises, the boiling is continued until the liquor acquires the consistence of molasses.

Sweet apples are of different degrees of sweetness. Those of the richest kinds should be chosen for the purpose of making molasses. But in grafting, the cions should be taken (as they ought to be for all kinds of fruit) not from old, worn out trees, but from those whose originals are in full health and vigour.--For it has been satisfactorily ascertained in England, (and proofs of it are not wanting in our own country) that fruit trees have their infancy, (springing from seeds) youth, maturity, and old age; and that when they have reached this last stage, it is in vain that attempts are made to continue them. Or if the cions take, and grow for a few years, they are unproductive, and soon decay. The reason is plain: every cion is a part of the tree from which it is taken; and if this be in a state of decrepitude, so will be the cion; and although grafted on a youthful, thrifty stock, it will be of no avail.

NEW WHEAT.

A cargo of new wheat from North Carolina, of 1200 bushels, was sold last month, in Philadelphia, at 94-1/2 cents cash.

(From the Plough Boy.)

FLEMISH HUSBANDRY.

_Weeding and hoeing._--The Flemish farmer never considers his work half done until his fields are completely freed from weeds. This is effected, in a great measure, by repeated digging, by which the upper stratum that contains the seeds and roots of noxious plants, is buried sufficiently deep into the ground to prevent their vegetating. When weeds do appear, they are immediately extirpated either by the harrow before the grain is sown, or afterwards by careful and repeated hand hoeings. This they find the more necessary, to rid the earth of parasite plants, the seeds of which are mixed with the seeds of culinary vegetables, and produce plants that feed on the juices of the dung, to the great injury of the legitimate stock. A Flemish farm, in consequence of these attentions, resembles more a highly cultivated garden, than many places which bear that name. When I first beheld these fields, I supposed them actually to be gardens, and was only undeceived when further observation and inquiry convinced me, that the whole country was cultivated in a similar manner, and presented the same delightful scene.

_Choice of Seeds._--It is an invariable practice in Flanders, never to use for seed the grain grown on the land to be sown; nor is the expense regarded when the object is to obtain heavy and healthy seed. Farmers in distant districts exchange seeds with each other, and journies of hundreds of miles are frequently taken to accomplish this desirable purpose. Vanderstractan mentions two farmers, whose grounds were alike, and who cultivated them with equal skill and industry. They had both been long in the practice of procuring excellent seed potatoes from Brabant, which yielded in that province two hundred cwt. per English acre. When transplanted, the produce was regularly, year after year, five hundred and forty cwt. per acre.[11] One of these men having, one year, to save the expense of carriage, used potatoes of his own growth, the original produce of Brabant, soon repented the step, and returned to his former practice. Flanders usually receives its supply of flax-seed from the north of Europe; but having, during the latter years of the reign of Napoleon, been deprived of that supply, through his restrictive decrees; the produce of that valuable plant was not more than half the usual quantity, which besides was greatly inferior to preceding crops.

[11] This great produce cannot fail to astonish many persons living in this country. But let them recollect, that the upper layer of the soil, from which the crops are produced, is never changed here; that this layer, having been so often used, must have lost part of its ancient fertility; that dung is not spread in abundance with us as in Flanders; and that it is possible the species of potatoes grown here have degenerated.